Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science

Industrial System Engineering Program

Process Engineering Lab
ENIN 355: Heat Mass and Momentum Transfer

Content Page

Technical report format 2

Safety lecture and safety quiz 5
Lab regulation 8
Experiment handout
Experiment No. 1: Shell and tube heat exchanger 9
Experiment No. 2: Jacketed vessel with stirrer heat exchanger 15
Experiment No. 3: Tubular heat exchanger 24
Experiment No. 4: Linear Heat conduction using conductive material 33
Experiment No. 5: Linear Heat conduction using insulating material
Experiment No. 6: Gas diffusion 48

1
Technical report format

The following describes the minimum requirements for a technical report in ISE - Process. The
report must be organized as follow:

1. Title page
2. Abstract
3. Table of Contents
4. List of Figure
5. List of Tables
6. Nomenclature
7. Introduction
8. Equipment set-up
9. Experimental procedure
10. Safety
11. Original Data
12. Calculations
13. Results and Discussion
14. Conclusions and recommendations
15. Appendices
16. References

Technical style of writing is required. Personal pronouns as I, we, he …..should be avoided unless
you are reflecting your personal opinion. Correct written English is required. Remember that a
technical report seeks to inform, instruct, and often to persuade that its interpretation of data is the
correct one. Use a standard font i.e. Times New Roman size 12 in your entire write up unless
otherwise specified.
Plagiarism is not permitted. Always use proper citation and reference to the source of any
information or graphs you borrow from the open literature. Number your references as you
proceed through the report and insert a list of references at the end of your report.

The report should include the following:

1. Title Page
The title page should include the title of the experiment, the name of the student reporting, the
name of other students participated in the experiment, the name of the instructor to whom the
report is submitted, and the date that the report is submitted.

2. Abstract
In a published paper, the abstract is the only basis for another reader’s decisions whether to send
for the original. Thus it requires careful writing. It should briefly state the experiment, the
equipment used, the operating conditions, the materials, and the most important results obtained
and do the results compare with the theory. An abstract should not exceed two-thirds of a page.

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3. Table of Contents
List every division and heading in the report and give the number of the page on which it starts to
appear.

List the titles of all tables and figures in the report.

4. Introduction
This section contains the background for the experimental calculations and the derivation of the
equations involved. Some introduction of the process being studied and the development of the
equations are needed. Sources of equations and derivations should be referenced and the
equations must be numbered. Try to use your own words.

5. Equipment set-up
A description, together with a schematic diagram of the equipment is needed.

6. Experimental procedure
The experimental procedure that you did in the lab in steps is required. A copy of the laboratory
manual is not accepted.

7. Safety
Read the hand out of the experiment carefully before you come to the lab. You need to know the
type of equipment, the operating conditions, and chemicals used in the experiment. You need to
consider safety with all these points. The material safety data sheet (MSDS) need to be obtained
from Chemwatch at http://bit.ly/UR-MSDS for all chemicals used or chemicals that may be
produced from the experimental work. The status of the chemicals, the flash point, the harmful
effect on the body, the disposal of these chemicals, the precautions required, and the safety
personal wears required need to be understood before starting the experiment.

8. Original Data
The original data sheets used in the laboratory, with the title and the date of the experiment,
should appear in this section.

9. Calculations
Complete step-by-step calculations using the original data and showing the transformation of the
experimental data into calculated results. Then tabulate your results and plot the required figures
in professional way.

10. Results and Discussion

Each table or figure must be self-explanatory and have sufficient information. Table and graphs
must have titles and numbers. The number should be in the order of their appearance in the
report. Curves should be drawn such that they show the best average representation of the data.
If more than one curve is plotted on the same graph, different symbols for data points can be used
to distinguish between them.

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Result must be discussed and if possible compared with expected results. Each table or graph
should be explained in writing and the trends of curves must be justified. Sources of errors, if any
and their relation to the obtained data must be stated. Different paragraphs must be used to
discuss different tables or graphs. Always refer to figures number when discussing this figure.

11. Conclusions and recommendations

Conclusion is a series of numbered sentences which answered the questions posed in the end of
each experiment. Conclusions should also include the errors between the experimental and
theoretical values. What have you learned from the experiment should be mentioned.
Recommendations are the proposal for future work such as suggested changes in equipment,
study new variables, or possible experiments in relative field.

12. Nomenclature
The symbols, which are used in the report should be defined in the nomenclature in
alphabetical order. The accompanying definition must include proper units.

13. Appendices
All appendices and graphs should be attached to the end of the report

14. References
All references cited in the report should be listed in the order of their appearance in the report.

15. Grading

The grading system for the Lab technical report will be as follow:

Paragraph Max % allowable mark Mark

Cover page, abstract, and table of content 10

Introduction and Theory 10
Equipment set-up, experimental procedure, and 10
Safety
Calculation 30
Discussion 30
Conclusion, recommendation, and references 10
Total 100

4
 Safety
FOREWORD

Welcome to the process lab. This manual abstracts the existing safety policies. Take time to read
it carefully and direct your unanswered safety questions to the lab instructors. You are
responsible for compliance with all safety regulations and are responsible for elimination of
hazards in the lab. It is your responsibility to make the lab a safe place to work for you and for
others. Safe work habits, which you develop now, will prepare you for work in industry and may
save you from injury or may even save your life.

Introduction

The process lab has equipped with many safety items such as the ABC dry powder fire
extinguisher, safety shower, first aid box, safety goggles, chemical spill kit, and solvent cabinet.
Fume hood is placed on one side of the lab and all chemical preparation needs to be inside the
fume hood. It is important to be familiar with the location of all these safety items.

Safety Procedures

Know the safety procedures that apply to the work being done; determine the potential hazards
(e.g., physical, chemical, biological) and appropriate safety precautions before beginning any new
operation. The process lab has adopted the following safety practices. They will be consistently
enforced. Non-compliance will result in suspension from the laboratory.

1. Safety glasses and lab coat must be worn at all times in the laboratory areas.
2. Wear gloves when using any hazardous or toxic agents. They should be removed before
leaving the lab. Wash hands before leaving the lab and before eating.
3. Wear only shoes with uppers of a solid material like leather in the laboratories. This will
prevent permeation by liquid chemical spills. Open-toed shoes and bare feet, therefore,
are not permitted.
4. To protect clothing from chemical damage, wear lab apron or lab coat.
5. Medium length and long hair should be tied back to keep it from coming in to contact
with lab chemicals or flames.
6. Contamination of food, drink and smoking materials is a potential route for exposure to
toxic substances. So, eating, drinking and smoking are strictly prohibited all times.
7. Do not store or consume food in any laboratory. This also applies to coffee and other
drinking liquids. Laboratory glassware and utensils are inappropriate for food or drinks;
laboratory refrigerators, ice machines and ice chests are not approved for food storage.
8. In case of injury (cut, burn, fire) etc notify the instructor immediately.
9. If chemicals splash into someone’s eye, act quickly and get them into the eye wash
station, do not wait for the instructor.
10. In case of a fire or imminently dangerous situation, notify everyone who may be affected
immediately; be sure the lab instructor is also notified.
11. Wash your hand carefully before leaving the laboratory area. However, avoid the use of
solvents for washing the skin. They remove the natural protective oils from the skin and
can cause irritation and inflammation. In some cases, washing with a solvent may
facilitate absorption of a toxic chemical.

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 12. Use equipment only for its designed purpose. The use of makeshift tools and shortcut
methods leads to equipment damage and injuries. If you are in doubt, seek the help of the
Lab Instructor.
13. You are prohibited from running equipment such as power stirrers, hot plates, heating
mantles and water-cooled condensers unattended over-night unless permission and proper
safety precautions have been taken.
14. Familiarize yourself with emergency procedures and learn how to obtain additional help
in an emergency. Know how to use the emergency equipment in your work area.
Everyone must know the location and use of safety showers, eye wash equipment and
personal protective equipment. Take a moment to familiarize yourself with the locations
of these important items.
15. Never work in the laboratory without proper supervision by an instructor. Never work
alone in the process lab. There are no exceptions to this rule. Someone else must always
be present in your lab in order to render emergency help should this be required.
16. Perform no unauthorized experiments, tasks or job and perform given experiments, tasks
or job only according to direction. If you are not sure about what to do, please ask the
instructor.
17. Avoid distracting or startling any other worker. Practical jokes or horseplay are not
tolerated at any time. Do not run; you could collide with lab carrying hazardous
materials.
18. Exercise great caution in handling volatile, flammable solvents such as ether, acetone and
methanol. Never heat these solvents on a hot plate in an open system. An efficient
condenser may be used.
19. Use volatile and flammable compounds only in a fume hood. Procedures that produce
aerosols should be performed in a hood to prevent inhalation of hazardous material, be
sure the fan is on at all times when using a fume hood. Fume hoods should not be used
for storage.
20. All Pressurized containers (e.g. Gas cylinders) will be moved and installed only by staff
personnel.
21. Make sure that all chemicals are clearly and correctly labeled.
22. Never pipette using mouth suction. Avoid inhaling and never taste any chemicals in the
lab.
23. Never force glass tubing through a rubber stopper. If glass tubing must be inserted into a
rubber stopper, be sure to lubricate both the stopper and tubing (glycerol or soapy water).
Protect your hands; wrap glass tubing in a towel while inserting.
24. Always remember, HOT glassware looks exactly the same as COLD glassware, be
careful what you touch.
25. Spills should be cleaned up immediately, however large spills should not be cleaned up
by students. Inform the instructor immediately.
26. When using compressed air, use only approved nozzles and never directs the air towards
any person.
27. If leaving the lab unattended, turn off all ignition sources and lock the doors.
28. Think, act and encourage safety until it becomes a habit.

Important notes:
It is a must to wear Safety goggles, lab coat, and proper cover shoes
inside the lab. Next lab week time there is a safety quiz for 20 minutes

6
before conducting experiment (1). If you are not getting 80%, you need
to repeat the safety quiz otherwise you are not eligible to enter the lab.

7
 Lab Regulation

Lab group and report

Each group of maximum six students is required to perform the experiment and work as a
team inside the lab. The group requires submitting the experimental report for each
experiment with an individual discussion. The cover page supposed to have the names of
all students with ID number, name of experiment and date of performing the experiment
and the date of submission the report.
The deadline for receiving reports without any penalty will be one week after the
experiment was performed. Number of marks will be taken off for the lab report. After
two weeks, the lab report will not be accepted and will not be graded.
The report format is attached with this handout. Carful measurements, correct calculation,
logical deductions and clear conclusions are necessary to a good report. All the reports
will be marked out of 100.
Note: Although every group performs the same experiments, your discussion should be
unique and based on your own ideas.

PLAGIARISM WILL NOT BE TOLERATED

8
 Experiment No. 1: SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

Objectives

1- To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for a shell and tube heat
exchanger using co-current and counter-current flows.
2- Perform the energy balance across the shell and tube heat exchanger and calculate
the overall efficiency at different fluid flow rates.

Introduction

One of the common practices of chemical engineering is the heat transfer from warmer
fluid to a cooler fluid through the solid wall separating the two fluids. The shell and tube
heat exchanger is one of the equipments used in petroleum and chemical industries. This
type of exchanger consists of a number of tubes in parallel enclosed in a cylindrical shell.
Heat is transferred between one fluid flowing through the tubes and the other fluid
flowing through the cylindrical shell around the tubes. Baffles are included inside the
shell to increase the velocity of the fluid to increase the rate of heat transfer.
When the heat exchanger is connected for counter-current operation the hot and cold
fluid streams flow in opposite directions across the heat transfer surface (the two fluid
streams enter the heat exchanger at opposite ends). The hot fluid passes through the seven
tubes in parallel, the cold fluid passes across the tubes three times, directed by the baffles
inside the shell (figure1). When the heat exchanger is connected for co-current operation
the hot and cold fluid streams flow in the same direction across the heat transfer surface
(the two fluid streams enter the heat exchanger at the same end [figure2]).

Figure 1 Figure 2
Shell and tube heat exchanger Shell and tube heat exchanger
Counter- current operation Co- current operation

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The simplest form of equation, which represents the heat transfer operation, may be
written as:

Q = U A ΔT (1)

Where Q is the heat transferred per unit time, (w)

U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, (w/m2.K)
A is the area available for the flow of heat, (m2)
ΔT is the logarithmic mean temperature between cold and hot fluid, (oK)

1. Counter- current operation shell and tube heat exchanger:

Mass flow rate (qm) = volume flow rate (qv) x density of fluid (ρ), (kg/sec) (2)

Heat effect (Q) = mass flow rate (qm) x specific heat (Cp) x change in temperature (ΔT)
(3)

Therefore:

Heat emitted from hot fluid Qe = qmh Cph(T1-T2) (4)

Heat absorbed by cold fluid Qa = qmc Cpc(T4-T3) (5)

Heat lost (or gained) Qf = Qe – Qa (6)

Qa
Overall efficiency η = –––––– x 100(%) (7)
Qe
T1 – T2
Temperature efficiency for hot fluid η h = ––––––– X 100 (%) (8)
T1 –T3

T4 – T3
Temperature efficiency for cold fluid ηc = ––––––– X 100 (%) (9)
T1 – T3

ηh + ηc
Mean temperature efficiency ηm = ––––––— (10)
2
Theoretically Qe and Qa should be equal but in practice these differ due to heat losses
or gains to/ from the environment.
T1 is hot fluid inlet temperature
T2 is the hot fluid outlet temperature
T3 is the cold fluid inlet temperature
T4 is the cold fluid out let temperature

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 qvc is the cold fluid volume flow rate( m3/sec)
qvh is the hot fluid volume flow rate (m3/sec)
Cph is the specific heat of hot fluid (kjoule / kg . oK)

2. Co-current operation:

Reduction in hot fluid temperature ΔT hot = T1 –T2

Increase in cold fluid temperature Δ Tcold = T3- T4
Heat emitted from hot fluid Qe = qmh . Cph (T1 –T2)

T1 –T2
Temperature efficiency for hot fluid ηh = –––––– X100 (%) (11)
T1 –T4

T3 – T4
Temperature efficiency for cold fluid ηc = ––––––– X 100 (%) (12)
T1 – T4
ηh + ηc
Mean temperature efficiency ηm = –––––––––– (13)
2
In co-current flow T3 is the cold fluid outlet temperature and T4 is the cold fluid inlet
temperature.

3. Calculation of the overall heat transfer coefficient:

Because the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluid streams varies
along the length of the heat exchanger it is necessary to derive an average
temperature difference (driving force) from which heat transfer calculations can be
performed. This average temperature difference is called the logarithmic mean
temperature difference (LMTD) ΔTlm

Δt1 – Δt2
LMTD Δtlm = –––––––––– (14)
ln (Δt1/Δt2)

Where Δt1 = T1 –T4

Δt2 = T2 –T3

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 The equation for LMTD is the same for both counter- current and co- current
operation because the temperature measurement points are fixed on the exchanger.
Two different equations will result if the temperature points are related to fluid
inlets and outlets.
The heat transmission area in the exchanger must be calculated using the arithmetic
mean diameter of the inner tubes.
do + di
Arithmetic mean diameter dm = –––––––– (15)
2
Heat transmission length L = n. l (16)

Where n = number of tubes =7

l = heat transmission length of each tube = 0.144 m
L =1.008 m
Heat transmission area (A) = π . dm . L (17)
Qe
Over all heat transfer coefficient U = –––––––––– (w/m2.oK)
A. Δt lm
Heat emitted from hot fluid;
Qe = qmh Cph (T1 – T3)

Tube inside diameter di = 0.00515 m

Tube outside diameter do = 0.00635 m
Heat transmission length L = 1.008 (total) m

The heat transfer coefficients in the expression for U can be derived only for the
simplest geometric, and must be determined empirically for all others. hi, the heat
transfer coefficient inside the tube, can be estimated by the Dittus – Boelter
equation:

Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 . (Pr)0.3 (18)

Nu (Nesselt number) = hi . di / k (19)

Re (Reynold number) = di. u . ρ / μ (20)

Pr (Prandtl number) = Cp . μ / k (21)

This equation can be used for a turbulent flow (Re larger than 6000). For Reynold
number less than 2100:
m.Cp. μ
Nu = 2 (––––––)1/3 (–––– )0.14 (22)
K .L μw

Experimental Procedure

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The shell and tube heat exchanger is mounted on a PVC base, which incorporates four
holes, which locate it on four studs at the left hand side of the service unit. In normal
operation the hot fluid from the hot water circulator enters the header at one end of the
shell and passes through the bundle of stainless steel tubes while the cold fluid from the
cold water supply passes through the cylindrical shell. This arrangement minimizes heat
loss from the exchanger without the need for additional insulation and allows the
construction of the exchanger to be viewed. The outer annulus, and caps (headers) and
baffles are constructed from clear acrylic to allow visualization of the heat exchanger
construction and minimize thermal losses. The flexible tubes are used for the connections
to each fluid inlet/ outlet to achieve co-current or counter-current operation (Figure 3).

Figure3: Shell and tube heat exchanger

Technical details of the heat exchanger construction are as follows:

Seven tubes constructed from stainless steel, 6.35 mm OD, and 0.6 wall thicknesses.
Outer annulus constructed from clear acrylic tube, 39.0 mm ID, and 3.0 mm wall
thickness
Two baffles constructed from clear acrylic sheet.
Length of tube bundle 144 mm (actual length of heat transfer region giving nominal
combined heat transfer area of 20000 mm2).
Cold water enters one end of the shell at the bottom and exits at the opposite end at the
top having flowed over and under two transverse baffles inside the shell.

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The step-by step experimental procedure is as follows:

1- Switch on the front mains switch.

2- Set the temperature controller to a set point of 50oC, and then switch on the hot
water circulator.
3- Set the flow indicator switch to Fcold then adjust the cold water control valve
Vcold(not the pressure regulator Vreg) to give 1 liter/minute.
4- Set the flow indicator switch to Fhot then adjust the hot water control valve Vhot to
give 2 liter/minute.
5- Allow the heat exchanger to stabilize, and then record T1, T2, T3, T4, Fhot, Fcold.
6- Set the flow indicator switch to Fcold then adjust the cold-water control valve Vcold
to give 2 liter/minute.
7- Allow the heat exchanger to stabilize then record the T1, T2, T3, T4, Fhot, and Fcold.
8- The experiment must be done in counter and co current operation.

Calculate

1. Estimate the heat transfer coefficients ho and hi and the overall heat transfer
coefficient U.
2. Calculate the expected exit temperatures based on the estimated overall heat
transfer coefficient.
3. Determine the heat losses during the experiment.

References

W.L. McCabe, J.C. Smith and P. Harriott, Unit operation of chemical engineering, 5th
edition, McGraw – Hill INC. USA, 1993.

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Experiment No. 2: Jacketed vessel with coil and stirrer heat exchanger

Objective:

To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for a heating jacket and heating coil in a
stirred tank

Theory:

Heating or cooling in stirred process vessels can be accomplished either by transferring

heat across the vessel wall using a heating jacket or by submerging a cooling coil into the
liquid in the vessel as shown in figure 1 in both cases the heat transfer can be described
by the equation:

Q = U A ΔTLn (1)
Q is the heat transferred across the heat transfer area per unit time, (w)
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, (w/m2.K)
A is the heat transfer area, (m2)
ΔTLn is the logarithmic mean temperature between cold and hot fluid,(oK)

The heat transfer coefficient from the cooling coil to the liquid can be estimated from:

hcoil . Dc Da2. n . ρ Cp .μ Da Dc μ
───── = α ( ───── ) . ( ───) . (──) . (──) . (──)0.24
0.67 0.37 0.1 0.5
(2)
K μ K Dt Dt μw

Wher
Cp is the liquid heat capacity (j / kg k)
Da is the stirrer diameter (m)
Dc is the coil diameter (m)
Dt is the tank diameter (m)
hcoil is the heat transfer between the coil surface and the fluid in the vessel (j / k m 2
s)
K is the thermal conductivity of the liquid (j / m K s)
n is the stirrer speed (r / s)
α is the proportionality constant
α = 0.17 for Rushton turbines
α = 0.12 for a propeller
α = 0.14 for a pitched turbine
μ is the viscosity of the vessel fluid (pa s)
μw is the viscosity of water (pa s)
ρ is the density of the vessel liquid(kg / m3)

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 T1 T1

T3

T2

T5 T4
a b

Figure 1: a. Stirred vessel with heating jacket. b. Stirred vessel with heating coil.

The heat transfer coefficient from the heating jacket to the liquid in the vessel can be
estimated by:

hj. Dt Da . n . ρ Cp. μ μ
──── = β . ( ───── )2/3 . ( ──────)1/3 . ( ───)0.24 (3)
K μ K μw

Where
hj is the heat transfer coefficient between the jacket and vessel liquid (j/ k.m2.s)
β is a proportional constant
β = 0.76 for Rushton turbines
β = 0.68 for a pitched turbine
β = 0.46 for a standard propeller

The heat transfer coefficient inside the cooling coil or heating jacket can be estimated as
the heat transfer coefficient in a tube or for a tube outer surface respectively.
Experimentally the heating jacket overall heat transfer coefficient Uj can be determined
by continuous feeding hot water to the stirred vessel while cooling the tank content using
the heating jacket as shown in figure 2.

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 T1

T3

T2

T6
.
m feed

Figure 2: Stirred tank with cooling jacket and hot water through put.

The heat balance will now be

Q tank = mfeed . Cp ( T6- T1 ) (4)

Q jacket = m jacket . Cp ( T3- T2 ) (5)

If the vessel top and bottom is well insulated, the overall heat transfer coefficient can be
calculated as:
Qtank
Uj = ───── (6)
Aj. ΔTLn
Where
Aj is the heat transfer area of the heating jacket (m2)

(T2-T1) – (T3 – T1)

ΔTln = ─────────────── (7)
T2 –T1
Ln { ──────}
T3 – T1
Having determined the overall heat transfer coefficient for the heating jacket. The overall
heat transfer coefficient for the cooling coil Uc can be determined. This can be done by
pumping hot water through the coil and cool the liquid in the tank using the heating
jacket as shown in figure 3.

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 T1

T3

T2

T5 T4

Figure 3: Stirred vessel with cooling jacket and heating coil

The heat balance now becomes:

Q tank = Qjacket + Q coil =0 (8)

Qcoil = mcoil. Cp (T4 –T5) (9)

and
Qcoil
Uc = ──────── (10)
Acoil . ΔTLn
Where
Acoil is the coil heat transfer area (m2)

Qcoil is the heat transferred from the coil per unit time (w)

(T4 –T1) – (T5 – T1)

ΔTLn = ────────────────
T4 –T1
Ln { ─────}
T5- T1

Uc is the coil overall heat transfer coefficient in (j/m2.k.s)

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Apparatus set-up:

The jacketed vessel (figure 4) is mounted on a PVC base plate (1) which incorporates four holes
(2) which locate it on four studs at the left hand end of the service unit.
Figure 4:

Figure 4: Jacketed vessel heat exchanger with coil and stirrer

When using the outer jacket (figure 2) to cool the vessel contents, the flexible
connections are as follows:

Cold water inlet to bottom of jacket (5) adjacent to temperature sensor T2

Cold water outlet from top of jacket (3) adjacent to temperature sensor T3
Hot water inlet to bottom of vessel (15) adjacent to temperature sensor T6
Hot water outlet from top of vessel (14) via adjustable overflow (12)

When using the submerged coil (figure 3) to heat the vessel contents, the flexible
connections are as follows:

Hot water inlet to bottom of coil (20) adjacent to temperature sensor T4

Hot water outlet from top of coil (19) adjacent to temperature sensor T5
Cold water inlet to bottom of jacket (5) adjacent to temperature sensor T2

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Cold water outlet from top of jacket (4) adjacent to temperature sensor T3
The vessel consists of a stainless steel wall (7) with PVC base and clear acrylic top (9). A
heat resistant glass outer jacket (8) allows the wall of the vessel to be surrounded with hot
fluid for indirect heating of the vessel contents from the outside. Alternatively, a stainless
steel coil (18) submerged beneath the fluid inside the vessel allows the cold fluid
contained within the vessel to be indirectly heated.
The vessel incorporates a variable speed stirrer and baffle arrangement to allow through
mixing of the vessel contents when required. The drive motor (10) is connected directly
to the stirrer paddle via flexible coupling. The speed of the motor is varied by adjusting
the potentiometer on the front of the speed controller (11) with the selector switch set to
the manual position.
An adjustable over flow pipe (12) allows the volume of the liquid inside the vessel to be
varied with the maximum capacity of approximately 1 liter. The vessel can be operated as
a batch by simply filling to the top of the overflow pipe or with continuous feed of cold
fluid to the base of the vessel, the excess liquid flowing continuously from the top of the
overflow pipe to drain. The thermocouples are installed at the following 6 locations:
Vessel contents (cold fluid) (T1)
Hot fluid inlet to jacket (T2)
Hot fluid outlet from jacket (T3)
Hot fluid inlet to coil (T4)
Hot fluid outlet from coil (T5)
Cold fluid inlet to vessel (T6)

The technical data for the jacketed vessel heat exchanger are as follows:

Vessel wall inside diameter di = 0.1524 m

Vessel wall outside diameter do = 0.1542 m
Inside diameter of coiled tube dcoili = 0.00493 m
Outside diameter of coiled tube dcoilo = 0.000635 m

Overall length of coiled tube l = 1.15 m (apprx.)

Heating jacket shell inner diameter djacket = 0.175m
Overflow height Hv = 0.105 m
Stirrer dimension
Blade width w = 0.03 m
Blade height L = 0.08 m
Diameter Da = 0.06 m
Maximum rpm n = 193
Flow rate from 0 to 3 l/min
Maximum temperature 60 oC
The calibration curve for the stirrer is shown in Figure 5.

20
 250

200

150
rpm

100

50

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
stirrer adjustment
Figure 5: Calibration curve for stirrer of heating vessel

Experimental Procedure

The step-by-step experimental procedure is as follows:

1. Make sure the mains are switched off

2. To determine the heating jacket overall heat transfer coefficient.
3. Connects the cold stream inlet to the bottom of the jacket and the cold stream outlet
to the top of the jacket. Then connect the hot stream inlet to the bottom of the vessel
and connect the hot stream outlet to the vessel overflow outlet.
4. Set the overflow weir in the vessel to its maximum height.
5. Set the hot water temperature to the lowest inlet temperature according to your
experimental plan.
6. Set the cold-water flow rate to the jacket at the highest value according to your
experimental plan.
7. Set the hot water flow rate according to your experimental plan.
8. Set the stirrer speed to the highest value according to your experimental plan.
9. Take the temperature readings according to your plan when steady state is reached.
10. Repeat 4 to 8 for all your chosen stirrer speeds and flow rates.
11. Increase the hot water temperature according to your experimental plan and repeat 4
to 9.
12. To determine the heating coil overall heat transfer coefficient turn off the hot water
stream to the vessel then disconnect the hot water tubing from the vessel. Empty the
vessel for hot water and fill it with cold deionized water.
13. Connect the hot water stream inlet to the heating coil inlet and connect the hot water
stream outlet to the heating coil outlet.
14. Set the hot water reservoir to the lowest inlet temperature to be used in the heating
coil according to your experimental plan. Wait until the water reservoir reaches this
temperature.
15. Set the stirrer speed to the lowest stirrer speed according to your experimental plan.

21
16. Set the hot water stream for the heating coil to the highest value according to your
experimental plan.
17. Set the cold-water stream according to your experimental plan.
18. Take the temperature readings according to your plan when steady state is reached.
19. Increase the stirrer speed according to your experimental plan and repeat 15 to 17.
20. Decrease the hot water stream flow for the heating coil to the next highest value
according to your experimental plan and repeat 14 to 18.
21. Set the hot water temperature to the next lowest value according to your experimental plan
and repeat 14 to 19.
22. When finished switch off the mains.

Safety Notes

1. Wear the protective safety glasses.

2. Aware of the hot surfaces.
3. Take care of the hot water while you are changing the connections.

Calculation

1- Determine the heating coil overall heat transfer coefficient and heating jacket overall heat
transfer coefficient from your experiments.
2- Compare the experimental values for the overall heat transfer coefficients with the predicted
values.

22
Table 1

Specific heat capacity of water (Kj/Kg.K)

o
C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 401274 4.2138 4.2104 4.2074 4.2045 4.2019 4.1996 4.1974 4.1954 4.1936
10 4.1919 4.1904 4.189 4.1877 4.1866 4.1855 4.1846 4.1837 4.1829 4.1822
20 4.1816 4.1810 4.1805 4.1801 4.1797 4.1793 4.179 4.1787 4.1785 4.1783
30 4.1782 4.1781 4.178 4.178 4.1779 4.1779 4.178 4.178 4.1781 4.1782
40 4.0783 4.1784 4.1786 4.1788 4.1789 4.1792 4.1794 4.1796 4.1799 4.1801
50 4.1804 4.1807 4.1811 4.1814 4.1817 4.1821 4.1825 4.1829 4.1833 4.1837
60 4.1841 4.1846 4.185 4.1855 4.186 4.1865 4.1871 4.1876 4.1882 4.1887
70 4.1893 4.1899 4.1905 4.1912 4.1918 4.1925 4.1932 4.1939 4.1946 4.1954

Table 2
Density of water (kg/m3)
o
C 0 2 4 6 8
0 999.8 999.9 999.9 999.9 999.9
10 999.7 999.5 999.2 998.9 998.6
20 998.2 997.8 997.3 996.8 996.2
30 995.7 995 994.4 993.7 993.
40 992.2 991.4 990.6 989.8 988.9
50 988 987.1 986.2 985.2 984.2
60 983.2 982.2 981.1 980 978.9
70 977.8 976.6 975.4 974.2 973.0

23
 Experiment No. 3: Tubular heat exchanger

Objective:

Solve the energy balance across the tubular heat exchanger and calculate the overall
efficiency at different fluid flow rates.
Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for the tubular heat exchanger-using co-
current and counter-current flows.

Introduction:

One of the common operations of chemical engineering is the heat transfer from a
warmer fluid to a cooler fluid through a solid wall separating the two fluids. This may be
latent heat accompanying phase change or it may be sensible heat from the rise or fall in
temperature of a fluid without any phase change, such as reducing the temperature of a
fluid by transfer of sensible heat to a cooler fluid. The tubular heat exchanger is the
simplest form of heat exchanger and consists of two concentric (coaxial) tubes the inner
tube carrying the hot fluid and the outer tube the cold fluid. When the tubular heat
exchanger is connected for counter-current operation the hot and cold fluid streams flow
in opposite directions across the heat transfer surface, the two fluid streams enter the heat
exchanger at opposite ends as shown in figure 1. When the heat exchanger is connected
for co-current operation the two fluid streams enter the heat exchanger at the same end as
shown in figure 2, and the hot and cold fluid streams flows in the same direction along
the heat transfer surface.

Figure 1: Co-current tubular heat exchanger

24
 Figure 2: Counter current heat exchanger

The simplest form of equation which represents the heat transfer operation may be
written as:

Q = U A ΔT (1)
Where Q is the heat transferred per unit time, (w)
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, (w/m2.K)
A is the area available for the flow of heat, (m2)
ΔT is the logarithmic mean temperature between cold and hot fluid, (oK)

For counter- current operation of a tubular heat exchanger:

Mass flow rate (qm) = volume flow rate (qv) x density of fluid (ρ)
(Kg/sec) (2)
Heat effect (Q) = mass flow rate (qm) x specific heat (Cp) x change in
temperature (ΔT) (3)
Therefore:

Heat emitted from hot fluid Qe = qmh Cph(T1-T3) (4)

Heat absorbed by cold fluid Qa = qmc Cpc(T6-T4) (5)

25
Heat lost (or gained) Qf = Qe – Qa (6)
Qa
Overall efficiency η = –––––– x 100(%) (7)
Qe

T1 – T3
Temperature efficiency for hot fluid η h = ––––––– X 100 (%) (8)
T1 –T4

T6 – T4
Temperature efficiency for cold fluid ηc = ––––––– X 100 (%) (9)
T1 – T4

ηh + ηc
Mean temperature efficiency ηm = ––––––— (10)
2
Theoretically Qe and Qa should be equal but in practice these different to heat losses or
gains to/ from the environment.

T1 is hot fluid inlet temperature

T2 is the hot fluid mid temperature
T3 is the hot fluid outlet temperature
T4 is the cold fluid inlet temperature
T5 is the cold fluid mid temperature
T6 is the cold fluid outlet temperature
Note: In co-current flow T4 is the cold fluid outlet temperature and T6 is the cold fluid
inlet temperature
qvc is the cold fluid volume flow rate( m3/sec)
qvh is the hot fluid volume flow rate (m3/sec)
Cph is the specific heat of hot fluid (kjoule / kg . oK)

For co-current operation:

Reduction in hot fluid temperature ΔT hot = T1 –T3

Increase in cold fluid temperature Δ Tcold = T4- T6

Heat emitted from hot fluid Qe = qmh . Cph (T1 –T3)

T1 –T3
Temperature efficiency for hot fluid ηh = –––––– X100 (%) (11)
T1 –T6

26
 T4 – T6
Temperature efficiency for cold fluid ηc = ––––––– X 100 (%) (12)
T1 – T6

ηh + ηc
Mean temperature efficiency ηm = –––––––––– (13)
2
For the calculation of the overall heat transfer coefficient:
Because the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluid streams varies along
the length of the heat exchanger it is necessary to derive an average temperature
difference (driving force) from which heat transfer calculations can be performed. This
average temperature difference is called the logarithmic mean temperature difference
(LMTD) Δtlm

Δt1 – Δt2
LMTD Δtlm = –––––––––– (14)
ln (Δt1/Δt2)

Where Δt1 = T1 –T6

Δt2 = T3 –T4

The equation for LMTD is the same for both counter- current and co- current operation
because the temperature measurement points are fixed on the exchanger. Two different
equations will result if the temperature points are related to fluid inlets and outlets.
The heat transmission area in the exchanger can be calculated using the arithmetic mean
diameter of the inner tube.
do + di
Arithmetic mean diameter dm = ––––––––––– (15)
2
Heat transmission length L

Heat transmission area A = π . dm . L (16)

(dm can be used since r2 / r < 1.5. Otherwise the logarithmic mean
radius dlm must be used) .

Qe
Over all heat transfer coefficient U = –––––––– (w/m2.K) (17)
A . Δt lm

The total heat transfer area is often the design goal of a heat exchanger and is rarely
known before hand. The appropriate temperature difference is usually a given, and the

27
amount of heat transferred can be calculated as we have done above. This leaves two
variables unknown, the overall heat transfer coefficient and the total heat transfer area.
The overall heat transfer area can be calculated using the dimensionless Nusselt number
which has been correlated to two additional dimensionless numbers, the Reynolds
number and the Prandtl number. Two common correlations are the Dittus-Boelter
correlation used most often in turbulent flow, and the Seider-Tate correlation most often
used in laminar flow. These correlations are as follows:

Dittus-Boelter:

(18)

n = 0.4 for fluids being heated and n = 0.3 for fluids being cooled

Seider-Tate:

(19)
μb = the fluid viscosity at the bulk temperature g/m s
μw = the fluid viscosity at the wall temperature g/m s

The overall heat transfer coefficient is related to the individual film heat transfer
coefficients as
follows.

The thermal resistance of the wall is not included in this model because it is much
smaller than the resistance of the two boundary layers.

(20)

U i = overall heat transfer coefficient based on inside area J/(s m2 °C)

hi = heat transfer coefficient on the inside of the inner tube J/(s m2 °C)
ho = heat transfer coefficient on the outside of the inner tube J/(s m2 °C)
Ai = the inside surface area of the inner pipe m2
Ao = the outside surface area of the inner pipe m2

A similar equation can be written for UoAo. Either UiAi or UoAo can be used in equation
(3).
The heat transfer coefficients are related to the Nusselt number in the following way:

(21)

28
hx = heat transfer coefficient of the hot or cold side J/(s m2 °C)
Dx = diameter of the hot or cold side m
kx = the thermal conductivity of the fluid on the hot or cold side J/(s m2 °C)

Apparatus set-up:

One of the simplest heat exchangers consists of two concentric, circular pipes known as a
Double Pipe (U-tube) Heat Exchanger. A double pipe heat exchanger is a system of two
concentric pipes typically in the shape of U as shown in Figures 3 and 4. The tubular
heat exchanger is mounted on a PVC base, which incorporates four holes, which locate it
on four studs at the left hand side of the service unit.

Figure 3: Tubular heat exchanger

29
 Figure 4: Tubular heat exchanger connections
Technical specification:

Each inner tube is constructed from stainless steel tube, 9.5 mm ID,
0.6 mm wall thickness
Each outer tube is constructed from clear acrylic tube, 12mm ID,
3.0 mm wall thickness

The tube is approximately 660mm in length. Cold water flows on the outside, coming
from the tap attached to the Reverse Osmosis water purification unit and flows out to the
drain. Hot water is stored in a heated tank and re-circulated through the inner tube. There
are six thermocouples attached to the system, refer to Figure 4 for their locations. The
cold water inlet temperature is measured with the thermocouple labeled T4. The hot
water inlet temperature is given by T1. Thermocouples T5 and T2 measure the midpoint
temperatures of the cold and hot flow respectively. T6 is the cold water outlet
temperature, and T3 is the hot water outlet temperature. The flow rate of the cold water
can be controlled by the valve labeled Vcold, and the flow rate of the hot water can be
controlled by the valve labeled Vhot. The system pressure is controlled by valve Vreg and
should not be used to control the flow rate of the cold water.

Experimental procedure:

1. Connect the inlet and outlet tubes in counter current operation.

2. Switch on the front mains switch.
3. Set the temperature controller to a set point of 50oC, and then switch on the hot
water circulator.
4. Set the flow indicator switch to Fcold then adjust the cold water control valve Vcold(
not the pressure regulator Vreg) to give 1 liter/minute.
5. Set the flow indicator switch to Fhot then adjust the hot water control valve Vhot to
give 3 liters/minute.
6. Allow the heat exchanger to stabilize, and then record T1, T2, T3, T4, Fhot, Fcold.

30
 7. Set the flow indicator switch to Fcold then adjust the cold water control valve Vcold
to give 2 liter/minute.
8. Allow the heat exchanger to stabilize then record the T1, T2, T3, T4, Fhot, and Fcold.
9. The experiment must be done in counter and co-current operations.

Safety Notes

Aware of the hot surfaces of the tubular heat transfer exchanger. Take care of hot water
while you are changing the connection of the inlet and outlet tubes to the exchanger to get
either co current or counter current arrangement

Calculation:

1- Estimate the heat transfer coefficients ho and hi and the overall heat transfer
coefficient U.
2- Calculate expected exit temperature based on the estimated overall heat transfer
coefficient.

31
Table 1

Specific heat capacity of water (Kj/Kg.K)

o
C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 4.1274 4.2138 4.2104 4.2074 4.2045 4.2019 4.1996 4.1974 4.1954 4.1936
10 4.1919 4.1904 4.189 4.1877 4.1866 4.1855 4.1846 4.1837 4.1829 4.1822
20 4.1816 4.1810 4.1805 4.1801 4.1797 4.1793 4.179 4.1787 4.1785 4.1783
30 4.1782 4.1781 4.178 4.178 4.1779 4.1779 4.178 4.178 4.1781 4.1782
40 4.0783 4.1784 4.1786 4.1788 4.1789 4.1792 4.1794 4.1796 4.1799 4.1801
50 4.1804 4.1807 4.1811 4.1814 4.1817 4.1821 4.1825 4.1829 4.1833 4.1837
60 4.1841 4.1846 4.185 4.1855 4.186 4.1865 4.1871 4.1876 4.1882 4.1887
70 4.1893 4.1899 4.1905 4.1912 4.1918 4.1925 4.1932 4.1939 4.1946 4.1954

Table 2

Density of water (kg/m3)

o
C 0 2 4 6 8
0 999.8 999.9 999.9 999.9 999.9
10 999.7 999.5 999.2 998.9 998.6
20 998.2 997.8 997.3 996.8 996.2
30 995.7 995 994.4 993.7 993.
40 992.2 991.4 990.6 989.8 988.9
50 988 987.1 986.2 985.2 984.2
60 983.2 982.2 981.1 980 978.9
70 977.8 976.6 975.4 974.2 973.0

32
 Linear Heat Conduction
Objectives

The objectives of this experiment are as follows:

 To be familiar with the linear heat conduction apparatus
 To understand the use of the Fourier’s law in determining heat rate through solids
 To determine the thermal conductivity of different solid materials
 To determine the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for the flow of heat through a
combination of different materials in use
 To demonstrate the effect of cross sectional area on the heat rate
 To demonstrate the effect of contact resistance on thermal conduction between
adjacent materials
 To measure the temperature distribution for unsteady state conduction of heat
through the uniform plane wall and the wall of the thick cylinder

Introduction
Heat conduction is defined as a heat transfer in solid or fluids without a bulk
movement, but generally in take place in solid material. In solid materials, it is a
combination of vibration of molecules in the lattice and also energy transport by free
electron. Conduction is a transport of energy due to temperature gradient. For one-
dimensional, steady-state heat conduction in a plane wall with no heat generation,
temperature is a function of the x coordinate only and heat is transferred exclusively in
this direction. Thus, the temperature distribution for the heat conduction through plane
wall must be linear (Figure 1).

Figure-1: Heat transfer through a plane wall

In addition to single plane wall, heat transfer through composite wall is also important.
Such walls may involve any number of series and parallel layers made of different
materials. In the case of steady state one-dimensional heat conduction with no heat

33
generation, temperature profile through each layer becomes linear as shown in Figure 2.
Heat transfer through composite systems is usually described by an overall heat transfer
coefficient. Simply, the overall heat transfer coefficient is related to the total thermal
resistance.

Figure-2: Heat transfer through composite systems.

Fourier's Law stated that the heat transfer rate (qx) by conduction through a plane wall is
directly proportional to the cross sectional area (A) and the temperature difference (T),
whereas it is inversely proportional to the wall thickness (x).
The heat transfer from the heater can be calculated as follow:

(1)
(2)

x = (X hot – X cold) (3)

T = (T hot- T cold) (4)

If the material of the wall is homogeneous and has a thermal conductivity K , then

(5)
The negative sign follows thermodynamic convention in that heat transfer is normally
considered positive in the direction of temperature fall. The minus sign is to show that
the flow of heat is from hotter to colder. If the temperature decreases with x, q will be
positive and will flow in the direction of x. If the temperature increases with x, q will be
negative, and will flow opposite to the direction of x. In the International System of Units
SI, q is watts per meter squared (w/m2).

Experimental work

The linear conduction heat transfer equipment is shown in Figure 3.

34
 Figure 3: Linear conduction heat transfer equipment
Experimental set-up for the linear conductive heat transfer system H111 is shown in
Figure 4. The heat transfer module is cylindrical and mounted with its axis vertical to the
base plate. The heating section houses a 25 mm diameter cylindrical brass section with
normally watt cartridge heater in the top end. An integral high temperature cut out to
prevent overheating. Power is supplied to the heater from the heat transfer service unit
via the 8 pole plug and lead. Three fixed thermocouples T1, T2, T3 are positioned along
the heated section at 15 mm intervals. The cooling section is manufactured from 25 mm
diameter brass to match the heated top section and it cooled at its bottom end by water
flowing through a chamber in the material. The fixed thermocouples T6, T7, T8 are
poisoned along the cooled section at 15 mm intervals. Different intermediate sections are
available with the equipment to place between the heated and cooled sections. The
heating section, cooling sections, and the intermediate section are located co-axially
inside plastic housing. An annular air gap insulates the specimens from the surroundings
and minimizes the heat loss/gain. Toggle clamps ensure that the heated and cooled
sections are held tightly together with or without intermediate section installed.

35
 Cooling water
inletFilter

Regulator

Valve
Specimen position

Heater

Insulation
T8T7T6T5T4T3T2T1

Thermocouples

Figure 4: Linear heat conduction unit.

The available four intermediate sections are as follows:

1. Brass specimen- 30 mm long, 25 mm diameter fitted with two thermocouples T4

and T5 at 15 mm intervals along the axis. With brass specimen clamps between
the heated and cooled sections a uniform 25 mm diameter brass bar is formed
with 8 uniformly spaced (15 mm intervals) thermocouples (T1 to T8 ).
2. Stainless steel specimen- 30 mm long, 25 mm diameter. No thermocouple fitted.
3. Brass specimen with reduced diameter- 30 mm long, 13 mm diameter. No
thermometer fitted.
4. Aluminum specimen- 30 mm long, 25 mm diameter. No thermocouple fitted.

In addition, the heat conducting properties of insulators such as cork studied by clamping
the cork insulating disc between the heated and cooled sections.
The effect of good thermal contact between conducting surfaces is demonstrated by
experiments with and without toggle clamp. The value of heat transfer paste may be
verified by experiments with and without paste.

Here the experiment can be performed without any intermediate, with different
intermediates, and with insulating disc. May options will be discussed here but some of
these options will be able to perform during the time of the experiment.

Option 1

Measuring the conductivity of brass without introducing any intermediate material

Experimental Procedure

36
The following step-by-step procedure

1. Start the work without any intermediate material between the two brass bars as
shown in Figure 5.
2. Be sure that the cooling water is flowing at approximately 1.5 liters/minute. The
actual flow can be checked using measuring cylinder and stopwatch.
3. Set the heater voltage to 90 volts.
4. Record the change of temperatures T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V, and I with time until
the temperatures have been stabilized. Use table 1.
5. Reset the heater voltage to 120 volts and repeat the recording as shown in the
above step.
6. Repeat step 4 with heater voltage of 170 and 200 volts.
7. Reduce the heater voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to cool
before shut down the system and the turning off the cooling water supply.

Figure 5: Determine the heat rate through solid materials for one dimensional, steady
flow of heat
Table 1: Observation table
System Time T1,oC T2,oC T3,oC T4,oC T5,oC T6,oC T7,oC T8,oC V,(volt) Current I
(ampere)

Distance - 0 0.015 0.03 - - 0.045 0.06 0.075 - -

from T1

Calculation
1. Tabulate the collected data as shown in Table 1.
2. Plot the changing of temperature, voltage, and current with time.

37
3. Fill table 2.
System Q ΔT ΔT Δx Δx ΔT13/ ΔT68/ Q/ [ΔT13/ Q/ [ΔT68/
13 68 13 68 Δx13 Δx68 Δx13] Δx68]
W K K m m K/m K/m W/mK W/mK

4. Find the value of C,

C=

Find the value of C and then the value of K.

5. Plot the relation between temperature verses distance from T1 using different Q.

Option 2

Measuring the conductivity of Brass specimen fitted with two thermocouples T 4 and
T5.

Experimental Procedure

The following step-by-step procedure

1. Smear the faces of the heated and cooled sections with thermal conducting paste
and clamp them together with the Brass Intermediate Specimen in place as
illustrated in the in Figure 6.
2. Be sure that the cooling water is flowing at approximately 1.5 liters/minute. The
actual flow can be checked using measuring cylinder and stopwatch.
3. Set the heater voltage to 120 volts. This will provide a reasonable temperature
gradient along the length of the bar. If the local cooling temperature is at high
temperature (25-35 oC or more) then it may be necessary to increase the voltage
supplied to the heater. This will increase the temperature difference between the
hot and cold ends of the bar.

38
 4. Record the change of temperatures T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, V, and I with time
until the temperatures have been stabilized. Use table 1.
5. Reset the heater voltage to 170 volts and repeat the recording as shown in the
above step.
6. Reduce the heater voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to cool before
shut down the system and the turning off the cooling water supply.

Figure 6: Intermediate Brass assembly with two thermocouples

Calculation:

If the heated and cooled surfaces are clamped tightly together and are in good thermal
contact, then the two sections can be considered as continuous homogenous sample of
uniform cross and material.
According to Fourier’s law of heat conduction; if a plane section of thickness x and the
constant area A maintains at a temperature difference T then the heat transfer rate per
unit time Q by conduction through the wall can be determined by applying equations 2-
5.
So try to follow the following steps:

1. Tabulate the collected data as shown in Table 1.

2. Plot the changing of temperature, voltage, and current with time.
3. Fill table 3.
Table 3

39
 Sample Q ΔT ΔT ΔT Δx Δx K 1-2 K 4-5 K 6-8
∆x
1-3 4-5 6-8 1-3 6-8 hot Int. cold
4-5

W K K K m m m W/mK W/mK W/mK

The distance between the thermocouple sensors are as follows. Note that the distance
between T4 and T5 is less than the other pairs of thermocouples.

Δx 1-3 = 0.03 m
Δx 4-5 = 0.0015 m
Δx 6-8 = 0.03 m
4. Plot the temperature distance from T1 thermocouples using the two values of Q.
From the calculation, it is clear that the thermal conductivity in every case is similar.
Differences occur due to the heat losses from the specimen that is not accounted for.

Option 3

Measuring the conductivity of Stainless steel or aluminum as intermediate with

same diameter and without attached thermocouples

Experimental Procedure

The step-by-step procedure is as follows:

1. Smear the faces of the heated and cooled sections with thermal conducting paste
and clamp them together with the Brass Intermediate Specimen in place as
illustrated in the in Figure 7.
2. Be sure that the cooling water is flowing at approximately 1.5 liters/minute. The
actual flow can be checked using measuring cylinder and stopwatch.
3. Set the heater voltage to 90 volts. This will provide a reasonable temperature
gradient along the length of the bar. If the local cooling temperature is at high
temperature (25-35 oC or more) then it may be necessary to increase the voltage
supplied to the heater. This will increase the temperature difference between the
hot and cold ends of the bar.

40
 4. Record the change of temperatures T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, V, and I with time
until the temperatures have been stabilized. Use table 1.
5. Reset the heater voltage to 120 volts and repeat the recording as shown in the
above step.
6. Reduce the heater voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to cool
before shut down the system and the turning off the cooling water supply.

Figure7: The heated and cooled sections is equipped with stainless and brass intermediate
sections

Calculation

For stainless steel

If the heated and cooled sections are clamped tightly together so that the end faces are in
good thermal contact with the stainless steel intermediate section, a composite bar of the
form shown below.

Figure 8: Temperature profile of option 3

41
Assuming that the energy entering the heated end is conducted without loss to the
surroundings through to the cooled end, the heat flow through each section must be equal.
The following equitation can be obtained by applying Fourier’s law to each section.

(6)

From this equation:

(7)
Then
(T1-T8) = ( (8)

= (9)

= (10)

Hence: (11)

And (12)

(13)

Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and R is the thermal resistance of the
composite material.
The specimen cross-sectional area A= 0.00049 m2.
Conductivity of Brass heated and cooled section= 121 W/m.K
Conductivity of stainless steel intermediate section = 25 W/mK

Fill the information in the Table 1. Then fill the following tables

Table 4

Sample Q ( K hot K int K cold

W K m m m W/mK W/mK W/mK

Table 5

42
Sample No. U=

For sample 1, the example calculation is as follows:

= 0.00049 m2
The temperature difference across the bar from T1 to T8 needs to be determined.
The distances between surfaces are as follow:

Then find overall heat transfer coefficient.

Plot the temperature vs. the distance from thermocouple 1 with different Q.

Option 4

Using cork as insulator as intermediate between the hot surface of brass and cold
surface of brass

Experimental procedure

Figure 9: Linear conduction heat transfer assembled with cork as insulating material
The step by step procedure is as follows:

43
 1. Be sure that the cooling tap water is running.
2. Set the heater voltage V at 90 volt.
3. Monitor the temperatures T1, T2, T3, T6, T7 and T8 until steady-state is reached.
4. Record T1, T2, T3, T6, T7 and T8, V and I at steady state.
5. Reset the heater voltage to 120 volts and repeat the above procedure again
recording the parameters T1, T2, T3, T6, T7 and T8, V and I when temperatures
have stabilized.

Calculation

Thermal insulator such as cork has low thermal conductivity relative to the metals and
this means that only a small amount of heat will pass through the material even through at
high temperature difference.
Assuming that the energy entering the heated end is conducted without loss to the
surroundings through to the cooled end, the heat flow through each section must be equal.
By applying Fourier’s law to each section, the following equation can be obtained;

(14)

In this case the area A is constant

(15)

(16)

(17)

Note that the thermocouples T3 and T6 do not record the hot face and cold face
temperatures as they are both displaced by 0.075 m from T3 and T6 .if it is assumed that
the temperature distribution is linear, then the actual temperature at the hot face and cold
face may be determined from the following equation.
Thot face = T3 -
T 2  T 3 (18)
2
Tcold face = T6 +
T 6  T 7 
2 (19)

And then find K int. the data need to be plot overleaf to illustrate the large thermal
gradient between the hot face and cold face due to the effect of the insulation. The hot
face and cold face temperatures are determined graphically by drawing the best fit line
between the data points available and then extending to either the hot or cold face as
appropriate. Note that the temperature difference across the brass sections is much
smaller than across even the thin section of cork insulation due to the difference in
thermal conductivity.

44
Option 5
Determine the effect of cross sectional area on the heat rate
Experimental procedure
The step-by-step experimental procedure is as follows:
1. Smear the faces of the heated and cooled sections with thermal conducting paste
and clamp them together with the reduced diameter brass intermediate specimen in
place as illustrated in the Figure 10.
2. Ensure that the cooling water is flowing and then set the heater voltage V
3. Monitor temperature T1, T2, T3, T6, T7 and T8 until steady-state is reached.
4. When the temperatures are stabilized, record T1, T2, T3, T6, T7 and T8, V and I.
5. Reset the voltage and repeat the above procedure again recording the parameters
T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7 and T8, V and I when temperatures have stabilized.

Figure 10: Determine the effect of cross sectional area on the heat rate
If the heated and cooled sections are clamped tightly together so that the end faces are in
good thermal contact with the stainless steel intermediate section a composite bar, and
assuming that the energy entering the heated end is conducted without loss to the
surroundings through to the cooled end, the heat flow through each section must be equal.
From Fourier’s law (ignoring the negative heat flow convention)
(20)

And ∆T is inversely proportional to area A. for the heated section re-arranging the
formula

(21)

(22)

(23)

45
If the thermal conductivity K of the heated, cooled and intermediate sections are all equal
(same material) then for a constant Q the only parameter that will affect the temperature
gradient along the assembly will be the area A. Then
(24)
If Q and K are constant along the bar, then
(25)
Similar equation can be derived for the cooled section of the bar
Other options
Many other options can be performed regarding the effect of the heat transfer paste.
Useful data for linear heat conduction unit
Heated Section
Material: Brass, 25 mm diameter, Thermocouples T1, T2, T3 at 15 mm spacing
Thermal conductivity: Approximately 121 W/ mK

Cooled Section
Material: Brass, 25 mm diameter, Thermocouples T6, T7, T8 at 15 mm spacing
Thermal conductivity: Approximately 121 W/ mK
Brass Intermediate Specimen
Material: Brass, 25 mm diameter  30 mm long. Thermocouples T4, T5 at 15 mm
spacing centrally spaced along the length
Thermal conductivity: Approximately 121 W/ mK
Stainless Steel Intermediate Specimen
Material: Stainless steel, 25 mm diameter  30 mm long. No thermocouples fitted.
Thermal conductivity: Approximately 25 W/ mK

Aluminum Alloy Intermediate Specimen

Material: Aluminum alloy, 25 mm diameter  30 mm long. No thermocouples fitted.
Thermal conductivity: Approximately 180 W/ mK
Reduced Diameter Brass Intermediate Specimen
Material: Brass, 13 mm diameter  30 mm long. No thermocouples fitted.
Thermal conductivity: Approximately 121 W/ mK

Cork disc insulator specimen

Material: Cork, 34.7 mm diameter x2 mm thickness
Hot and Cold Face Temperatures
Due to the need to keep the spacing of the thermocouples constant at 15 mm with, or
without the intermediate specimens in position, the thermocouples are displaced 7.5 mm
back from the end faces of the heated and cooled specimens and similarly located for the
brass Intermediate Specimen as shown in Figure 11.

46
 Figure 11: Thermocouples positions
Thus, the temperatures of the hot and cold faces can be calculated from the following
equations:
Thot face = T3 -
T 2  T 3 Tcold face = T6 +
T 6  T 7 
2 2
References
1. Incropera, F. P., DeWitt, D.P., Bergman T.L., Lavine A.S., Fundamentals of Heat
and Mass Transfer, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons, USA, 2011.
2. McCabe, W. L., Smith, J.C., Harriot, P., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,
5th edition, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1993.

47
 GAS DIFFUSIVITIES USING WINKELMANNS METHOD

Objective
The objective is to measure the diffusivity of acetone in air at 50 °C and compare the result with
results obtained from generalized correlations for diffusivities such as Gillilands or Fullers
correlation. Compare experimental model to Comsol simulation model [Optional].

Theory
The diffusivity of the vapor of a volatile liquid in a non condensing non absorbable gas can be
measured using Winkelmanns method in which the vapor from a liquid contained in a narrow
vertical tube, maintained at constant temperature, is allowed to diffuse through a stagnant gas
film. At the tube mouth a stream of inert gas is passed to ensure the vapor pressure of the
evaporating component is kept close to zero. A sketch of the apparatus is shown on figure 1

Air stream

Distance L over which diffusion occurs

Liquid

Figure 1
Simplified sketch of Winkelmanns apparatus for determining the gas diffusivity of a volatile
component

The rate transfer or flux of the evaporating component through the stagnant film is given by
equation (1).
C   CT 
N A  D AB   A     (1)
 L   C Bm 
where
CA is the saturation concentration of A at the gas liquid interface [kmol·m-3]
CBm is the logarithmic mean concentration of B in the stagnant film [kmol·m-3]
CT is the total molar gas concentration [kmol·m-3]
DAB is the diffusivity of A in B [m2·s-1]
L is the effective distance of mass transfer through the stagnant film [m]
NA is the rate transfer or total flux of A [kmol·m-2·s-1]

Measuring the change in liquid height as function of time will make it possible to determine the
diffusivity constant according to equation (2)

48
 ρL ρ L  C Bm (2)
 L  L 0  
t C Bm
   L0
L  L 0 2  M W  D AB C A  C T M W  D AB  C T  C A

where
L0 is the effective distance of mass transfer through the stagnant film at the beginning of the
experiment [m]
MW is molecular weight [kg·mol-1]
t is the time [s]
ρL is liquid density [kg·m-3]
t
A plot of against L - L0 as shown in figure 2 will give the slope α:
L  L0

ρL C
α  Bm
2  M W  D AB C A  CT (3)

(4)

(5)

CB1=CT (6)
CB2=CT-CA (7)
(8)

From equation 3, the diffusivity can be determined

t
L  L0

L  L0

Figure 2: Winkelmann plot for determining the diffusivity DAB.

49
Equipment Setup and Description:

The Winkelmann apparatus is shown in figure (3). The apparatus consists of a water bath in a
clear acrylic (do not clean with organic solvents), a control compartment and a base on
adjustable feet. The water bath is used to keep the capillary tube at constant temperature. The
temperature is controlled by an adjustable on/off temperature controller. The controller gets the
temperature reading from a PTC temperature sensor. The water bath is heated with a heating rod.
The temperature can be read on the temperature display on the control panel or independently on
the glass thermometer. The temperature control system is switched on by operating the left-hand
switch. A float switch in the bath disconnects the electrical supply to the cartridge element if the
water level is too low. The water bath can be drained by opening the lever operated cock. Note
that the water bath should not be operated at temperatures above 60 °C and will be damaged
should the temperature exceed 80 °C. The capillary tube for the diffusion experiments is
mounted in a gland on the top of the water bath. Air to the tube is supplied to the capillary tube
via a flexible tube connected to an air pump inside the control compartment. The air pump is
switched on by operating the right-hand main switch. The liquid height in the capillary can be
monitored using a traveling microscope mounted on a movable support stand which incorporates
a venier height gauge. Electricity is supplied through the integral cable. An Earth Circuit Breaker
(RCCB) is installed at the right-hand end of the equipment to protect users in the event of an
electrical fault. A main fuse is mounted at the rear of the equipment.

Figure 3: Armfield gas diffusivities apparatus

50
Experimental Procedure

The following is a step by step procedure for operating the equipment.

1. Obtain the material safety data sheet of acetone from the internet. Read through the MSDS
and note specific hazards involved when handling acetone. Take the necessary precautions.
2. Switch on water bath heat controller and adjust set point to 50 °C.
3. Rinse capillary tube with few drops of detergent.
4. Fill the capillary tube with acetone to a depth of approximately 35 mm.
5. Insert tube in water bath, connect air tube and start air pump. Regulate air stream to an
appropriate flow rate.
6. Adjust microscope height and focus so the liquid meniscus can be easily read.
7. Adjust vernier slider to facilitate easy reading on the fixed scale.
8. Take readings from liquid height at predetermined intervals.

Calculation

1. Plot your raw data as height or mass remaining as a function of time. Try to explain
observed trends and differences between substances.
2. Determine the diffusivity from a Winkelmann plot of your experimental data.
3. Estimate the diffusivity DAB according to a general correlation such as Gillilands or
Fullers equation.
4. Compare the experimental value for the diffusivity with the estimated diffusivity and
discuss any difference.

Appendix A
1. Gilliland’s Correlation is as follow:

(9)

Where,

VA, VB = Molar volume of A and B, cm3/g mol.

M = molecular weight, g/g mol.
T = Temperature in K
P = Ambient pressure, atm.

51
 D = diffusivity in cm2/sec
Regard A acetone and B air
MA= 58 Kg/Kmole, MB= 29 Kg/Kmole

2. The following semi empirical equation can be used:

0.01498T1.811/M A  1M b 
0.5

D AB 
pTcA TcB  V
0.1405 0.4
cA  VcB
0.4

2 (10)

MA, MB = molecular weights of components A & B, respectively

P = pressure, atm.
T = emperature, K
TcA, TcB = critical temperatures of A & B respectively, K
VcA, VcB = critical molar volumes of A & B respectively, cm3/ g mol

Appendix B: Priming Procedure for Capillary Tube:

Before using the capillary tube in an experiment using Acetone, it will be necessary to clean the
inside of the tube using a washing-up detergent. A weak solution of the detergent should be
injected into the tube slowly as shown on figure 4

Figure 4: Filling the tube with detergent.

With the point of the hypodermic needle over the edge of the capillary tube, gently press the
syringe, so that droplets of solution fall down onto the inside wall of the tube. If the solution does
not flow down into the bottom of the tube, but instead forms a meniscus with air trapped beneath

52
it, gently tap the outside wall of the tube near the meniscus with your finger. Repeat this
procedure until the capillary tube is full.
To empty the tube simply shakes the tube whilst it is upside down until all the solution has gone.
The capillary tube can now be primed with Acetone using the same procedure, but this time there
should be no need to tap the tube as it should fill easily. The depth of acetone should be
approximately 35 mm when filled.

REFERENCES:

1. Warren L. McCabe, Julian C. Smith and Peter Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1993)
2. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, pp 508-513, Wiley
(1960)
3. R.H. Perry, C.H. Chilton and Sidney D. Kirkpatrick, Chemical Engineers' Handbook,
Fourth Edition, pp. 14-19 to 14-24, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1963)
4. Robert H. Perry and Cecil H. Chilton, Chemical Engineers' Handbook, Fifth Edition, pp. 3-
231 to 3-235, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1973).
5. Robert H. Perry, Don W. Green and James O. Maloney, Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,
Sixth Edition, pp. 3-256,257,285,286, McGraw-Hill Book Co., (1984)
6. C.J. Geankoplis, Transport Processes and Unit Operations, Third Edition, Prentice Hall
PTR (1993)

53