What are the type of personal protective equipment? Explain any two types?

The different types of personal protective equipment are given below:

1. Head protection a. Safety hat
b. Bump caps
c. Women’s caps

2. Ear protection a. Insert type

b Muff type

3. Face & Eye protection a. flexible or cushion fitting

goggles
b. Chipping goggles
c. Impact reinstatement lenses

4. Respiratory equipment a. Air purifying respirators

b. Chemical cartridge respirators
c. Particulate filter respirator
d. Combination respirators

Atmosphere (Air) supplied respirators a. Hose masks

b. Air line respirator
c. Abrasive blasting respirator
d. Air supplied hoods
e. Air supplied suits
f. Self contained breathing devices
5. Safety belts

6. Protective Foot war

7. Special work clothing a. Protection against heat and hot metal

 b. Protection against impact and cuts
c. Impervious clothing
d. Women’s clothing and protection
e. Cold weather clothing

Ear plug or insert type ear protector

The insert type placed into the canal, varies considerably both in design and material. Materials
used are rubber, soft of hard plastic, wax and cotton (Swedish wool)
Since ear canals vary in size, these inserts come in several sizes. These ear plugs are to be fitted
by proper personnel. Plugs must fit properly and remain correctly seated, as even the slightest
leakage will lower the attenuation by as much 15dB in some frequencies.
Soft plastic plugs give more comfort than hard and hold their shape better rubber types. Their
attenuation properties are comparable to those of rubber and hard plastic.
Wax protectors vary in form from plugs of pure wax to impregnated cotton or paper. Due to jaw
movements the wax plugs tend to lose their effectiveness during the working day and break the
acoustic seal between the ears and insert. Wax protectors should be used only once in dirty areas
from a sanitary point, as they must be shaped hand.
Cotton inserted in the air is a poor choice as a noise suppressor, because of its low attenuating
properties (2 to 72 dB) depending on frequency and the disadvantages associated with hand
formed protectors.
Commercial available car plugs if properly fitted and used, generally reduce noise reaching the
ear by 25-30dB in the higher frequencies which are conceded to be the most harmful. This will
provide ample protection against some sound levels of 115 to 120dB.

Safety Hats
Safety hats (or helmets) are rigid head gears of varying materials designed to protect the
workman’s head – not only from impact but from flying particles and electric shock or any
combination of the three helmets have been classified into two types. (a) full brimmed and (b) a
brimless with peak. The types have been further classified into four types. Class limited voltage
resistance for general service, class B high voltage resistance, class – C no voltage protection
(metallic helmets); class D limited protection for fire fighters service.
All helmets shall be identified on the inside of the helmet shall with the manufacturer’s name,
and the class (ABC or D). Material used in the construction of class A & B helmet shells should
be water resistant and slow burning. Materials in class C & D helmets shall be fire resistant and
non conductors of electricity. Class B head gear do not have hold in the shell or any metal parts
at all and head piece should be designed for use of around electrical hazards meets voltage tests
of 20,000 vols AC (rms) 60cps for three minutes and leakage currents not exceeding nin ma
while the other classes have 2200 volts AC (rms).
Discuss about the importance of first aid in any establishment and also explain the
important aspects of first aid training program?
In many small organisations and in field operations it is neither practical nor justifiable to have
qualified professional medical personnel available. In such cases, the best arrangement is a
suitable first aid attendants who follow procedures and treatments outlined by a doctor. The
doctor should be available on an on-call or referral basis to take care of injuries not of a minor
nature.
At this point it is well to recognize that there are really two kinds of first aid.
One is emergency treatment that “first aid is immediate, temporary treatment given in the case of
accident or sudden illness before service of physician can be secured”. Proper first aid measures
reduce suffering and place the inured person in a physician’s hands in a better condition to
receive subsequent treatment.
The other kind of first aid is the prompt attention given to injuries such as cuts, scratches,
bruises, burns which are usually so minor that the injured person would not ordinarily seek
medical attention. Whether these wounds heal satisfactorily depends both on proper care
immediately after the injury and later.
This is probably the appropriate place to point out that lay treatment is too frequently. Over
treatment which can results as bad as carelessness or neglect.
The requirement that all employees report for treatment immediately upon being injured,
regardless of extent of the injury, has resulted in much headway in the reduction of infection and
disability and also in the avoidance of false claims of injury and disability
 First Aid and Training
First aid procedures approved by the consulting physician, should embrace the type of
medication, if any, to be used on minor injuries such as cuts and burns. First aid procedure
should be taught to the selected persons and they should earmarked for giving first aid treatment
for each shift.

The equipment and supplies should be in accordance with the recommendations of the physician
and service should be rendered only as covered by written standard procedures and dated by him.
If it is intended to furnish temporary relief for minor mono occupational ailments, such as colds
and headache to physician should specify the procedures to be followed. All these things are to
be well known to the first aid stewards and they should be properly trained under the first aid
training program. The limitation of lay first aid must be thoroughly understood.
The majority of states have medical practice acts under which a person is limited a certain
definite procedure when attending anyone who is sick or injured except, of course under the
direct supervision of physician. It is important, therefore, that any one who is responsible for first
and have a full understanding of the limits which restrict the work. This can only be achieved by
the proper first aid training program. The first aid attendant should be qualified and certified by
the Saint John’s Ambulance Association for rendering first aid. It is often found that accidents
occurs less frequently and as a rule and are less sever among persons trained in first aid work. It
is therefore advisable that as many industrial workers as possible be given this training.

What are provisions of factories Act regard to safety? Explain them briefly.
The provisions of factories act regard to safety are briefly explained. The factories act 1948
section 21 to section 41 are related to safety factory every moving part, or flywheel remover,
head race and fail race of water turbine stack bar of lathe, parts of electric generator,
transmission machinery, dangerous parts of machinery shall be securely fenced by safeguards
and while parts of the machinery they are fencing are in motion or in use. These fencing &
guards should be examined and maintained periodically.
Section 22: Work on or near machinery in motion.
Wherein any factory it becomes necessary to examine any part of machinery referred to in
section 21 while the machinery is in motion biforcarying out operations such as lubrication
mounting or shipping of belts or other adjusting operations shall be carried out by a specially
trained adult male worker.
Section 23: Employment of young persons on dangerous machines
No young persons shall be required or allowed to work on any machine, unless he has been fully
in structured and trained about the dangers arising in connection with the machine and
precautions.
Section 24:
Striking gear and devices for cutting off power in every factory suitably devices for cutting off
power in emergencies from running machinery shall be provided and maintained in every work
room.
Section 25: Self acting machine
The distance between the traversing parts of self acting machines should be 45 centimeters. No
material should be taken or kept within in 45 centimeters of any part of traversing.
Section 26: Casing of new machinery
In all machines driven by power every revolving shaft spindle wheel or pinion shall be so sunk,
encased or otherwise, effectively guarded as to prevent danger.
Section 27: Prohibition of Employment
Employment and children near cotton openers: No woman or child shall be employed in any part
of a factory for pressing cotton in which a cotton – opened is at work.
Section 28: Hists and Lifts
In every factory even hoist and lift shall be of good mechanical construction properly maintained
and shall be thoroughly examined by a competent person at least once in a period of six months.

Section 30 revolving machinery

Where the process of grinding is carried out each machine is to be affixed or placed near about
the details of safe working peripheral speed of grind stone, the speed shaft, the diameter of
pulley etc.
Section 31 Pressure Plant
Where any plant or machinery is operated at a pressure above atmospheric pressure, effective
measure shall be taken to ensure that the safe working pressure is not exceeded.
Section 32 Floors, stairs and means access
All floors, stains, steps and gauge ways shall be of sound construction and properly maintained
wherever required these should be provided with substantial hand rails.
Section 33 pits, sumps, openings in floors etc
Every fixed vessel, sump tank, pit or opening in the ground or floor by reason of its danger shall
be either securely covered or securely fenced.
Section 34 Excessive weight
No person shall be employed in any factory to lift, carry or move any load so heavy as to be
likely cause him injury
Section 35 Protection of eyes
In any process which involves a risk of injury to the eyes from particles of fragments thrown
known off in the process or exposure to excess light employee shall be provided with suitable
goggles.
Section 36 precaution against dangerous fumes, gases, etc.
No person shall be required or allowed to enter any confirmed space in which any gas, fume,
vapour or dust is likely to be present until all practicable measures have been taken to bring its
level within permissible limits.
Section 36(A) precautions regarding the use
To serve notice to the occupier and can ask him rectify the same within the specific period.
Section 40A Maintenance building
It gives authority to the Inspector of Factories to serve notice to the occupier in writing,
specifying the measures regarding dangers involving building and maintenance works to be
carried out to rectify the same.
Section 40B Safety officers
In every factory where in thousand or more workers are ordinarily employed or wherein in the
opinion of the state government, manufacturing process involves hazardous to workers the
occupier shall employ such number of safety officers as may be notified by state government
official gazette.
Section 41 Power to make rules to supplement this chapter.
This gives the authority to the state government to make rules requiring the provision in any
factory or in any class of factories for securing the safety of persons employed.
Section 36(A) portable electrical light
In any factory no portable electric light or any other electric appliance of voltage exceeding 24
volts shall be permitted for use inside any chamber, tank, vat, pit, pipe, flue or other confined
space. In case of inflammable gas present flame proof lamp should be provided.
Section 37: Explosive or inflammable dust, gas etc.
Where in any factory any manufacturing process produces dust, gas, fume such extent as to be
likely to explode on ignition practicable measures to be taken like (i)effective enclosure of plant
or machinery (ii) removal of prevention of such explosive dust to done.
Section 38 Precautions in case of fire
All practicable measure shall be taken to prevent outbreak of fire and its spread, safe means of
escape of all persons, the necessary equipment and facilities for extinguishing the fire.
Section 39 Power to require specification of defective parts or tests of stability
It gives authority to inspector of Factories to serve notice to the occupier in case of any building
may cause dangerous to the human life or safety. The occupier should furnish the details of the
buildings within the specified period.
Section 40 safety officers
It gives authority to inspector of Factories that if any building, machinery are dangerous to the
human life or safety to serve notice to the occupier and can ask him rectify the same with in the
specific period.
Section 40A Maintenance building
It gives authority to the Inspector of Factories to serve notice to the occupier in writing,
specifying the measures regarding dangers involving building and maintenance works to be
carried out to rectify the same.
Section 40B Safety officers
In every factory where in thousand or more workers are ordinarily employed or wherein in the
opinion of the state government, manufacturing process involves hazardous to workers the
occupier shall employ such number of safety officers as may be notified by state government
official gazette.
Section 41 Power to make rules to supplement this chapter.
This gives the authority to the state government to make rules requiring the provision in any
factory or in any class of factories for securing the safety of persons employed.
Write short notes on any two of the following safety device
a. Ear protection device
b. Lung protection device
c. Foot protection device

Ear Protection device

It is an non respiratory protective equipment. According American conference of Governmental
industrial Hygienist, noise level along 90 dBA is hazardous if exposed for more than 8 hours /
day or 40 hours / week. Hearing impairment caused by exposure to noise in compensable under
the workmen compensation act, 1923, Sl.No.14, Part B, Schedule III use of ear plugs/ ear muffs,
to alternate large part of noise when fitted in outer canal properly, it is important that ear plugs fit
properly and seating correctly became slightly leakage lowers attenuation. Reduces noise
reaching ear drum by 25dBA in higher frequencies. Use of ear muffs provide better attenuation
than ear plugs.

b. Lung protection devices

It is a respiratory protective equipment. A lung protection device must be selected based on the
type of hazard to which an operator is exposed. Hazards range from the selective harmless
substances to tonic dusts, fumes, smokes, mists, vapors and gases.
Depending upon the classification of hazard lung protection is achieved by the selection.
Under workman compensation Act, 1923 schedule III, Part B, Sl.No.23, Lung Cancer and
Mesotheliomas caused by asbestos and schedule III, Part C, Sl.No.1 to5 are all compensable
diseases of the lung.

c. Foot protection device

Adequate protection may have to be provided to the workers employed in certain jobs. Risk of
injury may be in handling of heavy materials, causing or corrosive liquids, wet conditions,
molten metals, etc. common foot and leg protective equipment are safety shoes and boots,
leggings, foot guards and leg guards.
 Equipment Parts, Knee pads, Hazards
No. Leggings
1. Asbestos Sparks, hot materials, heat
2. Chrome leather Sparks, hot materials, hot liquids, flying particles,
cuts and abrasions.
3. Flame proofed duck Sparks, hot materials, heart flying materials,
machinery
4. Plastic Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis
5. Rubber Dermatitis, hot liquids, moisture acids and alkalis,
electric shock
6. Fiber metals Sparks, flying objects, flying particles, cuts and
abrasion and machinery acids and alkalis

Equipment Shoes & Boots Hazards

No.
1. Steel toe caps Falling objects
2. Non skid shoes Moisture
3. Wooden shoes Hot materials, heat hot liquids, moisture, acids and
alkali, flys and falls and cuts and abrasions.
4. Chrome leather Sparks, hot materials, heat and hot liquids
5. Rubber Hot liquids, moisture, acids, alkali electric shock
and dermatitis
6. Conductive rubber Explosive

April 1987
What are the direct and indirect costs of an accident?

Injured person Supervisor Management

Direct Direct Direct Indirect
Suffering & pain Worry Compensation Last time of injured employee
 payments
Worry Loss of prestige Medical expenses Last time of other employees
Absence of A Goodman lost Last time of foreman, supervisor o
recreation executives
Incapacity to Selecting and training Cost of time spent by first aid attendant
performing normal a substitute
out turn of work

Loss of wages More supervising Cost due to damage to machines, too

legal for the new man properties or due to spoilage of matt

Medical expenses Loss of output Incidental cost due to interferenc

production
Loss of limb or lye Loss of morale Cost under employees welfare and
schemes cost of continuous of wages o
under in full. Cost due to loss of profi
injured workers productivity middle m
Over head cut/ injured labour miscellane
such as hiring and training new employ
time renting equipment etc

g) Write purpose of ventilation.

1:- It provide sufficient fresh air for breathing.
2:- For removing oxygen deficiency from a confined space.
3:- For removal or dilution of carbon dioxide and other air
pollutions.
4:- For decreasing environmental heat or temperature.
5:-For maintaining metabolic body temperature or heat balance.
6:-For maintaining room temperature for comfort.
7:-For maintaining overall comfortable working conditions.
8:-for compliance of statutory provisions and standards.

h) List benefits of good illumination.

1:-Bad light causes glare, shadows, darkness, eye strain,
restricted vision, fatigue, headache, slower reaction and greater
susceptibility to error and accidents and lower output, these all
can be avoided by good illumination.
2:-Gloomy, dirty and poorly lighted work place causes
depression, a good illumination system can avoid it.
3:-Poor lighting requires more time to see or distinguish objects.
Glare and shadows causes eye strain resulting in more chances
of more accidents.
4:-Good lighting increase of safety & productivity.
5:-Good lighting makes the worker more alert and enable him to
concentrate and use better discrimination which results in less
spoilage, less rejects, fast fault detection, better work and
ultimately in safety.
6:-
j) How noise is measured?

Intensity levels in the different octave bands are measured by a

sound level meter in conjunction with octave-band filters. The
noises are picked up by a high quality microphone, passed
through an octave-band filter and the sound pressure levels
recorded on a level recorder. Alternatively, noises recorded on a
magnetic tape or the recording system has a substantially
uniform frequency response over the entire audio frequency
range.
Impact noise, which are highly complex in nature are measured
with an impact noise analyser and also simultaneously recorded
on a magnetic tape recorder to facilitate octave-band analysis. It
is also sometimes displayed on oscilloscope screen. As the noise
levels are not the same at all locations inside the factory or
workshop, the levels are measured mostly at locations enveloped
by high integrity noises. Also while determining damage risk, it
is necessary to measure the noise levels as close to the operator's
ear position as possible.
The methods to be adopted to measure and assess the degree of
noise hazard depend on whether the objective to be attained is to
assess -
1. The hearing loss (auditory effect).
2. The interference with communication essentials for safety and
productivity (Non auditory effect), and
3. The hazard involve in the task (to study a specific problem).

k) List four reasons for fork lift accidents.

1:-Poorly Trained Driver, might not know how to respond to a
changing workplace.
2:-operation fork lift with an elevated load.
3:- improper turning.
4:-Insufficient warning & marking.
5:-Giving rides & riding on forklifts.
6:-Workplace design.

l) Write selection criteria for slings.

1:- Strength: - Strength of slings is function of its size
(diameter), grade and construction, and must be sufficient to
accommodate the maximum applied load.
2:-Fatigue:-Fatigue failure of slings caused by the development
of small cracks during small radius Bends.
3:-Abrasive Wear: - the ability of slings to withstand abrasion.
m) State function of Aspirator hygrometer.
b) Explain noise isolation and noise absorption techniques.
Isolation:-
Noisy machines are removed and relocated where few peoples
are worked and well insulated and tightly closing doors to be
installed surrounding of machine.
Other isolations includes providing a soundproof booth for the
operators, separate location of noisy machine and process from
quit ones e.g. air compressors or diesel generator room should
be separate away from training centres, conference rooms,
medical centres etc. Similarly office space should be segregated
from the production area.
Equally noisy areas should be located together and segregated
from quiet areas by buffer zones that produce and can tolerate
intermediate noise levels.

Absorption:- High frequency sounds can be absorbed by

applying sound absorbents to ceilings and walls in the form of
tiles, plaster and blankets of porous material such as glass wool,
acoustic baffles can be hung from the ceilings.
Reflection of sound wave can be prevented by using absorbents
which are usually porous materials that convert incident sound
energy to heat. The amount of absorption depends on frequency
and angle of incidence and can be expressed by the absorption
coefficient which is the ratio of the absorbed energy to the
incident energy.
A variety of absorbent materials are available for an acoustic
engineer in the form of glass or mineral wool, hard but porous
plaster etc.
By sound absorption wall, the operator near machine is not
protected from noise but other worker working behind the walls
would be benefited, particularly, if there are reverberations in
the building.
Application of acoustical material on ceiling side walls, can
reduce 3 to 8 dB noise levels and bring down the general
reverberation noise level to make the noise conditions less
confusing.

a) Discuss safety features associated with design, construction

and use of Stairways, ramps and working platforms.

Stairways: The slope of a stairway should be 30° to 35° with

the horizontal. The tread width should not be less than 24 cm
plus a non-slip nosing of 2.5 cm. The riser height should not be
more than 20 cm and not less than 12.75 cm and should be
constant for each flight. All stairways should be fitted with
railings on the open sides and hand rails on sides which are
otherwise enclosed. The height of the railings at the stairs should
be not less than 75 cm or more than 90 cm measured from the
top surface of the stair tread.
The stair landings should be protected by railings and toe-
boards. Non-skid strips on stair treads can prevent slipping.
Adequate lighting on stairway should be provided to avoid
accidents.
Ramps, Runways and Gangways: The slope of ramps,
runways, gangways etc. should be as small as possible and the
recommended maximum is 15° to the horizontal. Cleats not
more than 40 cm apart, should be provided on ramps with steep
slopes. Toe-boards should be provided where a ramp extends
over a work place or a passage. Wire screens are necessary on
the sides, if there is a risk of materials falling through the sides.
Runways are long with uniform slope as they are at arodram.
Floors and Platforms:- The design should consider all types of
load in the form of materials, persons and other forces acting on
the floor. Acid proof bricks laid in acid resistant plaster should
be the choice of flooring for a workroom in which acids are
handled. Unprotected floor edges situated at heights and
openings, sumps, pits etc., in platforms or floors should be
protected by railings, toe-boards or guards. The height of the
railings from the base should be not less than 90 cm or more
than 120 cm. It should have intermediate members to shorten the
gap less than 47 cm. The toe-board should not be less than 15
cm in height.
Floors should be of sufficient strength and shall never be
overloaded. They should be non-slippery, free from holes,
openings, pinch points, uneven surfaces, irregularities,
accumulation of oil, water, waste, dust etc. Near wet processes
and water showers, proper drainage should be provided.
Open gutters, kerbs and floor openings (holes, chutes, inspection
plates) must be fenced or guarded to protect unwary persons or
prevent material falling through it to the floor below.
Non-conductive floor in explosive atmosphere pose special
hazard. Discharge of static electricity generates spark which can
ignite the explosive mixture near the floor. Therefore steel
tipped or nailed boots or dropping of steel tools on such floor is
hazardous. Such floors must be earthed properly.
In industry, criteria for floor selection are many. In addition to
strength, comfort and cost, resistance to (a) wear and abrasion
(b) chemicals (c) fire (d) environmental factors and (e) material
in process are also to be considered.
i) Role of preventive maintenance in safety and health
Role of preventive maintenance in health and safety
1. prevention of risks,
2. protection of safety and health, assessments of risks,
3. elimination of risks and accidents,
4. the informing, consultation, balanced participation in
accordance with national laws and / or practices
5. and training of workers and their representatives,
6. General guidelines for the implementation of the said
principles.
7. Obligations of employers, employees and other groups.
8. Help to avoiding risks;
9. evaluating the risks which cannot be avoided;
10. combating the risks at source;
11. adapting the work to the individual, especially as regards
the design of work places, the choice of work equipment
and the choice of working and production methods, with a
view, in particular, to alleviating monotonous work and
work at a predetermined work rate and to reducing their
effect on health;
12. adapting to technical progress;
13. replacing the dangerous by the non-dangerous or the less
dangerous;
14. developing a coherent overall prevention policy which
covers technology, organization of work, working
 conditions, social relationships and the influence of factors
related to the working environment;
15. giving collective protective measures priority over
individual protective measures;
16. Giving appropriate instructions to the workers.
17. i) Thermal Comfort: - Thermal comfort is the condition of
mind that expressed satisfaction with the thermal
environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation.
18.

19. ii) National building code part VIII.

20. Part 8:- Section 1 Lighting and Natural Ventilation
21. Section 2 Electrical and Allied Installations
22. Section 3 Air Conditioning, Heating and Mechanical
Ventilation
23. Section 4 Acoustics, Sound Insulation and Noise Control
24. Section 5 Installation of Lifts and Escalators and Moving
Walks
25. 5A Lifts
26. 5B Escalators and Moving Walks
27. Section 6 Information and Communication Enabled
Installations
28. b) Explain application and method of safe use of
following tools:
29. i) Torsion tools
30. These are adjustable wrenches (spanners), pipe wrenches,
pipe tongs, machine wrench, torque wrenches, socket
wrenches, open end or box wrenches, pliers, tongs, special
cutters, nail band crimpers and screw drivers.
31. Factors of safe use are: Sharp jaws of wrenches,
inspection of adjusting nut of the wrench, correct size of
the wrench and not to change its dimension, insulated
handles of electricians' pliers and screw drivers and screw
 driver not using for other purposes. A screw driver tip must
be properly ground.
32. The user should not lose balance on slipping of tool or the
job.
33. Box and socket wrench (spanner) completely encircles the
nut, bolt or fitting and grip it at all corners as opposed to
the two corners grip by an open-end wrench. They cannot
easily slip. Wrench capacity should not be overloaded by
using pipe extension on the handle or striking the handle as
normally bus drivers do. For heavy duty work, sledge-type
box wrenches are available.
34. Penetrating oil (kerosene) should be used first to loosen
tight nuts.
35. The use of the wrong size wrench can round the corners of
the bolt or cause slippage and. Make its subsequent use
difficult. Makeshift approach is not good.
36. Adjustable wrenches should be used for light duty jobs
where no fixed spanner is available.
37. For the reason of safety, wrenches should be pulled toward
the self and not pushed.
38. Pipe wrenches should be prevented from slipping and
falling. Its adjusting nut should be checked frequently. If it
is cracked, the wrench should be withdrawn from the use.
A pipe wrench should be used for pipes and their fittings
only and not for nuts and bolts because their corners can
break the teeth of the wrench, thereby making it unsafe to
use later for pipe work. It should also not be used for soft
metal (brass, copper) valves or fitting which can be crushed
or bent out of shape.
39.

40. ii) Shock tools.

41. These are hammers, sledge hammers, riveting hammers,
carpenters or claw hammers. The handles should be smooth
and of proper size.
42. iii) Non - Sparking tools.
43. Such tools of non-ferrous (Beryllium, copper alloy, brass,
copper, lead, plastic, rubber) materials are used where
flammable gases, volatile liquids and explosive substances
are stored or used. They should be kept free of picked up
foreign particles to avoid friction sparks.
44. Hazardous area classification should be known first before
selecting hand tools. In most hazardous area where high
risk of fire or explosion exists, non-metallic i.e. Wood,
rubber or plastic tools should be used if possible and proper
earthing of equipment should be ensured. There should be
flameproof electric lighting arid if hand lamp is to be used,
it should not be of more than 24 V.
45. Working in day lighting should be preferred.
46. C:- Discuss safety measure and safety equipment used for
47. 1: Working in confined spaces.
48. 'Confined space' as any space by reason of its construction
as well as in relation to the nature of the work carried
therein and where hazards to the persons entering into
working inside exist or are likely to develop during
working
49. Confined Space is also described as a place which
50. 1. is mostly enclosed and partially open.
51. 2. is at atmospheric pressure and temperature.
52. 3. Has limited or restricted openings for entry and exit.
53. 4. Is not designed or intended for normal place of work (i.e.
not for long time worker occupancy).
54. 5. Has unfavourable natural ventilation due to stagnant air,
no free air movement, oxygen deficiency or enrichment or
nitrogen atmosphere.
55. 6. Has contaminated air with toxic or / and flammable gas,
dust etc. and
56. 7. May cause engulfment (swallowing) in unstable or loose
material.
57. Hazards of Confined Space can be classified as-
58. 1. Poor lighting and ventilation.
59. 2. Oxygen deficiency.
60. 3. Contamination of toxic and/or flammable gases.
61. 4. Unexpected activation of machinery or flow.
62. 5. No way or no time available for exit.
63. 6. Engulfment (burying) in loose material.
64. 7. Nonspecific work practices.
65. Other hazards are suffocation, burning, poisoning,
explosion, drowning, freezing, crushing, Entrapment,
scalding, stroke, heat stress, radiation, physical trauma,
injury by moving machinery, slipping or falling etc.
66. Safety equipment for working in a confined space.
67. Following equipment are useful for working safely in a
confined space.
68. 1:-Confined space entry kit.
69. 2:-Rope ladder.
70. 3:-Portable Hand Lamp
71. 4:-Air supply unit
72. 5:-Continuous Air monitor
73. 2: Working Underground.
74. Under ground work includes excavation in surface, soil or
rock, drilling, blasting, trenching, shoring, shuttering,
tunnelling, piling, shaft sinking etc.
 75. Safety precaution in underground work:-
76. 1:-Adequate lighting & ventilation to supply fresh air

inside, controlling gas, vapour dust etc. within safe limit.

77. 2:-fire precaution & measure for fire prevention & control.

78. 3:-Safe means of access & egress.

79. 4:-Stability of ground.

80. 5:-Effect on adjoining building & structure.

81. 6:-Position & Isolation of public utility services i.e.

electricity, gas, water, telephone, sewer lines.

82. 7:-No load, vehicle or material should be moved or stacked

near the edges of excavation.

83. 8:-Work permit to be taken prior starting the work.

84. B:-State the effect of age, on a person’s capacity to carry

load.
D:-Define scaffolds. Name two types of scaffolds.
Scaffolding is a temporary structure that provides support for
workers, plant, and material used in building construction,
maintenance, repair and demolition work.
Types of scaffolds:-
1: pole type scaffolds
2: Rolling scaffolds or mobile tower
3: Outrigger scaffolds
4: Swing or Hanging Scaffolds
5: Suspended scaffolds
6: Boatswain’s chair.

E:-Name detectable cause of tool failure.

(a) design failures
i forming failures / dimensioning
ii wrong choice of material iii wrong working hardness
(b) defects in material
 i pores, shrink hole, cracks, strange inclusions
ii distribution of carbides iii undue segregations
(c) machining failure
i bad surface quality (notch effect)
ii damages on surface (grinding failures, erosion failures)
iii welding defects (joint welding, deposit welding)
iv nitriding failures
v missing stress relieving
vi distortion
(d) heat treatment failures
i quench stress crack
ii decarburization
iii retained austenite
iv insufficient tempering stage
v coarse grain/mixed grain
vi superheating vii precipitations on grain boundary
(e) handling failures
i mechanical overstressing
ii thermal overstressing
iii corrosive overstressing
G:- Define:-
I:-Thermal Comfort. Repeat
II:-Thermal Indices of comfort.
1:-Effective temperature: - It is a sensory scale of warmth
derived from the dry and wet bulb temperature (i.e. air
temperature and humidity) and air velocity from standard
nomogram. ET is not a temperature measurable with
instruments. It is an index combining effects on a body of
temperature, humidity and air movement. It is equivalent to the
comfort a person generally feels (there may be exceptions) in a
saturated atmosphere with the same dry bulb temperature and
with a specific movement of air. A person remains equally
comfortable under different conditions, provided the ET remains
the same.

2:-Corrected Effective temperature. (CET):- It is a modified ET

considering the radiant temperature measured by glob
thermometer instead of dry bulb temperature. It does not include
metabolic heat.

3:-Wet bulb Glob temperature. (WBGT):- It embraces in a single

value the effect of radiation, ambient air temperature and
humidity. It is the weighted value of the wet and dry bulb
temperature and globe thermometer readings, calculated using
temperature measurements alone thereby eliminating the need to
measure air velocity.
For outdoors (exposure to sun light):
WBGT = 0.2 tg + 0.1 tdb + 0.7 twb
For indoors (no direct exposure to sun light):
WBGT = 0.3 tdb + 0.7 twb
Where tg = Black Globe temperature,
tdb = Dry bulb (air) temperature and
twb = Wet bulb temperature
4:-Predicted Four hour Sweat Rate. (P4SR):- This index is based
on the assumption of the amount of sweat that would be
prescribed by a physically fit and acclimatised young man in the
condition under review over a period of four hours. It takes into
account the metabolic level and type of clothing in addition to
the climatic factors, unlike other indices mentioned earlier. But
this has the drawback that cumbersome nomograms are
.required which is not always practical.
5:-Cold Stress and wind chill rate. (WCI):- It refers to the cold
environment and uses only dry bulb temperature and air velocity
but takes into account the cooling effect of the wind.
Wind chill cooling rate is defined as heat loss from a body
expressed in watts/m', which is a function of air temperature and
velocity upon the exposed (area of) body. Higher wind speed
and lower air temperature require higher insulation. value of the
protective clothing. Exposure or working time of workers should
also be reduced. Old and weak workers need such extra
precaution.

H:-Define ‘Noise’? State it’s Unit.

Noise is a unwanted or undesired sound. It is an annoyance and
interferes with work efficiency and causes accidents, hearing
loss or deafness depending upon its type and period of exposure.
Unit of noise is dB.

I:-Define the terms

1:-Continuous Noise.
When the source of noise is constantly vibrating, the noise is
known as continuous noise e.g. motorises bell.

2:-Impulse Noise.
When the sound of noise causes vibration only for a short time
e.g. sound from drop forge hammer, explosion of rifle shot.
B:-What is Boatswain’s chair? Explain its use.
Boatswain's chair is used for supporting and hoisting single person in
sitting position. General chair (seat) size is 60 cm x 30 cm, with 25 mm
thick timber. Cleats extending in front to at least 23 cm should be
securely fixed under the chair at both ends. The chair is supported by a
suitable sling passing through the four corner holes in the chair for
proper stability. The suspension rope is fixed to an overhead support or
passed through a pulley block fastened to such support. The free end is
secured to a conveniently accessible anchorage and the person in chair
must wear a safety belt, the life line of which is secured to the tackle
supporting the chair. Fibre rope slings should not be used if the person in
the chair has to do welding or cutting work.
D:-Compaire Natural ventilation & Mechanical ventilation.
Mechanical ventilation

Advantages to a mechanical system.

 Mechanical ventilation systems are considered to be

reliable in delivering the designed flow rate, regardless of
the impacts of variable wind and ambient temperature. As
mechanical ventilation can be integrated easily into air-
conditioning, the indoor air temperature and humidity can
also be controlled.
 Filtration systems can be installed in mechanical ventilation
so that harmful microorganisms, particulates, gases, odours
and vapours can be removed.
 The airflow path in mechanical ventilation systems can be
controlled, for instance allowing the air to flow from areas
where there is a source (e.g. patient with an airborne
infection), towards the areas free of susceptible individuals.
 Mechanical ventilation can work everywhere when
electricity is available.

Disadvantages to a mechanical system.

  Mechanical ventilation systems often do not work as
expected, and normal operation may be interrupted for
numerous reasons, including equipment failure, utility
service interruption, poor design, poor maintenance or
incorrect management.
 If the system services a critical facility, and there is a need
for continuous operation, all the equipment may have to be
backed up — which can be expensive and unsustainable.
 Installation and particularly maintenance costs for the
operation of a mechanical ventilation system may be very
high. If a mechanical system cannot be properly installed or
maintained due to shortage of funds, its performance will be
compromised.
Because of these problems, mechanical ventilation systems may
result in the spread of infectious diseases through health-care
facilities, instead of being an important tool for infection
control.

Natural ventilation

Advantages of a natural ventilation system, compared with

mechanical ventilation systems.
 Natural ventilation can generally provide a high ventilation

rate more economically, due to the use of natural forces and

large openings.
 Natural ventilation can be more energy efficient,
particularly if heating is not required.
  Well-designed natural ventilation could be used to access
higher levels of daylight.

There are a number of drawbacks to a natural ventilation

system.

 Natural ventilation is variable and depends on outside

climatic conditions relative to the indoor environment. The
two driving forces that generate the airflow rate (i.e. wind
and temperature difference) vary stochastically. Natural
ventilation may be difficult to control, with airflow being
uncomfortably high in some locations and stagnant in
others. There is a possibility of having a low air-change
rate during certain unfavourable climate conditions.
 There can be difficulty in controlling the airflow direction
due to the absence of a well-sustained negative pressure;
contamination of corridors and adjacent rooms is therefore
a risk.
 Natural ventilation precludes the use of particulate filters.
Climate, security and cultural criteria may dictate that
windows and vents remain closed; in these circumstances,
ventilation rates may be much lower.
 Natural ventilation only works when natural forces are
available; when a high ventilation rate is required, the
requirement for the availability of natural forces is also
correspondingly high.
  Natural ventilation systems often do not work as expected,
and normal operation may be interrupted for numerous
reasons, including windows or doors not open, equipment
failure (if it is a high-tech system), utility service
interruption (if it is a high-tech system), poor design, poor
maintenance or incorrect management.
 Although the maintenance cost of simple natural ventilation
systems can be very low, if a natural ventilation system
cannot be installed properly or maintained due to a shortage
of funds, its performance can be compromised, causing an
increase in the risk of the transmission of airborne
pathogens.

D:-Describe principles of good illumination.

General Principles or requirements of good lighting are as
follows:
1. Adequate illumination:- Adequate, rational or good
illumination needs sufficient quantity of illumination necessary
for avoiding discomfort to the worker and undue strain on eyes.
2. Avoidance of glare: - Glare is the condition in which
brightness or the contrast of brightness interferes with vision.
Glare is produced by excessive light stimuli i.e. excessive
luminance in the field of vision which disturbs the adaptation
process of retina. Sometimes glare impairs the visual function,
of the eye and reduces visual performance. Glare causes
discomfort, annoyance, eye fatigue and impairment of or
interference with vision. It is produced by excessive light stimuli
i.e. too much light which affects the adaptation process of the
retina. It can be considered at three levels. (Types of Glare)- (1)
Direct or disability glare (2) Discomfort glare and (3) Indirect or
reflected glare.
Direct glare can be avoided:-
1. Provide diffuser over the lamp or reflector (screen) with
minimum reflecting angle 20° below the horizontal, (dipper)
2. Reducing the brightness of the light source (e.g. by enclosing
the lamp in bowl reflector).
3. Reducing the area of high brightness (e.g. by installing
louvers below the light source).
4. Increasing the angle between the' source of glare and the line
of vision i.e. by increasing the mounting height.
5. Decreasing the source of glare so as to lessen the contrast.

Reflected Glare can be avoided:-

1. Changing the shining finish by matt finish.
2. Changing the task position or its surrounding.
3. Using light source of low brightness or providing lamp shade.
4. Arranging the geometry of the installation so that there is no
glint at the particular viewing direction, e.g. increasing the
source height.
3. Avoidance of shadow: - Shadow affects the amount of
illumination and is caused not by poor lighting but - by fixing
light sources too wide apart or in wrong positions so that light is
obstructed by some object. Light (faint) shadow may be allowed
but dark (dense) shadow that conceals hazard or indicates wrong
thing is not desirable, as it may cause accident.
Shadow on staircase, near door for entry or exit, near tool rack
or on the work (job) table is not at all desirable and must be
removed by providing extra or local light or shifting the light
source or the object causing shadow.
Harsh shadows should be avoided, but some shadow effect may
be desirable from the general lighting system to make more
noticeable the depth and form o~ object. There are few specific
visual tasks where clearly defined shadows improve visibility
and such effects should be provided by supplementary lighting
equipment arranged for the particular task.
4. Uniform lighting: - The human eye can clearly perceive
differences in luminance of over 50%. It takes time to adopt
sudden variation in the intensity of lighting, particularly from
higher to lower intensity. Uniform distribution of lighting is
desirable. Distribution of light requires two problems to solve
(1) uniformity of illumination and (2) elimination of shadows.
5. Appropriate contrast: - The contrast recognises the object
easily and increases visual performance. If the difference
between the object (job or seeing task) and its background is not
noticeable, it is difficult to work. A black machine in black
background (darkness) is difficult to notice. There should be a
minimum contrast between the visual target detail and its
background. The differences in luminance of visual task, its
immediate background and environment should not exceed
certain maximum values i.e. a relationship of 10: 3:1 for normal
tasks and 10: 5: I and 10:
10: I for precision work.
6. Appropriate colour contrast: - Eye sees an object by the light
it reflects and distinguishes its details mainly by colour contrast.
Thus, in addition to luminance contrast, colour contrast may be
influenced by the choice of the colour of light. The choice of the
correct colour of light depends on the task to be performed and
the requirements to be met by vision. It may be noted that there
must not only be adequate illumination to see an object clearly,
but also the object must be visible in its surroundings. It must
have moderate colour contrast. The colour approximating to
white will give better colour rendering and light yield. The
colour approximating to red will give low Quality colour
rendering but the light will create an emotional atmosphere. A
well painted machine inspires a feeling of personal pride and
proper maintenance is encouraged.
7. Colour effect: - It refers to the appearance of coloured objects
when illuminated by a particular light source. It is the property
of light which facilitates the perception of surface colours and
depends on the spectral composition of the light. For example,
red surface will appear red only, if the light falling on it contains
red, but it will appear brown under the yellow of sodium street
lighting.
The maximum value of the index is 100 and at this value there is
no shift, i.e. the colour rendering is perfect. For example, an
incandescent tungsten filament lamp has a colour rendering
index of 100, fluorescent tubes between 55 to 95, mercury
vapour lamps approximately 45 and low-pressure sodium
vapour lamps less than 25. W here colour discrimination and
colour matching are a part of the work process, the light source
selected should have the desired colour rendering properties.
8. Avoidance of flicker and stroboscopic effect:- All lamps
working on alternating current give light which pulsates at twice
the supply frequency.
This type of discontinuous light of almost all frequencies can
produce (fleshing rapidly to show moving object stationary)
effect, in which a rotating or reciprocating object can appear to
be stationary, or moving slowly, or even appear to be rotating in
the opposite direction etc. This false belief can cause accidents
in the industrial situation. It is a real hazard in the presence of
moving machinery. High intensity discharge lamps and
fluorescent tubes have some 'flicker content in their light output
at mains frequency. The steps to diminish the stroboscopic
effect are:
1. Light the moving object with lamps fed from two different out
of phase A.C. supplies, or from two or three phases of a three-
phase supply or lead lag luminaries.
2. Select a lamp with a low flicker characteristic, e.g. a
fluorescent coated high-intensity discharge tungsten filament
(GLS) lamp or ordinary filament lamp.
3. Add a local GLS lamp to augment the general lighting.
4. Use GLS or tungsten halogen lamps fed from a direct current
(D.C.) supply.
5. Use the common twin-tube circuit.
B:-Explain use of safety harness.
It is used for working in a confined space, silo, tank, vessel etc.
The life line is held by a person standing outside to rescue the
wearer when he is unable to come out by his own efforts. On the
rescue line there is a wrist strap by which the wearer can be
hauled up through a manhole or other opening
C:-Explain role of preventive maintenance for safety and health.
D:-Name source & types of artificial lighting.
During night time i.e. in the absence of daylight, artificial light
is the only remedy. Even during day time where the day lighting
is insufficient to provide prescribed illumination due to any
obstruction or weather effect, it will be necessary to supplement
the natural lighting by artificial lighting designed to operate
permanently during day time. It should be properly co-ordinated
with natural lighting as per 15:3646 (Part 1). The combination of
day lighting and artificial lighting is known as twilighting.
Types of artificial light depend on types of artificial (viz.
electrical) light sources or their fixtures. Lighting from electric
lamp or tube or from many types of their combination gives a
verity of artificial lighting.
Source of artificial Light:-
1:-Incandescent Filament Lamp.
2:-Fluorescent lamps.
3:-Sodium Vapour Lamps.
4:-Halogen Lamps.
5:-Mercury Vapour Lamps.
Types of artificial lighting:-
1:-Uniform General Lighting.
2:-General plus local supplementary lighting
3:-Localised General Lighting
4:-Special Purpose Lighting

E:-Describe a method of noise level measurement.

Intensity levels in the different octave bands are measured by a
sound level meter in conjunction with octave-band filters.
The noises are picked up by a high quality microphone, passed
through an octave-band filter and the sound pressure levels
recorded on a level recorder. Alternatively, noises recorded on a
magnetic tape or the recording system has a substantially
uniform frequency response over the entire audio frequency
range.
Impact noise, which are highly complex in nature are measured
with an impact noise analyser and also simultaneously recorded
on a magnetic tape recorder to facilitate octave-band analysis. It
is also sometimes displayed on oscilloscope screen.
As the noise levels are not the same at all locations inside the
factory or workshop, the levels are measured mostly at locations
enveloped by high integrity noises. Also while determining
damage risk, it is necessary to measure the noise levels as close
to the operator's ear position as possible.
The methods to be adopted to measure and assess the degree of
noise hazard depend on whether the objective to be attained is to
assess -
1. The hearing loss (auditory effect).
2. The interference with communication essentials for safety and
productivity (Non auditory effect), and
3. The hazard involve in the task (to study a specific problem).
Impulsive or non-steady-state noise is I measured either by
using sound level I meter in 'impulse' position and I calculating
mean value of 8 hour per day, or by applying positive correction
factor, generally 3 to 10 dB added to the slow response values,
and then choosing the higher result.
Risk areas for measurement can be selected (1) Where noise
hazard is liable to be present (2) Supervision, inspection or
medical examination suggest that there may be a noise hazard
and (3) Workers complain such inconvenience to them.
Where speech communication at normal voice is interfered at a
distance of 50 cm, noise level should be assessed.
The noise levels should be measure) at a height of @ 1.5m
above the work floor and at distance of at least 1 mt from the
walls. It is advisable to establish the mean value of the sound
level recorded in different directions.
Noise level should be measured at the worker' head level in his
normal work posture or at a distance of I m from either side of
his head position.
A noise chart should be prepared of the area where the measured
noise levels are equal to or in excess of 80, 85, 90, 100 and 115
dBA. The Measurement Report:
A very important part of sound measurement is careful
documentation of the measurements and result A good
measurement report should contain at least the following
information.
1. A sketch of the measurement site showing applicable
dimensions (e.g. size of room machine dimensions), the location
of the microphone and object being measured.
2. Standard(s) to which measurements are made.
C:-write standard related to lighting & colours.
Section-17 of the Factories Act requires sufficient and suitable lighting, natural, artificial or both
and prevention of direct or reflected glare and shadows causing eye strain or risk of accident.
Minimum illumination levels prescribed by Rule 35 of the Maharashtra Factories Rules

D:-explain effect of noise on human beings.

1. Mental stress
2. Physical stress
3. Certain illness
4. Hearing Loss or deafness
5. Accidents and
6. Labour productivity
The harmful effects of noise depend upon a number of factors:
1. Noise frequency and intensity.
2. Total length of exposure.
3. Length of exposure at a time.
4. Distance from the noise source.
5. Whether noise is continuous, interrupted, sudden or impulsive.
6 Whether ear protector is worn or not and
7. Individual susceptibility depending on age, health etc.

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN FOR STORAGE

AND HANDLING OF HAZARDOUS MATERIAL
(Chemical & other dangerous material)
1. LIQUIDS:
01) Storage thanks for hazardous liquids are preferably installed outdoors above or below
ground.
 02) There are many advantages in underground installation; but the danger of undetected
leaks in thanks containing corrosive or toxic materials probably outweighs those
advantages. Hence process thanks that contain volatile or corrosive liquids should be
installed only at or above the ground having adequate drainage & should be separated
from the processing area.
03) Tanks should be provided with permanent stairs or ladders & walkways with standard
guardrail & toeboards.
04) Tanks should be emptied, cleaned & inspected for structural weaknesses are regular
intervals & records kept of each inspection.
05) Tanks for holding volatile material should be bonded & grounded & provided with
emergency venting devices.
06) Use of compressed air is not permitted for the transfer of flammable or corrosive
liquids.
07) Portable containers such as drums, barrels, & carboys should be correctly stored. If
the liquid in corrosive or highly toxic, the storage area should be isolated form the rest of
the plant by impervious walls & floor, with provision for safe disposal of spillage.
08) Floors in the storage area for corrosive liquids should be made of concrete treated to
decrease its solubility or other resistant material. Concrete is also satisfactory for
flammable liquids.

09) The storage area should be well ventilated, preferably by openings to the outside air.
10) Full drums should not be stacked, but should be place din racks, preferably with a
separate rack for each material.
11) Highly toxic substances, such as cyanides & soluble oxalates, should be kept in
containers of a distinctive shape if they muse be handled manually. The containers
should be plainly labeled or otherwise identified. Materials should be locked up at all
times & dispensed only by authorized personnel.
12) Wherever caustics or acids are stored, handled, or used, emergency flood or eyewash
fountains should be available.

II. SOLIDS:
01) A fundamental factor in the design of equipment for handling of bulk solids is
sufficient scope in the cone bottom of tank or a bin to permit the solid to run freely & to
prevent it’s arching over.
02) Where arching takes place, means should be provided so that the flow can be started
again without a workman entering the bin either above or below the solid material. A
vibrator to shake the bottom of a small metal bin or an agitator bottom is a simple means
to start the flow.
03) Fall into open storage bins often result in injures. Bin openings at floor level or
within 2 ft of fit should be surrounded with standard guardrail toeboards.
04) Where bins are filled & emptied by continuous conveyors, the control of dust in
likely to be a serious problem. Escaping of dust into other operating areas can be
prevented by enclosing the bin, except for the fill opening, with a skirt of either metal or
fabric & by taking an exhaust up though the filling chute.
 05) If the material is scraped from a belt conveyor, it is usually enough to cover the
conveyor at the point of discharge with exhaust hood & provide a closed chute from the
discharge point to the bin.
06) Where combustible materials are handled, the dust content of the air must be kept
below the LEL.

07) All sources of ignition should be excluded from the area of potentially explosive dust.
08) Automatic sprinkler protection should be installed inside bins & processing
equipment containing combustible materials. Where water in undesirable, inert gas
extinguishing in to be done.
09) Static electricity is the source of ignition in many fires. It can be prevented by proper
grounding techniques.
10) When storing solids in small quantities, like in 50 to 100 kg bags, must be handled
with some care to prevent damage.
11) Full bags should be stacked on pallets or staging to prevent water damage.
12) Filling of bags or barrels solids in always a potentially dusty operation, & of the
material being handled in finely divided or dangerous, the health & fire hazards may be
serious. The simplest solution to the problem is to moisten the material so that it dose not
produce fine dust. This method can not be applicable to water reactant materials.
STATUTORY PROVISIONS FOR HANDLING AND STORAGE OF CHEMICLAS
(TAMIL NADU FACTORIES RULES, 1950, RULE NO: 95, SCHEDULE XVI: CHEMICALS
WORKS, PART II : GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (9)
01) The containers for handling and storage of chemicals shall be of adequate strength taking
into consideration the hazardous be of adequate strength taking into consideration the hazardous
nature of the contents. They shall also be provided with adequate labeling & colour coding
arrangements to enable identification of the containers & their contents indicating the hazards &
safe handling methods & shall conform to the respective ISI. The instructions given in the label
shall be strictly adhered to. Damaged containers shall be handled only under supervision of a
knowledgeable & responsible person & spillage shall be rendered innocuous in a safe manner
using appropriate means.
02) The arrangements for storage of chemicals including changing of chemicals in reaction
vessel & containers shall be such as to prevent any risk of fire or explosion or formation of toxic
concentration of substance above permisnible limits.
03) To meet the above requirement, the arrangements shall have suitable ventilation facilities &
shall enable the maintenance of safe levels in vessel & containers. Such arrangements shall also
take into consideration, the type of flooring & the capacity of flooring & the compatibility
requirements of substances with other chemicals stored nearby.
04) Storage of chemicals & intermediate products, which are highly unstable or reactive or
explosive, shall be limited to the quantities required for two months use.
05) Standby arrangements equal to the biggest container shall always be available to transfer the
toxic substances quickly into the standby storage failing if any defect develops in any of the
containers resulting in the release of toxic substances.
06) Any storage facility constructed using non-metallic material such as Fiberglass Reinforced
Plastic (FRP), all glass vessels, etc. shall have adequate strength to with stand stress, if any
exerted by the contents & shall be properly anchored. Working platforms, access ladders,
pipelines etc. used in such storage facility shall not have any support on the structure of the
storage facility & shall be independently supported.
I) EXPLOSIVES:
01) Explosives should be stored in magazines of approved fireproof & bulletproof construction
located at a safe distance.
02) Explosives should be stored under lock and key, and records should be maintained of all
explosives issued.
03) No matches, flammable materials, metal or metal tools should be brought into an explosives
magazine.
04) Floors should be kept clean and free from loose explosives. The floors should be building –
nailed; no-nail or bolt head should be exposed.
05) Magazines should be clean, dry and well ventilated.
06) No artificial light other than an electric storage battery lantern or an electric flash – light
approved for this application should be permitted in a magazine.
07) Explosives should not be allowed to expose to the direct rays of the sun.
08) Storage should be arranged so that the oldest explosives will be used first.
09) Blasting caps or detonators of any kind should never be kept in the same magazine with
other explosives.

SECTION 32 : FLOORS, STAIRS AND MEANS OF ACCESS

In Every factory:
a) All floors, steps, stairs, passages & gangways shall be of sound construction & properly
maintained and shall be kept free from obstructions & substance likely to cause persons to slip &
where it is necessary to ensure safety, steps, stairs, passages & gangways shall be provided with
substantial handrails.
b) There shall, so far as is reasonably practicable, be provided and maintained safe means of
access to every place at which any person is any time required to work;
c) When any person has to work at a height from where he is likely to fall, provision shall be
made, so far as is reasonably practicable, by fencing or otherwise, to ensure the safety of the
person so working.

TAMIL NADU FACTORIES RULES 1950:

RULES NO: 61 A: SAFETY BELTS:
Where any person is required or allowed to work at a place from which he may be liable
to fall through a distance of more than two meters, he shall be provided with a safety belt with
leather shoulder straps of not less than five centimeters in width and a ‘D’ ring at the back for
fastening a rope, the other and of which shall be securely tied or hooked to some suitable rigid
fixture.
The safety belt so provided shall be tested & examined thoroughly by a competent person
at least once in 6 months & a certificate with regard to its suitability obtained from the said
competent person & entered in a register, which shall be produced before the inspector on
demand.
QUESTIONS
01) What are the provisions under Floors, Stairs, & means of access under Factories Act 1949?
(1996)
 SAFETY FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION OF STAIRWAYS:
(American National Standard)
01) Stairs are replacing, now a day, ladders both in & outside of buildings. Circular stairways
should be avoided, but if absolutely necessary, should be designed with a minimum variation in
tread width. Treads should be covered with a durable antislip materials.
02) The preferred slope for a stairway is between 300 to 350 from horizontal.
03) A tread width of not less than 9½ inch (19 cm) plus a non-slip nosing of 1 inch (2.5 cm) are
recommended. Raiser height should not be more than 8 inch (20 cm) or less than 5 inch (12.5
cm) & should be constant for each flight.
04) A flight of stairs having two or more raisers should have a standard hand rail. Handrails
should be 30 to 34 inch from top surface of the stair tread, measured in line with the face of the
riser.
05) Hardwood handrails should be at least 2 inch (5 cm) diameter. If standard black iron pipe is
used, the diameter should be at least 1½ inch (3.8 cm) outside diameter. Clearance between wall
& handrail should be at least 1½ inch.
06) Because of space limitations, a permanent stairway sometimes has to be installed at an angle
greater than 50 degrees. Such an installation should have handrails on both sides & open raisers.
07) Adequate illumination by lights located so they do not cause glare is important. Outside
stairways should be covered to keep off rain, snow & ice.
08) To avoid long flights, intermittent landings for every 10th or 12th tread are recommended.
09) Stairs & landings should be able to sustain a live load of not less than 100 1b/ft2 with a factor
of safety of 4.

SAFETY FEATURES A SSOCIATED DESIGN &

CONSTRUCTION OF SAFFOLDS
A scaffold is an elevated working platform for supporting both personnel & materials.
It is temporary, its main use being in construction and/or maintenance work.
Every scaffold shall be of safe design for the purpose of which it is to be used & shall be
of safe & sound construction & maintained in good conditions.
Before allowing its use everyday, a scaffold shall be examined to ensure that,
a) It is in stable condition
b) Materials used ins its construction are sound.
c) Combustible materials such as fibre ropes, bamboo, wood are not used in its
construction if the same is likely to be exposed to fire hazards or liable to be
damaged by heat, sharp edges etc.
d) it is adequate for the purpose for which it is to be used and
e) Working platform at height is strong & adequately fenced to prevent falls of
persons.
 f) Site, fabricated suspended scaffolds (work, inspections to platforms) shall not be
used unless certified in writing to be safe by responsible qualified engineers of the
agency and client.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SAFFOLDING:
01) Scaffolding components shall be examined by competent persons before use.
02) The materials should be sound, free from defects & have adequate strength for the
purpose it is used.
03) After construction of scaffold it shall be inspected & certified by a competent persons.
04) Men shall not be allowed to work during storms or high wind.
05) If work is carried out above the working platform to protect overhead covering shall be
provided not beyond 3 meters high from the platform.
06) Dismantling should be done under the supervisions of a competent person.
07) No materials should be thrown down from the platform.
08) Guardrails, midrails, & toe boards shall be installed on all open sides and ends of
platforms more than 10 feet above the working surface (floor). Scaffolds 4 feet to 10 feet
(1-2 to 3 mt) in height, having a minimum horizontal dimension in either direction of less
than 45 inch (1.1mt) shall have standing guardrails installed on all open sides & ends of
platform.
09) All planking platforms shall be overlapped a minimum of 12 inch (30 cm) or secured
from moving.
10) Scaffold planks shall extend over their end supports between 6 to 13 inch (15-30 cm)
only.
11) Slippery conditions on scaffolds must be eliminated as soon as they occur.
12) Wire, synthetic, or fibre rope used with scaffolds must be capable of supporting at least 6
times the rated load & should be inspected before each use.
13) Whenever, workmen have to work or constantly pass under a scaffold on which men are
working, a screen or other protection shall be provided to catch any falling material.
I) AS PER IS: 3696
01) TIMBER OR BAMBOO SCAFFOLDS
Timber or bamboo scaffolds may be single scaffold or double scaffold.
Single scaffold means the one which is supported by a single row of upright poles
(standards) fixed along the wall, connected horizontally by a ledger & supporting putlogs, which
rest on ledger on one side & in holes left in wall on the other.
 Double scaffold means the one which is supports don two rows of upright poles or
standards fixed along the wall of a building connected by horizontal ledgers and supporting put
longs which rest on ledgers on either side. This scaffold is independent of the building wall.
a) SINGLE SCAFFOLD
I) Single scaffold shall consist of one row of up right poles fixed at suitable distance from
walls t 1.8 mt to 2.4 mt. apart, ledgers connected horizontally at 1.8mt to distances,
putlongs spaced at 1.2 mtrs in centers.
ii) The nominal diameter of standards shall not be less than 80 mm subject to a minimum
of 50 mm at any section.
iii) When it is necessary to extend a standard, the overlap between the first & the second
shall be at least 60 cm.
b) DOUBLE SCAFFOLD
I) For stone masonry works & for structures where heavier materials of construction are
used, a stronger scaffold of constructions re used, a stronger scaffold shall be used.
Where two rows of standards shall be used;
The inner row next to the wall & the outer row at a distance of 1.2 to 1.5 mts.
away from the wall.
The putlogs shall rest entirely on the scaffold ledgers.
In addition, to the diagonal braces, inclined supports, called shoring, shall be
provided to prevent the scaffold from leaning away from the wall.
ii) Nominal diameter of standards shall not be less than 10 cm, subject to a minimum of 5
ck at any section.
iii) When it is necessary to extent the stand, the over lap between the first & the second
shall be at least 60 cm.
C) SECURING OF SCAFFOLDS: The following are to be followed while tying individual
members of scaffolds.
i) Rope used for tying of individual members of scaffolds shall be wetted immediately
before use & shall not be used more than three times.
ii) Method of tying knots, duly approved by engineer-in-charge shall be adopted.
iii) Where bamboos are used as verticals or standards, the horizontal members be tied to
the vertical members just above a knot of the vertical bamboo.
02) METAL SCAFFOLDS:
i) Metal scaffolds may be erected and dismantled with great call and rapidity, they may
be used over & over again. Most of the metal scaffolds in use at present are of steel.
ii) Metal scaffolds whether single or double shall assembled similar to that of Timber.
iii) Inspect all equipment before use. Never use equipment that in damaged or
deteriorated anyway.
iv) Inspect erected scaffolds regularly to be use they are maintained in safe condition.
03) PLATFORMS, GANGWAYS & RUNS
i) All working platforms, gangways and runs from which workers are liable to fall from a
height more than 2 meters are:
a) Of adequate width depending upon the type of work to be performed and closely
boarded, planked or plated. For platform, the width small not be less than 65 cm. and for
gangways and runs 45 cm. Gangways or runs, used for passage of materials, shall be not
less than 65 cm in width; and
 b) Provided with suitable guard-rails of adequate strength to a height of 90 cm above the
working surface and toe boards of at least 20 cm in height to prevent fall of persons,
materials or tools.
The following minimum widths of platforms for various types of scaffolds are
recommended:
a) Where platform is not more than 2.0 meters above the ground or solid floor:
1) For painters, decorators etc - 30 cm
2) For other types (men & tools only) - 50 cm
b) Where platform is more than 2 mt above the ground or solid floor:
1) For men, tools and materials - 1.2 mt.
2) For men, tools materials - 1.5 mt.
iii) Every platform, gangway, run or stairs shall be kept free form any unnecessary obstruction,
material, rubbish and projecting nails; when they become slippery, appropriate steps shall be
taken by way of sanding, cleaning or otherwise to remedy the defect.
iv) Each supporting member, used in construction of scaffolds, platforms etc. shall be securely
fastemed & braced. These are to be inspected by competent person.
v) The uniformly distributed minimum design load per square mater of platforms shall be
300kg/m2 planking in any case shall not be less than 30 mm thick.
vi) A scaffold platform planks shall not project planed 0 mm plane they beyond its end support –
4 times thickness 6 plank.
vii) All planks or round members, forming & gangway or run, shall be fixed & supported to
prevent sagging.
ix) Where planks are butt jointed, two parallel putlongs shall be used, not more than 10 cm apart,
giving each plank sufficient support.
SUSPENDED SCAFFOLDS
The platform is supported from above by ropes. These shall conform to the requirements
as laid down:
01) The platform shall not be less than 45 cm wide and points of suspension not more than 3
meters apart and so arranged, that, at the working position, the edge is as close as practicable to
the working face when persons have to work in a sitting position.
02) The thrust-out member from which a scaffold in suspended shall extend at least 30 cm
outside, the platform being suspended, and shall have a stop lock bolt at the outer end.
03) Ropes, chains, or other means of suspension shall be of good construction, sound material,
adequate strength, free from patent defects & properly secured. The ropes and chains shall have
a factor of safety of B.
04) Suspended scaffolds shall be tested as frequently as may be necessary to ensure that
minimum safety factors are maintained. The test will be made by raising the working surface 30
cm above the ground and loading it with at least three times the maximum weight that will be
imposed upon it. Testing shall be done by a competent person at least once in a fortnight &
record should be maintained.

QUESTION
01) State and Explain safety features associated with the design and construction of stairways &
scaffolds? (1997) (16 marks)
02) What are the safety factors involved in designing of scaffolds? (1989)
LADDERS PLACEMENT
Workers should observe the following practices when placing loaders:
01) Place the ladder so that the horizontal distance from the base to the vertical plane of the
support in appioximately 1/4th of the ladder length between supports.
02) Do no use ladders in a horizontal position as runways or as scaffolds. Single and extension
ladders are designed for use in a nearly vertical position and cannot be used in a horizontal
position or with the base at greater distance form the support.
03) Never place a ladder in front of a door that opens toward the ladder unless the door is locked,
blocked or guarded.
04) Place a ladder feet on a substantial & level base not on morable objects. Provide solid
footing on soft ground to prevent the ladder from sinking.
05) Never leen a ladder against unsecured backing, such as loose boxes or barrels.
06) When using a ladder for access to high places, securely lash’s or otherwise fasten the ladder
to prevent it’s slipping.
07) Extend the ladder side rails at least 3 feet (0.9 mt) above the top landing.
08) Do not place the adder close to line electric wiring or against any operational piping where
damage may be done.
QUESTIONS
01) What are the safety precautions in placing ladders. (1995) (8 marks)

WORKING ON ROOFS: As per Tamilnadu Factors Rules.

In any factory no person shall be required or allowed to stand on or pass over or walk on or near
any roof of ceiling covered with fragile material or gives away, a distance of more than 3 meters,
unless.
i) Suitable and sufficient ladders, duck ladders or crawling boards which shall be securely
supported or provided and used.
ii) A permit to work on the fragile roof is issued to him each time he is required to work, thereon,
by a responsible person of factory concerned, such as supervisor, Foreman, Engineer or Manager.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS:
01) On repairs, a roof can be punctures by tools, boards with nails, stones or other sharp objects.
Runways and protective run board covering should be used. If hot pitch is used, workers should
wear gloves, goggles and knee-length asbestos, leather or fire – resistant duck leggings.

QUESTIONS
01) Write short notes on: Working or roofs (1996) (4 marks)

PREVENTION OF FALLS FLOOR LEVEL

Accidents due to interdequate maintenance of floors are a major source of injuries in many
plants. Slippery conditions, particularly, account for numerous fails by workers. Holes and other
irregularities in wood and concrete floor, both inside and outside plant buildings, result in
frequent injuries from sluubing and falling and in addition, cause many truck accidents.
I) MAINTENANCE AND HOUSE KEEPING PROCEDURES:
01) Use of wrong cleaning materials, methods and surfacing often causes even the most
suitable types of flooring to deteriorate and become slippery.
Egs: I) Alkaline cleaners should not be used on terrazzo, but mild alkaline cleaners may be
used on asphalt tile.
ii) Oils are unsuitable for rubber tile and when applied to wood floors, increase the fire
hazard.
02) When soap is used, any film must be removed by through rinsing to avoid a slippery.
03) Ordinary wax for polishing wood, tile and similar floor surfaces is unsuitable because of
its inherently slippery nature.
04) Leaks of oil from machines and of water and other liquids from pile lines and spillage
from processing equipment often can be eliminated by good maintenance of the
equipment.
05) Slippery materials spilled on floors should be cleaned promptly.
II) FLOOR REPAIRS:
01) Wood flooring should be inspected for not, wear and unusual stress as indicated by sag.
In many cases a section of wood flooring may need t be replaced. New flooring should be
installed flush with the existing flooring. Badly worn or loose wood block flooring should be
replaced by anchored wood blocks.
02) For concrete floors, the damaged area should be chipped out, cleaned thoroughly and wt
down. Cement mortor is filled in with minimum patch thickness of 2.5 cm patches 2 inch
thick or more may require wire mesh or reinforcing steel.

III) AISLES:
Aisles should be kept clear of machinery, equipment raw and manufactured materials. In is
advisable for efficient, safe operation to determine whether floors and aisles are capable of
sustaining loads of power trucks. Lines to indicate aisle width should be well maintained.
IV) OVERLOADING:
Overloading of floors, which may be caused by installation of new heavy equipment,
excessive weight and unequal distribution of stored raw and finished materials and heavy
truck transportation is particularly hazardous. Sign showing allowable floor loads and
horizontal lines should be appointed on walls. Strengths and load determinations of floors
should be made.
V) AS PER FACTORIES, 1948:SECTION: 33 PITS, SUMPS, OPENINGS IN
FLOOR ETC:
In every factory every fixed vessel, sung, tank, pit or opening I the ground or in floor which,
by reason of its depth, situation, construction or contents, is or may be a source of danger,
shall be either securely covered or fensed.

QUESTIONS
01) Explain the hazardous conditions and prevention of falls on the same level.
(1995) (8 marks)
02) Write about prevention of falls on floor level (8 marks) (1997)
03) Explain how prevention of fall of persons at floor elvel could be made
(8 marks – 1994)
04) Explain the potential tripping and slipping hazards (8 marks – 1996)
NOISE AND VIBRATION
01 Explain the effect of noise on man. What are the methods adopted for controlling noise
in Industry
02 What is noise induced hearing loss? How do you prevent its Explain
03 Explain the different methods of noise control
04 Describe the effect of Noise on Man
Ans Noise affects our lives in a multiplicity of spheres. Much of what workers do
affects or is affected or is affected by noise. Noise can improve or degrade work
performance. Noise no less pollutant than the toxic chemicals in our environment.
Noise has been recognized as a major physical hazard. Noise is generally defined as
unwanted or undesired sound. It identified the following three categories, as a major source of
noise pollution.
1. Industrial Noise – Machineries and process
2. Traffic Noise – Surface and air noise
3. Community Noise – Entertainment and construction noise.
Out of above three, Industrial noise is more hazardous. Industrial noise is a mixed
frequency noise and it is a potential hazard to society and even more so to factory workers.
The properties of noise sound include frequency intensity and duration.
The frequency of sound wave is defined as the no. of pressure changes per sound (Hertz,
hz) high frequency noises are more dangerous to hearing than are low frequency noises. The
intensity is measured in decibels (dB). Which is the unit of a sound. The powder the noise, the
higher the intensity.
The longer the duration of noise, the greater the potential nuisance. Long duration
exposure to high frequency, high intensity sound is likely to produce “Sensorineural deafness”
The decibel (dB) by definition is a dimensionless unit based to express the logarithm of
the measured quantity to a reference quantity. Mathematically ‘dB’ = 20 log (measured quantity
/ reference quantity).
The harmful effects of noise on man
The environment noise can adversely affect man in various ways. They are
Auditory effects:
On short exposure to high intensity noise can cause sudden rupture of ear-drums.
Exposure to noise gives rise to; I. Temporary threshold shift (TTS) also known as
Temporary hearing loss. This is produced by brief exposure to intense noise and result from
over – stimulation or fatiguing of the ear; intermittent noise produces less shift than continuous
noise;
 ii. Permanent threshold shift (PTS) or permanent hearing loss. This is resulted from
recurrent or prolonged exposures to noise. It is also known as “Noise Induced Hearing Loss”
which is notifiable disease under the factories Act 1948.
2. Non auditory effects of noise
i. Physical and mental disturbances
Excessive noise condition can cause physical and mental health disturbances.
ii. Noise not intense enough to cause hearing damage but other physiologic effects
may still disrupt speech communication a well as the hearing of other desired
sounds. Inability to hear warning signals or shouts of caution can cause accidents.
iii. As a consequence to interference with speech communication and lack of
concentration, the efficiency and output may be reduced.
Hearing conservation programme
The object of hearing conservation programme is to ensure that an employee’s hearing is
not effected during his working life to an extent greater than that normally occurring with age,
and to preserve it at a level sufficient for normal speech perception.
The need for conservation efforts becomes more urgent when the sound level exceeds
TLV i.e. 90dB.
A successful hearing conservation programme in industry consists of five basis
components.
Noise exposure analysis
Administrative and engineering controls for reducing noise levels
Measurement of hearing by audiomety
Protection of hearing with air defenders where necessary
Continuous education programme
Permissible levels of exposure to noise in Industry:
Noise Level is decibels (dB) Duration in Hours
90 8
95 4
100 2
105 1
110 ½
115 ¼
No exposure to levels above 115 db is admissible. If duration of exposure is likely to exceed,
ear protection must be used.

Precautions And Control Measure

The managements should carry out hearing conservation programme in their factory where
noise exposure is prevailing greater than 90 db. Such programme is required co be adopted
once to twice a year so that the workers can be prevented from ‘Noise induced hearing loss’.
Following methods can be applied for control or reduction of Noise.
a) Control of noise at the source through good engineering design.
b) Substitution by less noise processes such as welding instead of riveting, grinding
instead or clipping etc.
c) Isolation – shifting of noise machine to area where few people work or not spread up
noise in any other shop floor, well insulated partious and tighting-closing doors may
be installed for the noisy areas.
d) Application of sound absorption material on the walls
e) Use of ear protectors such as ear plugs and ear nuffs and
f) Rotation of personnel.
Noise levels is some industries in India
Compressors 95-110 db (A)
Diesel generator 96-118 (A)
Textile carding 87-90 (A)
Textile spinning 86-96 (A)
Textile Weaving 90-105 (A)
Rivetting 128-130 (A)
Foundries 104-120 (A)
Heavy Engineering 95-112 (A)

01) Explain the effects of vibration and describe a method of controlling the vibration
02) Discuss about causes of vibration, its measurement and control

Ans the increasing power, crowding of machinery and spread of the working tools employed
on an ever-greater scale in the present day manufacturing industries have made dynamic
balancing or rotational and irrotational masses more difficult. A mechanical system may well
be in static balance and satisfactorily pass balance test. But when this system rotates the
centrifugal forces, for example, of two weights not being in the same plane perpendicular to
the axis of rotation, create a couple acting on the shaft. That couple rotates with shaft and
produces shaking forces at the journals, noise and vibration in the foundation. This adds more
to the occupational hazards in the working environment, now due to noise and vibration.

From the physical point of view, there is no principal difference between noise and vibration.
It is perception that matters – vibration is perceived by the apparatus ment for it and noise by
hearing.

Harmful effects from vibration increase with the speed of machines and mechanism, as the
mechanical energy of oscillatory motion is proportional to the speed of the rotating shaft of
machine.

Vibration commonly refers to a to-end-fro motion. Vibration is mechanical oscillation of

elastic bodies or systems capable of vibration. Vibration is characterized by three parameters,
namely, the amplitude of displacement, oscillatory velocity and acceleration these parameters
are time dependent.

The effect of vibration on the human body various depending on whether the whole body
(General Vibration), or part of it (local vibration) is involved. A combined action or the
general and local vibration on the body can also be observed. General vibration from the
jolting of the floor or operating platform or the operator’s seat affects the whole body. Local
vibration from the operation of hand tools etc. affects mostly the hands of the operator.
Depending on the frequency, intensity and duration of vibration, its effects may be limited to
a sensation of shaking (palasthesia) or it may lead to changes on the nervus, cardio –
muscular and support systems. The human body is very sensitive to vertical jolts. When a
person stands on vibrating surface and subjected to jolts affecting the body from feet to head.
Fatigue, cold strain caused by incorrect working posture lesson the body’s tolerance to
vibration. A prolonged effect on the body of a local or general vibration or both; may cause
an occupational disease known as the vibration sickness.

Vibration Control Methods

Measures to control, measure and monitor vibration and minimize or eliminate its harmful
effects on people, instruments, machines and structures must be taken during the design,
construction or manufacture and use of industrial equipment and structures. Finding the
source and the cause of vibration should be followed by a proper study of the vibration
spectra. The knowledge of the amplitude frequency characteristics of vibration is the key to
implementing the mechanical measures aimed at eliminating the causes of harmful vibrations
of no less importance for the prevention of vibration is proper operation of the equipment,
regular checking, maintenance and repair.
The objectives of harmful vibration control can be achieved by fulfilling the general safety
recommendations which rely on the anti-vibration engineering, organizational and medico
preventive measures.

The “Engineering measures” include anti vibration engineering facilities such as devices for
the prevention suppression, damping and insulation of harmful vibration, use of automatic
devices to avoid contact with the vibrating body, changes in the design parameters of
machines, equipment and mechanical tools.

The “organizational measures” can be strict supervision of the operations during erection and
installation of equipment at industrial sites, observance of the maintenance schedules, and
instruction.

The “medico-preventives measures” are aimed at ensuring the necessary microclimate and a
set of physico the rapeutic procedures (bath massages, UV-radiation) introducing
physiologically grounded periods for work and rest for person subject to vibration, and
providing personal protective equipment to the workers.

Vibration isolation facilities are provided to minimize vibration effects transferred from the
vibration source to the workers body by introducing deformable elements between the
vibration source and the objects being protected in stationary equipment installations.
Protection against vibration can be achieved by the appropriate construction of the basements
or use of vibration isolation supports or rads.

The basement for machine tools and equipment with unbalanced masses includes “acoustic
gaps” or measurement anertors filled with a porus material and a functional joint at the base
line should rum deeper than the structural foundation to reduce the transfer of joint to the
walls and other structural elements of the building. When mounting machines and equipment
that are likely to produce vibration during the operation, their frames or heds must be
underline with the vibrated insulation materials.

Among the materials used for vibration isolation purpose are: a. various sorts of sponge and
semi – rigid rubber b. natural cork, or boards of cark crumbs c. soft or rigid felt d. 3-5 cm
thick sheets of material felt with bitumen binder e. 3cm thick boards of 50% asbestos and
50% cement; f. 2.5 cm thick fibre boards.

Elastic (deformable elements (inserts) can also be effective to minimize or eliminate

vibration of air ducts of points of connections to fans or at passages through structural
elements of building, or a points of ties of bearing structures with floors.
 Vibration support or pads should be rightly anchored to prevent horizontal displacement.
Vibration can be reduces by changing design features in machines and equipment. Thus,
mechanical diagrams, dynamic process from shock, or sharp acceleration can be avoided or
reduced, for example, by replacing can gears and crank shafts with uniform rotational gears
or hydraulically driven mechanisms.

Construction materials that fully meet the requirements of vibration damping are plastic
(cashings, handles) Teflon (nylon), wood (inserts), fibre laminate (gears) and rubber.

Vibration damping
Avoidance of operation in resonance regions as well as damping of vibration is very
important for the safety of industrial equipment and machines. To achieve both ends,
attempts should be made to convert the mechanical oscillations occurring in the machine in
to other kinds of energy by (a) using materials with high internal friction (b) applying on
surfaces visco – elastic materials with high internal friction. (c) Utilizing surface friction by
introducing into the design additional absorption elements or a coating to increase active
losses in the system. (d) Connecting oscillations motion energy into the energy of eddy
currents, or electro magnetic field. Sufficiently effective for these purposes are visco elastic
coatings applied directly on the working parts of machine units for cooled engagements,
boths of lubricant materials are also a useful means for minimizing vibrations.

Personal Protective Equipment/Devices

Suitable fort wear with shock aborting soles affords protection to the worker from general
vibration. Manufacturing specifications for such shoe wear are standardized. Safety boots
made or leather, artificial or synthetic materials or combination of these are meant for the
protection of persons against general vertical vibration. Special designs of sole and elastic
material used for its fabrication make such shoe wear effective against vibration. Safety
standards include also requirements for the protection of hands from harmful vibration which
include use of glass with elastic, shock absorting, insertd and special elastic devices to tack
the vibrating handles, tools and work pieces, the effectiveness of such protective means in
determined by the reduction in the level of vibration transferred to the hands and is equal to
the difference in the oscillatory velocities measured with and without the application of the
protective devices.

Instrumentation
Vibration is measured by the instrument based on the mechanical and electric method of
measurement. Mechanical measuring devices, due to gaps and lag of the indicating and
recording mechanism, give rather accurate readings only at relatively large amplitudes (more
than 0.05 mm) and at low frequencies (upto 30 Hz)
Electrical instruments are superior and more precises than the mechanical devices. They
permit measurement over a wide range of frequencies for vibration of large and low intensity.
Vibrograms are obtainable at a considerable distance from the vibration body, which is both safe
and convenient.
01 Explain the working of a silencer and describe how it reduces the noise?
02 Explain the use and purpose of silencers, support your answer with typical examples of
case studies (1996)
Ans Suppression of aerodynamic noise. Aero dynamic noises are sharp pulses of
velocity and pressure of air or gas flowing in conduits, occurring during the operation of
pneumatic machines, engines, compressors, Turb-blowers, fans, ejectors etc. To abate such
noises at the source is practically impossible so they have to be suppressed or silineed. The
aim is achieved by using various types of silencers and exhaust muscles which deaden the
noise by weaking the pulsations of pressure in a flow of air without causing instance to the
flow at the outlet.
There exist various types of silencers to suppress aerodynamic noise and reduce its effect
on people. The so called ‘Active Silencers’ have found wide application. They untilise the
principle of absorption the simplest silencer of the type is the exhaust apparatus consisting of a
casing having air channels, the inside surface of which is faced with a sound absorbing material,
and an expansion chamber. Passing through the channels, the airflow loses part of its sound
energy; thus the output noise level is reduced. The effectiveness of such exhaust silencer
depends on the length of the lagend section of the channel and absorption characteristics of the
logging. The silencing effect can be improved by filtering in the channels lagged inserts of a
smaller section. The sound absorbing lagging is fine fibreglass cloth and metallic or rigid PVC
mesh cloth. To avoid vertex formations which reduces the efficiency of the silencer, the velocity
of air flow is controlled within 12-15 mA/s. The best effect in noise control can be achieved by
applying various means of noise suppression in combination.
Q. How will you measure the noise and the units for evaluating the same
Sound pressure or intensity follows the inverse square law that is as the distance from the
source increase, the sound level decreases.
Decibel. To avoid working with widely, large numbers in evaluating sound intensity, a
logarithmic scale is used with the decibel as the unit of measure. Because the decibels are
logarithmic units, they cannot be added or subtracted arthematically. If the intensity of a sound
is doubled, there will be a corresponding increase of only 3 dB, not double the number. If one
machine caused an exposure of 90 dB. On decibel scale, zero decibels are the threshold of
hearing and 120 decibels is the threshold of pain.
Sound level measurement
The pure tone air conduction audiogram provides an accurate map of hearing acuity for a
range of selected frequencies. The frequencies monitored by audiometry should cove the range
of 500 to 8,000 hz. Early noise induced hearing loss is usually central about 1,00 hz and thus is
detected as a 4,000 hz dip or notch. A deeping and spreading of this notch, as exposure
continues, may be predictive of eventual loss in the speech – hearing frequencies and should
trigger the initiation of a hearing conservation program.
Instrument fro measuring the noise
 The basic instrument for measuring should level is the sound level meter, which consists
of a microphone input and output amplifiers and an intensity device. The microphone, transform
sound pressure waves into voltage fluctuations, which are again amplified sufficiently to activate
the indicative device. The sound level meter registers sound pressure and not sound power
directly. There are three principal networks – A. B. and C. However, now a days, the A
weighting is used for all sounds regards of level because it has been found that there is a good
agreement between subjective reaction and the A weighted sound level, regardless of level for
any generally similar noise sources. Most industrial noise standards have been based upon the A
weighted decibel.

3. VENTILATION
a. What are the factors to be considered while designing a dilution, ventilation
system?
a. Explain the purpose of ventilation and the term thermal comfort and indices of
heat stress.
b. Compare and contrast the functions of exhaust fans and air blowers with suitable
examples.
a. Describe the purpose of ventilation. Discuss about the various methods adopted fro
ventilation in industry and providing thermal comfort.
b. Discuss about the influence of thermal environment and effect on industrial
impact.
a. Describe the procedure to assess a thermal work environment.
b. Explain the parameters and indices involved.
c. What are the limitations of natural ventilation?
a. What is meant by heat stress? What are the instruments used for evaluation of
heat stress.
b. Ventilation and heat control and its importance in working environment.
Physiology of heat regulation
Describe an economic method of ensuring all cooling and comfort in a capital city
like Delhi
QI What are the factors to be considered while designing a dilution ventilation
system?
Ans Dilution ventilation or general ventilation refer to the process of using clean air to
reduce the level or concentration of contaminants in a building or space.
When used for reducing the concentration of flammable or combustible gases and
vapours below the LFL (Lower Flammable Limit), a factor of safety is applied to the air
requirement. Factors of safety range from 3 to 10. High values apply to those contaminants with
high toxic or flammable hazards, whereas low values apply to those contaminants with low toxic
or flammable hazards. There are practical limits to dilution ventilation. They include cost,
effectiveness and risk. If a contaminant is generated at high rate, a very large amount of air is
required to keep the contaminant at or below the LFL or below some allowable toxic
concentration.
It is expensive to move large quantities of air and also expensive to heat, cool or remove
moisture from entering air.
Dilution ventilation is best where contaminant generation is uniform and rate of
generation is low. This ventilation may move contaminated air to locations that are not other
wise contaminated and it could expose more people by moving toxic mixtures into breathing
zones of people.
Failure to keep concentrations of highly toxic or very flammable substances below limits
can have serious consequences. A system failure can produce very dangerous conditions.
Certain factors to be considered are :
Contaminated air should move away from occupants and fresh air should pass by
occupied areas first and move towards a source of contaminants.
Supply air should be dispersed as widely as possible to reduce the possibility of local
concentration buildup.
Dilution ventilation requirements should be based on the amount of air needed to control
some contaminant level or rate of contaminant generation.
The computation of ventilation required should adjust data to standard temperature (00C)
and pressure (460 mm Hg).
0II What is meant by heat stress? What are the instruments used for evolution of heat stress?
Ans Heat stress : The heat stress of any given working situation may be considered as
the combination of all those factors, which lead to connective or radiant heat gain to the body
or which limit or prevent the heat dissipative mechanism of the body.
Heat stress is the load of heat that must be dissipated by the body if it is to remain in
thermal equilibrium, it is represented by the sum of the metabolic rate and the gain or loss of heat
by conviction, radiation or the evaporation of sweat, these factors being governed by the ambient
air temperature, humidity and movement of air and by the temperature of the surrounding wall
and the objects.
Evaluation of heat stress
Now rational means have been developed for evaluating the stresses of hot environment
identifying the contributing factors and predicting the resulting physiological strain.
Stress parameters
If the thermal environment is to be completely evaluated, the four in divided elements
need to be stressed are the air temperature (dry bulb temperature), humidity (from depression
between dry and wet bulb readings), air movement and thermal radiation.
Instruments used for measurements
a. A whirling hygrometer (sling psychrometer) is used to assess the ambient air temperature
and humidity. It consists of a pair of thermometers housed in a wooden frame. The bulb
 of one of the thermometers is kept moist by wrapping it with a muslin soaked in distilled
water. The whole assembly is rotated (speed 60 revolutions per minute) till the readings
become steady. The reading of the dry bulb gives the ambient temperature while the drop
between dry and wet bulb temperature is an indication of relative humidity by using a
chart (Psychometric table)
b. The velocity of air is measured from kata cooling time of dry kata thermometer, alcohol
thermometer with a large bulb, usually coated with polished silver. Thermometers of
different ranges like 130-1250F and 150-1450F, depending upon the thermal conditions
of the work sites are used. From the cooling time of the thermometers the cooling power
of the site is calculated. From the kata cooling power and the dry bulb temperature of the
air the velocity of air movement is calculated using suitable monogram.
c. The simple and easy method of computing the radiant heat is to record the reading of the
globe thermometer. The globe thermometer consists of a hollow 6 inches metal sphere,
coated with malt black paint. It has an ordinary mercury thermometer with its bulb at the
center of the sphere. The globe thermometer filled with ambient air is exposed to the
environment for approximately 30 minutes. So as to reach an equilibrium with the
environment before the reading is taken. It records thermal radiations of the black globe
temperature (BGT) and dry bulb temperature shows appreciable difference, the thermal
radiation prevails in the environment.
0IIIWrite Short notes on ventilation and heat control and its importance in working
environment.
Ans Beat Control : Heat stress thermal injuries can be reduced or eliminated by
controlling the source, modifying the environment, adjusting the work, providing protective
equipment and meeting physiological and medical needs of workers.
Controlling the source
Insulation applied to a heat source will prevent air from becoming hot and people from
coming into contact with the hot surface. Not only is the hazard reduced, but in many cases
insulation conserves energy. Reducing temperatures may reduce or eliminate hazards.
Modifying the environment
The physical parameters involved in heat stress are air temperature, air velocity, mean
radiant temperature and vapour pressure. When these parameters cannot be modified by
adjustments at the source, ventilation may reduce heat stress, ventilation, the process of
supplying air from location other than the stressful environment, may be limited as a solution by
the heat capacity and temperature of the ventilation air.
 Where ventilation is not effective, a final control is cooling of air with air conditioning
equipment.
For environments with intense radiant sources, shielding may reduce the radiation
reaching a person, because radiant energy travels in a straight line and air is not heated by it
directly.
The distance between a person and the radiant source can be lengthened to reduce
radiation levels as radiation intensity diminishes with the swarf of the distance. Barrier guards
will prevent people from coming into contact with hot surface or getting close to operations
where hot material is found.

Adjusting activities
People can modify activities to reduce heat stress. Metabolic heat generation can be
reduced by making work easier and providing power tools and equipment to reduce work effort
required.
Another way to adjust the work is to limit the time of exposure to hot environments and
to provide adequate periods of rest, both of which reduce the heat buildup in the body. Workers
might be rotated through different jobs so that only a portion of their work is in stressful
environments.
Providing protective equipment
For hot environments, water cooled clothing (helmets, underwear, full uniforms) can be
used.
Air cooled clothing which relies on air lines and vortex devices for cooling may provide
sufficient cooling capacity in some environments in environments with intense radiation,
reflective clothing may be helpful and protective eye wear which reflects of filters harmful wave
lengths are required.
Proximity and entry suits for approaching the heat source.
Physiological and medical controls
Heat strain can be reduced to some extent by ensuring that people replace lost body salts
and water. Medical examination may help identify those who are great risks for heat stress
because of age, physical condition or existing health problems. High risk people can be kept out
of heat stress environments.
A programme of acclimatization can also be used to improve the some degree the
capacity of individuals to perform in hot environments.
1995 I Explain the purpose of ventilation and the term ‘Thermal Comfort’ and indices of heat
stress.
Ans Purpose of ventilation : Ventilation is one of the most important engineering control
techniques for improving the quality of air in the work area. It controls the
environment with air flow. In industries, this method is used for achieving one or
combination of the following purposes.
1. Heating or cooling
 2. Removing the contaminant
3. Diluting the concentration of the contaminant
4. Supply of make up air
By adopting good ventilation system, the improvements that could be achieved are
1. Reduce the explosive concentration in the environment to avoid explosion or fire.
2. Protection of the health of the workers from harmful contaminants.
3. Provision of a comfortable working conditions.
Ventilation has to maintain the oxygen content of the air and to prevent CO2
concentrations from rising
To prevent objectionable odours,
to prevent harmful concentration of aerosols and airborne contaminants.
to maintain reasonable conditions of comfort for operators.

Thermal comfort
Human tolerates a limited range of thermal environments. At one extreme there is
excessive cold and low temperatures, at the other there is excessive heat and high temperature
only a narrow region in the middle is thermally comfortable.
Humans have internal thermal regulation systems. The rate at which metabolic heat is
produced in the body must be balanced by the rate at which heat is lost to the environment. If
heat is lost too quickly, one becomes cold, if heat is lost too slowly or is added to the body one
becomes hot. The body has limited means for adjusting the rate at which heat is lost.
The rate of cooling is increased by sweating and more blood flowing near the skin.
To prevent heat loss, peripheral blood flow is reduced and shivering occurs.
The thermal environment can create heat exchange problems for the entire body
(Heat stress or cold stress conditions) or for local areas of the body.
For whole body heat exchange, metabolic heat M must be balanced with the environment
through conviction C, radiation R and evaporation E. Heat exchange between the body and the
environment can be expressed as M  C  R – E = 0.

Indices of heat stress

The idea of thermal comfort is based on subjective evaluation of thermal environments.
Heat stress is concerned with hot environments. Heat stress is concerned with hot environments
outside the comfort zone, primarily those that result in physiological (blood flow, internal body
temperature, sweating) changes. These changes are indicators of heat strain, a term referring to
the physiological changes brought on by heat stress conditions of the physical environment.
 A number of heat stress indices have been developed to predict whether exposures to hot
environments will result in excessive heat strain. The two most commonly used indices are heat
stress index (HIS) and wet bulb globe temperature index (WBGT).
The heat stress index is a more accurate predictor of heat strain. However,
instrumentation and calculations required for a WBGT assessment are simpler, hence WBGT is
the index recommended by NIOSH and ACGIH both HIS and WBGT tables apply to show
exposures.
Heat stress index
The HIS compares the amount of sweat that must be evaporated to balance the heat loss
equation. For a given set of environmental conditions to the maximum amount of sweat that can
actually also evaporated for these conditions.
HSI = Ereu x 100 / Emax
Where HSI = A dimensionless index number
Ereu = Evaporate heat loss required (kCal/Hr)
Emax = Maximum evaporative heat loss (kCal/Hr)
Skin surface temperature can be assumed to be 350C
The decision whether on environment is safe or whether corrective actions are needed
can be based on an assessment of the environment in equation using HIS and heat stress index
implications table.
Wet bulb globe temperature index
The WBGT index was developed as a simple to use method for determining if military
troops were likely to suffer from heat illness in hot environments only 2 or 3 measurements are
needed. Wet bulb (static) temperature (WB), dry bulb temperature (DB) and globe temperature
(GT) WBGT values are computed from one of two equations, depending on the presence of a
solar load.
WBGT = 0.7 WB + 0.2 GT + 0.2 DB
(With a solar load)
WBGT = 0.7 WB + 0.3 GT
(Without a solar load)
Knowledge of the metabolic activity and WBGT helps to decide from TLVS if
adjustments in work are needed.
Oxford indexes
This index of heat stress has been devised to assess the severity of hot humid conditions
of the working places, particularly where ventilation is poor.
This is expressed by a simple weighting as follows:
WD = 0.15 d + 0.85 W
Where WD = Weighted value
 d&W = Dry and wet bulb temperatures.
Describe the purpose of ventilation. Discuss about the various methods adopted for ventilation
in industry and providing thermal comfort.
Ans Purpose of ventilation : Please refer QI of 1995 various methods adopted for
ventilation:
Ventilation methods van be divided into two main groups
i. Natural ventilation and
ii. Mechanical ventilation
Many times mechanical ventilation is employed to augment the ventilation obtained by
natural means.
i. Natural ventilation
Principle
Forces which operate to induce natural ventilation in buildings are due to
a. Pressures exerted by the outside wind i.e. wind action and
b. The temperature difference of the air within and outside the buildings, i.e. thermal
need causing chimney effects. The force exerted by wind strikes a building positive
pressure is created on the windward side of the building, and negative pressure on the
lee-ward side, i.e. at the lee of the building, at the sides and over the roof immediately
behind the windward openings, suitably placed in relation to these pressure areas, are
available, it should be possible to combine the effects of the varying wind pressure
and more air rapidly through and within the building. At or near the windows, the
rate of air movements induced owing to the pressured difference will be high, but at
the center the air movement will be considerably diminished. It is, therefore,
important that such areas of low air movement should be eliminated by increasing the
proportions of effective ventilating openings in the wall and roof and by suitable
orientation of the building in relation to the prevailing winds.
Thermal head sets up the usual convection currents with the movement of warmed air
upwards to leave openings in or near the roof, and be replaced to cool air entering at a lower
level.
Cross Ventilation
In factory building where the widths are not large, good cross ventilation can usually be
obtained by the provision of large and suitably placed windows or combination of windows and
wall ventilators for the inflow and outflow of air. Since view of ventilation is to provide
reasonable conditions of thermal comfort, air movements will have to be sufficiently high during
summer months to bring down the effective temperature of the factory environments.
Considering the psychological principles involved in man’s reaction to hot weather, it is felt that
air movements of 45 to 60 meters (150 to 200 ft) per minute should be aimed at to improve
comfort.
Area of openings
The method of calculation of ventilating area based on number of occupants does not
have a sound basis for the following reasons. As pointed out earlier, the main consideration in
providing ventilation in an industrial building is ton maintain conditions inside the work rooms
which assist the maintenance of thermal equilibrium of the body and also afford reasonable
comfort workers. The heat load from persons within the room is generally very small
considering the heat gains from either sources such as sun, hot manufacturing processes,
machinery and lights and therefore, it is not sound to base the rate of ventilation on the number
of occupants.
It is difficult to evolve a common standard which will be applicable to all cases. For
factories where there is no excessive heat gain either due to manufacturing area of 15% in arid
regions and 25% in humid regions. It is also a good working rule that about half the ventilating
area should be between floor and so arranged that there will be passage of air across all parts of
the building. The lest of the ventilating openings may be provided under the caves or at the
glazing of the roof.
Roofed ventilation
Crossed ventilation by provision of windows and wall ventilators is suitable only for
narrow factory buildings or work places. In large buildings roofed ventilation would be required.
The most common means adopted for effecting ventilation through ventilating area in the roof is
by natural ventilation induced by thermal head causing chimney effect. However, the chimney
effect us counteracted when the wind blows straight against these roof openings, such
interference can be prevented by suitably altering the design of the ventilating openings in the
case of pitched roof and saw tooth roofed buildings. In the case of monitor buildings, the
ventilators in the glazings should be of opening and closing type so that the ventilators on the
windward side can be kept closed to prevent direct draughts of air interfering with upward floor
of air.
The following sketches show the modified type of roof ventilators.
Modified pitched roof
Modified saw tooth roof wind actions in any directions dose not cause interference with
chimney effect nut supplements ventilation by creating suction through wind jump.
Cowl type roof ventilator
Natural extraction of air from buildings can be obtained by the provisions of cowl type
roof ventilators also. The performance of the roof cowls depends on the difference between the
temperature of the external and internal air, on the height of these ventilators above air intake, on
the velocity of the external wind and on the cross-sectional area of the ventilators.
As will be noted the circular wind band around the ventilator causes a wind the jump
resulting in an upward draught of air from inside the building which supplements the ventilation
due to chimney effect depending on the height of the ventilator above the intake openings in the
sidewalls.
Cowl type of roof ventilator
Capacity of this ventilator for a 60 cm (24 in) diameter cowl in relation to temperature
difference, height of ventilator above intake and wind velocity is given by the equation.
Q = A (3.3/5.91 R ltd – (0) + 0.0035 V
Where Q = is expressed in Cu meters / Min
A = is the cross sectional area of the ventilator in squ.mts.
H = is height of the ventilator above the inlets in meters
tI and to = internal and outside temperatures in 0C
and V = the wind velocity in kilometers/hr.
Another type of cowly ventilator is the rotating cowl ventilator is the rotating cowl
ventilator shown is figure below which is intended to produce the same effect. The type
illustrated is carefully balanced and provided with a large reservoir for lubricant so that it does
not get jammed or seized and needs attention only at long intervals.
Rotating type cowl ventilator
ii. Mechanical ventilation
Ventilation by natural means is not always practicable in which case ventilation by
mechanical means is resorted to workrooms a workplaces where ventilation openings cannot be
provided due to their situation with respect to surrounding buildings or due to the process carried
on in them and large buildings where natural means failed to provide the necessary ventilation
are examples where mechanical ventilation would be necessary. Mechanical ventilation is
brought about by either one or both of the following two methods.
a. Ventilation through windows or other openings owing to the suction created by the
exhaust air, and
b. Positive ventilation by means of a fan or blower.
Exhaust ventilation
Ventilation by this system can be effected in the case of narrow rooms by providing
exhaust fans at suitable intervals in one side wall and adequate inlet openings in the opposite
wall. Care should be taken to see that adequate inlet openings are provided so as to minimize
draughts caused by high inlet velocities, and to avoid drop in efficiency of the system. The total
inlet area should be atleast three times the total disc are of the fan. The fan exhaust fans should
be provided with wind shields on the outside of the wall so that wind pressure may not decrease
their efficiency. They should, at the same time, not restrict free discharge of air. Effective
protection from window can be given by having the fans to discharge water protection at the top.
The arrangements mentioned above are shown in the following sketches.
Short duct with cap
Windows and other openings near the far should be kept closed as otherwise fans will
draw air supply from these openings and thus cause short circuiting which is a very common
fault with this type of ventilation.
 Exhaust ventilation can be provided in larger workrooms by having a fan of adequate
capacity extracting air from the interior of the rooms by means of suitably placed ducting.
Exhaust ventilation is often used in combination with natural ventilation so as to
effectively ventilate work rooms where natural means alone will not be sufficient to provided
adequate ventilation in all portions of the rooms.
Plenum ventilation
Compared with extraction system, plenum ventilation afford more complete control of
atmospheric conditions inside the factory. Plenum system is useful where extraction system
cannot be readily applied as in very large departments or work rooms. In this system of
ventilation, air is forced into the building by means of a centrifugal or other type of pressure fan
and is distributed through suitably placed ducts. This system has various advantages. The
supply air can be conditioned, if desired, before it is passed into the plenum chamber and ducts.
This slight positive pressured set up with the building prevents inward leakage of warm or cold
outside air. The volume of air movement that can be set up by plenum ventilation is many times
more than what is possible by exhausting. Also better dilution of contamination and lower
operator exposure can be achieved with a well designed supply system than with exhaust, since
the supply can be directed to the important sources of contamination and good circulation is
effected without accessory equipment. Air supplied from supply inlets or the location of the
supply should not be such as to disturb the air flow at local exhaust hoods. Ducting should be so
designed and laid as to convey the air as directly as possible at suitable velocities at the same
time due regard to economy material and power. Ducts should be smooth and as straight as
possible. Sharp bends and sudden enlargements and contractions should be avoided. For
changing the direction or dimensions of a duct, the angle between the sides and axis of the duct
should never exceed 300 and preferably be not more than 150.
The velocities depend upon the nature of the installation and the extent of quietness
required.
The air inlets should be designed and the discharge velocity should be such as to cause
eddy currents and to remove “deal spaces”. The air velocities should not be excessive to the
extent of interfering with the manufacturing process or of causing unpleasantness, but there
should be currents of sufficient strength and variability so as to provide a pleasant environment.
Good distribution I s often achieved by using diffusers at the inlets. Another method of
distribution used in industry with plenum system is to deliver air is obtained and more
distribution of the air caused. Excessive draughts can be avoided by the nozzles discharging air
horizontally at a little height above the heads of the workers.
Combined plenum and extraction system
Better control of ventilation is obtained by this system of ventilation in wider buildings,
by supplying appropriate quantities of air and at suitable velocities at the required areas by
plenum ducts and extracting the air into return ducts and sometimes recirculating this air after
properly mixing it with cooled fresh air, completely satisfactory ventilation can be obtained in a
combined supply and exhaust system it is preferable to provide slightly excess of exhaust, if
there are adjoining occupied spaces and slight excess of supply if there are no such spaces.
Mechanical roof ventilation
 Powerful mechanical roof ventilators of unit type are increasingly being used for
augmenting natural ventilation in buildings with large widths or where the heat load is very
heavy when there are provided, it is important that the openings within their area of influence
should be closed to avoid short circulating exhaust fans exercise very little influence beyond
velocity control about 15 mt/min or 50 ft/min which is just short instance from the fan.

ILLUMINATION
(OR)
INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
a. Explain the principles of good illumination and its influence in the production
output.
b. Describe the different sources of lights and explain the comparative advantages
and disadvantages of each system.
a. Discuss about the different methods of industrial lighting and advantages of each
system.
b. What are the minimum standards of illumination and explain the importance of
good maintenance.
a. What are the advantages of good illumination describe the advantages w.r.t.
Different types of lighting.
b. Discuss about the details of designing good lighting system and its influence in
safety.
Design a lighting installation for a workshop of size 100’ x 150’ taking guidelines
from statutory provisions and Indian standards.
Explain how colour, bad ventilation, bad lighting became accident hazard.
Design of lighting installation in Industry.
Different methods of artificial lighting effect of colour on lighting.
A. Industrial plant lighting may be provided by both natural and artificial lighting, namely
daylight and electrical lighting.
Daylight: Natural daylight is an uncertain and unpredictable type of illumination at the
same time it is available naturally and one need not spend money on it.
Window areas serve at least 3 useful purposes in industrial buildings.
a. They provide for admission, control and distribution of day light for seeing.
b. Provide distant focus and through relax eye muscles.
c. Eliminate the dis-satisfaction some people experience in completely closed in
structures.
However an adequate electrical lighting system should always be provided in addition,
because of wide variation with time and weather conditions, in the amount of daylight available.
 Electrical Lighting
The prime requirements for industrial lighting are high quality and sufficient quantity of
illumination on all work planes. Under these conditions personnel will be able to observe and
control effectively. The operations and maintenance of various types of machines and process.
For most industrial work areas, a sufficient quantity of natural light is often not available under
optimum day light conditions. Therefore, electric lighting is required it maintain good seeing
conditions. It is essential that the electric lighting system be so designed and installed as to
continue the general level of illumination in the areas adjacent to the windows or walls, thus
insuring good lighting over the entire working area. Distribution of light from luminaries is
important. Highly concentrated distribution make high maintaining heights economically
feasible. Low mounting heights on the other hand allow a wide spread of distribution.
These are 3 – forms of electrical lighting used in industrial areas:
1.General
2.Localised general
3.Supplementary
Advantages
Quality of illumination pertains to distribution of brightness, uniformity, colour, visibility
and ability to easily accurately and quickly.
Quantity of illuminations reaching the working plane can be property directed to work
place.
Disadvantages
Glare from electrical lighting reduces the efficiency of the eye and may cause discomfort
and fatigue leading to unnecessary accidents.

Cost factor is an important criteria

Regular maintenance and follow up required
Electrical hazards like shock burns and fires are to be taken care of.

Q. What are the min.standards of illumination and explain the importance of good
maintenance
A. As per factories Act 1948,section 17 and rule no.30 the general illumination over the interior
parts of a factory where persons are regularly employed shall not be less than 65 lux measured in
the horizontal plane at a level of 91.4 cms above the floor. The place where persons pass shall
not be less than 5.5 lux at floor level, similarly the illumination varies for different jobs like
grinding, mixing, sutting and other precision jobs.
Maintenance
A regular, scheduled system of maintenance should be established to make sure that
luminaries and room surface are kept clean and in proper conditon, however even if maintenance
is performed well and at the appropriate periods, under normal operating consitions, there is
frequently an average reduction of 25% to 35% in lighting level. The amount of depreciation
depends on:
The decrease of light out put of lamp with age
The design of luminations with reference to the rate at which dirt accumulates.
The severety of dirt conditions in the area.
It maintenance is not well performed or is performed infrequency after a period of time
the light at the working surfaces is likely to be below 50% of the initial. Because it is essential to
the efficient operation of an industrial lighting system frequent maintenance is more important
and more economical than allowing the system to operate at low efficiency. Good maintenance
apart from increasing the lighting efficiency also increases the life of the lamps and lighting
system. Minimizing the losses likely to be incurred because of poor maintenance and ensures
good house keeping automatically.

Q. Explain how colour, bad ventilation, bad lighting become accident hazards
A. Colour
Perception and visibility are improved by use of suitable colours on walls, ceiling, floors
and equipment. White colour gives maximum brightness hence used for ceilings, if floors and
equipment are comparatively dark reflecting 25% to 40% of light, then upper walls should have a
reflectance of 50% to 60%. By judicious use of colours, an interior can be made attractive and
those have psychological effect on employees.
Light shades are appropriate for most parts of a plant. Green and blue tints give a cool effect and
are psychologically valuable where temperature are relatively high. A soft blue – green colour is
commonly used on walls. Ivory and cream are warm colours. Rose shades are suitable for female
rest rooms, while blue is referred by men. Light gray is effective for machinery – parts at the
point operation being painted orange to high light any dangerous parts. These colours are
extensively used for safety purpose and if these are not followed properly or colours are
mismatched it may become potential hazards.
Ventilation
Ventilation is needed for personal comfort and very often to meet process conditions.
Personal comfort is very important as it affects efficiency. Every effort should be made, not only
to make general office and plant conditions comfortable, but also to eliminate – or at least reduce
– conditions, which can contribute to excessive employee fatigue and discomfort. If machinery
or processes radiate heat or generate harmful fumes, dusts vapours or crases. Extra ventilation to
be supplied to the work area in the form of local ventilation or dilute ventilation. If the above
condition is not maintained it affects not only the productivity but also the safety and health of
the employees exposed to such conditions.
Lighting
Inadequate amount of lighting in an industrial establishment decreases the productivity
quality of work and increases the number of work stoppages and also helps in increasing the
potential hazard.
 The objective of any lighting scheme and layout should be that the human eye should be
able to do its work properly and without causing fatigue is damage to itself. These should be
enough illumination to see the details on the work spot to see clearly without strain, the shape of
objects will be clearly visible to the eye on account of proper brightness and contrast and those
should be not glazed or dazzling effect from the light sources.
Q. Describe different methods of artificial lighting and effect of colour on lighting .
Ans. For most industrial work areas, a sufficient quantity of natural light is often not available,
even under optimum day light conditions. Therefore artificial is required to maintain good seeing
conditions. It is essential that the electrical lighting system be also designed and installed as to
continue the general level of illumination in areas adjacent to the windows or walls, thus
ensuring good lighting over the entire working area.
There are three methods of electrical lighting used is industrial areas: general, localized
general and supplementary.
General Lighting
This provides relatively uniforms illumination throughout the area involved. Uniform
illumination is defined as a distribution of light where the maximum and minimum illuminations
at any point is not greater than one – sixth above or below the average level in the area. Care
must be taken not to exceed the suggested spacing – to – maintaining light ratios for the lighting
equipment used.
Localized General Lighting
This reinforces the general lighting in specific areas through the case of additional
general lighting equipment in the areas involved.
Supplementary Lighting
It is used to provide higher illumination levels for small or restricted areas where such
levels cannot readily for economically be obtained by general lighting methods. Supplementary
lighting is also used to furnish a specific brightness, or color, or to permit special aiming or
positioning of light sources.
Effect of Colour or Lighting
Perception and visibility are improved use of suitable colours on walls, ceiling, floor and
equipment. Light – reflecting qualities of surfaces contribute to falled utilization of available
light, and properly chosen colour helps eliminate sharp contrasts in brightness in workers field of
vision, thus contributing to good seeing.
By judicious use of colors, an interior can be made attractive and thus have a good
psychological effect an employees. Light shades are appropriate for most parts of a plant. Green
and blue tints give a cool effect, and are psychologically valuable where temperatures are
relatively high. A fort blue colour is commonly used on walls. Ivory at cream are warm colors.
Rose shades are suitable for female rest rooms, while blue is preferred by man. Light gray is
effective for machinery – parts at the point of operation being painted orange to highlight any
dangerous parts.
Proper colours should be used according to standards to improve the utilization as used as
morale of the people employed.
 INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
OR
ILLUMINATION
Q. Explain the principles of good illumination and its influence in the production
Output.
Q. What are the advantages of good illumination?
Describe the advantages w.r.t.different types of lighting.
Ans. Good lighting is becoming increasingly recognized as an important aid to
Management in achieving high productivity and in providing satisfactory
Working conditions for employees, which will enable with minimum
Fatigue.
Make the task easy to see: Besides providing sufficient light on the work , it is important
to make sure that the illumination is of suitable quality i.e. it should contain both differ and
directional components since this combination produces the soft shadows which reveal the shape
and position of objects and also helps to create the reflected highlights which reveal the shape
and texture of shiny surfaced articles. On the other hand, troublesome reflections, which may
obstruct details in the task, must be avoided.
Provided comfortable seeing condition : Glare and gloom must be eliminated by housing
lamps, inside well designed lighting fittings which adequately screen them from view and also
distribute some light to the ceiling and upper walls of the room. Correct spacing and placing of
these. Fittings with respect to the work is often of great importance, moreover the main interior
surfaces of the room such as the ceiling walls, plant etc., must be finished in suitable light
reflecting colours.
Keep the installation in good working order : In designing an installation the need for
future maintenance must not be overlooked. It is therefore necessary to choose equipment that
will be easy to service and also provide safe and easy means of access, poor seeing conditions
cause inefficiency spoilt work and accidents money spent on an installation complying with all
the requirements or good seeing is an investment which not only ensure better and safer working
conditions but which also helps to promote maximum productivity.
Choice of illumination level : It is essential to remember that whist doubling the
illumination on a badly underlist ask will produce a substantial improvement in the efficiency
with which it can be performed further doubling and re-doubling of this illumination produces a
smaller and smaller improvement each time. In other words the curve tends to flatten out at a
performance level which no further addition to the illumination can improve.
Factories act
In every of a factory
Where workers are working or passing there shall be provided and maintained sufficient
and suitable lighting, natural or artificial or both.
 In every factory all glazed windows and sky lights used for the lighting of the workroom
shall be kept clean on both the inner and outer surfaces and free from obstruction.
In every factory effective provision shall, so far as is practicable, be made for the
prevention of (a) glare, either directly from a source of light or by reflection from a smooth or
polished surface (b) the formation of shadows to such an extent as to cause eye strain or the risk
of accident to any worker.
The government may prescribe standards of sufficient and suitable lighting for factories
or for any class or description of factories or for any manufacturing process.