Optical thickness (τ): 𝐿 = 𝐿0 𝑒 −𝜏 2

4𝜋𝑅1,2 4
𝜎𝑇1,2
𝑓1,2 =
𝑅2
4𝜋𝐷 2
Opacity (α) [m-1]: 𝐹(𝑟) = 𝐹0 𝑒 −𝜏
𝑟2 𝑅1 𝑓1 𝑇22
=
𝑚 − 𝑀 = 5 log 𝑟 − 5 + 𝐴 𝑅2 𝑓2 𝑇12

A=ar, for constant opacity, a=1.086α 𝑡2

𝑅2 = 𝑅1 + Δ𝑅 = 𝑅1 + ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
(𝐵 − 𝑉) = (𝑀𝐵 − 𝑀𝑉 ) + (𝐴𝐵 − 𝐴𝑉 ) 𝑡1

(𝐵 − 𝑉) = (𝐵 − 𝑉)0 + 𝐸(𝐵 − 𝑉) Calibrated optical P-L colour relation

(𝐵 − 𝑉)0 = 𝑀𝐵 − 𝑀𝑉 𝑀𝑉 = −2.81 log 𝑃𝑑 − 1.43

= −3.53 log 𝑃𝑑 + 2.13〈𝐵 − 𝑉〉 − 2.13
𝐸(𝐵 − 𝑉) = (𝐵 − 𝑉) − (𝐵 − 𝑉)0 〈𝐿〉
Average luminosity: log = 1.15 log 𝑃𝑑 + 2.47
𝐴𝑉 𝐿⊙
𝑅= ≈ 3.0
𝐸(𝐵 − 𝑉) Luminosity Function: Φ(𝑀)Δ𝑀 =
𝑉 − 𝑀𝑉 ≈ 5 log 𝑟 − 5 + 3.0 × 𝐸𝐵−𝑉 number density of stars with magnitudes between M and M +
ΔM
Qext (extinction efficiency factor):𝐶𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑄𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝜋𝑎2
Initial Mass Function: 𝜉(𝑀)Δ𝑀 =
𝑟
number of stars born with initial masses between M and M +
𝜏(𝑟) = ∫ 𝑛𝐶𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐶𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑛̅𝑟
0 ΔM

𝑛̅ (mean particle density along path):𝐴(𝑟) = 1.086 𝐶𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑛̅𝑟 Φ(𝑀)𝑇0

Ψ(𝑀) =
𝑡𝐸 (𝑀)
𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑎/𝜆 and 𝑄𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑄𝑒𝑥𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑚)
T0 is age of the MW and tE is main sequence lifetime of stars
𝐴𝑉 (𝑏) = Δ𝑚 csc 𝑏 with mag M
0.132(csc 𝑏 − 1) for b ≤ 50°
𝐴𝐵 (𝑏) = { 𝜉(𝑀) = 𝜉0 𝑀−2.35
0 for b > 50°
𝑅
(𝑏⁄𝑎)2 − 𝑞02 Exponential density profile: 𝐼(𝑅) = 𝐼0 exp (− ), where I0
2 ℎ𝑅
cos 𝑖 =
1 − 𝑞02 is central SB [mag.arcsec-2]
𝑐 𝑧 𝑧 𝑅
c (disk thickness): 𝑞0 = − − −
𝑎 Star count: 𝑛(𝑧, 𝑅) = 𝑛0 (𝑒 𝑧𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛
+ 0.085𝑒 𝑧𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘
)𝑒 ℎ𝑅

5 log 𝑅 = −𝑚 + 𝑐
hR ~ 2.25 kpc, n0 ~ 0.02 stars/pc3 for 4.5 < MV < 9.5
𝑁𝐻𝐼
𝐸(𝐵 − 𝑉) = −
𝑅
𝑧
5.8 × 1025 m−2 Luminosity density: 𝐿(𝑅, 𝑧) = 𝐿0 𝑒 ℎ𝑅 sech2
𝑧0
FWHM (Δv) [km.s-1]
For the thin disk,
𝑁𝐻
𝜏𝐻 = 5.2 × 10−19 𝑧 2
𝑇∆𝑣 sech = 𝑧 ⁄𝑧
𝑧0 𝑒 0 + 𝑒 −𝑧⁄𝑧0
𝐿 ∝ 𝐸𝑀 = ∫ 𝑛𝑒 2 𝑑𝑙 𝑧0 = 2𝑧𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 and 𝐿0 ≅ 0.05𝐿⊙ pc −3
1 𝑁
3𝑁 3 −23 Fe 𝑁Fe 𝑁Fe ( Fe )
𝑟𝑠 ≅ ( ) 𝑛𝐻 𝐻 star
4𝜋𝛼 [ ] ≡ log ( ) − log ( ) = log [ ]
H 𝑁H star 𝑁H ⊙ 𝑁Fe
( )
𝐻 ⊙
𝑇3
𝑀𝐽 ≈ 3 × 104 √ 𝑀 𝐿 𝑀
𝛼
𝑛 ⊙ =( )
𝐿⊙ 𝑀⊙
𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 ; 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣 sin 𝜃 = 𝜇𝑟
4.0 for 𝑀 > 0.5 𝑀⊙
𝛼≈{
proper motion μ [“/year] 2.3 for 𝑀 < 0.5 𝑀⊙
〈𝑣𝑟 〉tan 𝜃
𝑟(𝑝𝑐) = M/L = 3 M⊙/L⊙
4.74〈𝜇"〉
Δ𝜆 𝜆𝑜𝑏𝑠 − 𝜆𝑟𝑓 〈𝑀〉 = 31⁄1−𝛼 𝑀⊙
𝑣𝑟 = =
𝜆𝑟𝑓 𝜆𝑟𝑓
 1 2𝜋
𝑅 4 = 𝑃rev
𝐼(𝑅) = 𝐼𝑒 exp (−7.67 [( ) − 1]) 𝐴−𝐵
𝑅𝑒
Prev = 240 Myr
1
𝐼(𝑅) 𝑅 4
log = −3.33 [( ) − 1] 𝑑 = 𝑅0 cos ℓ
𝐼𝑒 𝑅𝑒
𝐺𝑀
Keplerian velocity 𝑉 = √
MMW = 9 × 10 10
M⊙ 𝑅

RMW ~ 230 kpc 𝑅𝑉 2

𝑀=
𝐺
𝜌0
𝜌(𝑟) =
𝑟 𝑟 2
( ) (1 + ) 2𝐺𝑀
𝑎 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
𝑅
R0 = 8.5 kpc
𝑉2
V(R0) = V0 = 220 km/s 𝜌(𝑅) =
4𝜋𝐺𝑅2
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝜌0
(Π = ,Θ = ,𝑍 = ) Dark Matter Density Distribution: 𝜌(𝑅) = 𝑅 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1+( )
𝑎

Π𝐿𝑆𝑅 = 𝑍𝐿𝑆𝑅 = 0 and Θ𝐿𝑆𝑅 = 𝑉0 = 𝑉(𝑅0 ) 𝜌0

𝜌𝑁𝐹𝑊 (𝑟) =
𝑑𝜃 𝑟 𝑟 2
( ) (1 + )
𝑽 = (𝑉𝑅 , 𝑉𝜃 , 𝑉𝑧 ) ≡ (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤) = (Π, 𝑅 − 𝑉0 , 𝑍) 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑡
2𝐺𝑀𝐵𝐻
𝑢⊙ = −10.0 ± 0.4 km. s −1 Schwarzschild radius: 𝑅𝑠 =
𝑐2
Solar motion { 𝑣⊙ = 5.2 ± 0.6 km. s −1 1
𝑤⊙ = 7.2 ± 0.4 km. s −1 𝐿 = 𝑀̇𝑐 2
4
〈𝑢〉 = 〈𝑤〉 ≅ 0 Ellipticals: En where 𝑛 =
10(𝑎−𝑏)
and 𝑎 and 𝑏 are major and
𝑎
Kepler’s Laws minor axes
𝑅
1+e 1−e −
𝑣𝑝2 = 𝐺𝑀 and 𝑣𝑎2 = 𝐺𝑀 𝐼(𝑅) = 𝐼0 𝑒 ℎ𝑅 where 𝐼0 is central SB of disk, and ℎ𝑅 is
𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑎 characteristic scale length
〈𝑣〉 = 𝐶𝜎𝑢2 − 𝑣⊙ where 𝜎𝑢 ≡ 〈𝑢2 〉1/2 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3 − 5ℎ𝑅
Oort’s Constants SBO = 21.7 mag.arcsec-2 and SBK = 18 mag.arcsec-2
𝑉 𝑉0 Line width Δ𝑉 [km/s] and inclination 𝑖
𝑣𝑟 = 𝑅0 sin ℓ ( − ) = 𝑅0 sin ℓ (𝜔 − 𝜔0 )
𝑅 𝑅0
Δ𝑉
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑉 sin 𝛼 − 𝑉0 cos ℓ = 𝑅0 cos ℓ (𝜔 − 𝜔0 ) − 𝜔𝑑 Δ𝑉 𝑖 =
sin 𝑖
ω=V/R 𝑏
𝑖 = arccos
𝑉𝑅 ≅ 𝐴𝑑 sin 2ℓ 𝑎
𝑉𝑇 ≅ 𝐴𝑑 cos 2ℓ + 𝐵𝑑
Δ𝑉20 − Δ𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑚
Δ𝑉𝑅𝑖 =
1 𝑑𝑉 𝑉0 sin 𝑖
𝐴≡− ( | − )
2 𝑑𝑅 𝑅0 𝑅0 Integrated flux: 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑆 ∙ Δ𝑉 in Jy.km/s
1 𝑑𝑉 𝑉0
𝐵≡− ( | + ) 𝑀(𝐻𝐼) = 2.356 ∙ 105 ∙ 𝐷 2 ∙ 𝐼 [M⊙] (D [Mpc])
2 𝑑𝑅 𝑅0 𝑅0

𝜇𝑑 = 𝑉𝑇 Tully-Fisher Relation: (𝑚 − 𝑀) = 5 log 𝐷[𝑀𝑝𝑐] − 25

∴ 𝜇 ≅ 𝐴 cos 2ℓ + 𝐵 𝑀 1 𝐿
≡ and ≡ 𝐶𝑆𝐵 (Freeman’s Law)
𝐿 𝐶𝑀𝐿 𝑅2
A = 14.8 ± 0.8 km.s-1kpc-1
𝑀 = −10 log 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
B = -12.4 ± 0.6 km.s-1kpc-1
log 𝑅25 = −0.249𝑀𝐵 − 4.00
𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝜔0
𝑑𝑉 Virial Theorem: −2⟨𝐾⟩ = ⟨𝑈⟩
𝐴 + 𝐵 = −( )
𝑑𝑅 𝑅0 For N stars:
𝐵 〈𝑢〉
− =
𝐴 + 𝐵 〈𝑣〉 ⟨𝑣 2 ⟩ = ⟨𝑣𝑟2 ⟩ + ⟨𝑣𝜃2 ⟩ + ⟨𝑣𝜙2 ⟩ = 3⟨𝑣𝑟2 ⟩
1
𝑁
and power received within frequency interval 𝜐1 and 𝜐2 :
∑ 𝑣𝑖2 = 3⟨𝑣𝑟2 ⟩ = 3𝜎𝑟2
𝑁 𝜐2
𝑖=1 𝐿 = 4𝜋𝑑 2 ∫ 𝐹𝜐 𝑑𝜐
𝜐1
3 𝐺𝑀2
𝑈≈ −
5 𝑅 Δ𝜆 𝑣 𝐻0 𝑑 𝑅𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
5𝑅𝜎 2 𝑧= = = = −1
𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑀𝐵𝐻 ≈ 𝜆0 𝑐 𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐺
Δ𝜆 is 𝜆𝑜𝑏𝑠 − 𝜆0 , v is rec. velocity, d is distance to the object,
𝐿15 R is size of the universe
𝑆𝑁 = 𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁𝑡 ∙ 100.4(𝑀𝑉+15)
𝐿𝑉
(𝑧+1)2 −1
At v≈c, 𝑣 = 𝑐 (𝑧+1)2
Isotropic stellar velocity distribution, +1

1
𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝜖 2 𝑣 2 𝑐Δ𝑡
( ) ≈( ) 𝑅 = 𝑐Δ𝑡√1 − =
𝜎𝑚 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 1−𝜖 𝑐2 𝛾

𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡 is maximum observed rotational velocity and 𝜎𝑚 is Light from edge (𝓵2); nearest point on sphere (𝓵1)
velocity dispersion
ℓ1 + 𝑅
Faber-Jackson relation (𝜎0 ≡ central radial velocity ℓ2 = ≃ ℓ1 + 𝑅
cos 𝜃
dispersion)
For R<<𝓵1 and cosθ≈1, light travel distance is ℓ1 − ℓ2 ≃ 𝑅
log 𝜎0 = −0.1𝑀𝐵 + 𝐶
4𝜋𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑝 𝑐 𝑀
𝑉
( 𝑟𝑜𝑡
𝐿𝐸𝑑𝑑 = ≃ 1.5 × 1031 W ( )
𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡 ⋆
𝜎
) 𝜎𝑇 𝑀⊙
Definition of rotation parameter: ( ) ≡ 𝑉
𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝜎 ( 𝑟𝑜𝑡
𝜎
)
𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝐿
𝑀> 𝑀
Box/diskiness: 𝑎(𝜃) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎2 cos 2𝜃 + 𝑎4 cos 4𝜃 + ⋯ 1.5 × 1031 W ⊙
𝑟𝑠 𝑐 2
1st shape of circle; 2nd degree of ellipticity; 3rd deviation 𝑀=
from elliptical shape; a4 < 0: boxy; a4 > 0: disky 2𝐺

𝑑 log 𝑍 𝜎𝑇 = 6.65 × 10−25 cm−2

≈ 0.13
𝑑 log 𝑟 𝜎𝑇 𝐿
𝑝=
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑐
Φ∗ 𝐿 𝛼 𝐿
Φ(𝐿) = ( ) ∙ ( ) ∙ exp (− ∗ )
𝐿∗ 𝐿∗ 𝐿 𝐺𝑀(𝑚𝑒 + 𝑚𝑝 ) 𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑝 𝜎𝑇 𝐿
≈ =
𝑟2 𝑟2 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑐
L* luminosity at M*; α sets slope of LF at faint end; Φ*
overall normalization (no. galaxies/Mpc3) mass accretion rate: 𝐿𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 = 𝜂𝑀̇𝑐 2
log 𝐷 = 1.333 log 𝜎 + 𝐶 Assuming R = 0.5 Rs for the inner edge location of the
accretion disk
𝑑2 𝐷1
= = 10𝐶1−𝐶2 1
𝑑1 𝐷2
3𝑐 6 𝑀̇ 4

Δ𝜃 𝑇𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 =( 2 2
)
𝜔= 8𝜋𝜎𝐺 𝑀
Δ𝑡
𝐿𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘
Disk radiating at a fraction of the LEdd: 𝑓𝐸𝑑𝑑 ≡
𝑣𝜃 = 𝜔 ∙ 𝑑 𝐿𝐸𝑑𝑑

1
𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 , 3𝑐 5 𝑓𝐸𝑑𝑑 4 1
𝑣𝑒𝑗 𝑇𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 =( ) ∝ 𝑀−4
2𝜅̅ 𝜎𝐺𝑀𝜂
𝑑=
𝜔
Stromgren radius if clouds occupy fraction of NLR volume
𝐿 = 4𝜋𝑅2 (𝑡)𝜎𝑇 4 (filling factor, ε):
𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑒𝑗 𝑡 where t is age of SN 1
3𝑁 3 1

⟨𝑀𝐵 ⟩ ≅ ⟨𝑀𝑉 ⟩ ≅ −19.3 ± 0.03 mag 𝑟𝑁𝐿𝑅 ≈( ) 2⁄3

4𝜋𝛼𝑞𝑚 𝜖 𝑛𝑒
LMW=1037 W Average magnetic field strength for lobe volume:
LAGN=1042 – 1048 W
1 𝐵2 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒 𝜇0 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒
Monochromatic energy flux: 𝐹𝜐 ∝ 𝜐 −𝛼 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒 = 𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒 = ∴𝐵=√
2 2𝜇0 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒
Superluminal Velocities: Gas Deficiency: 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝐻𝐼 ≡
〈𝑀𝐻𝐼 〉−𝑀𝐻𝐼 𝑀
= 1 − 〈𝑀𝐻𝐼〉
〈𝑀𝐻𝐼 〉 𝐻𝐼
(𝑑 − 𝑣𝑡𝑒 cos 𝜙) 𝑑𝑃 𝑀𝑟 𝜌
𝑡2 = 𝑡𝑒 + hydrostatic equilibrium, = −𝐺 with pressure 𝑃 =
𝑐 𝑑𝑟 𝑟2
𝜌𝑘𝑇
𝑣 .
𝜇𝑚𝐻
Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝑡𝑒 (1 − cos 𝜙)
𝑐
𝑘𝑇𝑟 𝜕 ln 𝜌 𝜕 ln 𝑇
𝑣𝑡𝑒 sin 𝜙 𝑣 sin 𝜙 𝑀𝑟 = − ( + )
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑝 = = 𝜇𝑚𝐻 𝐺 𝜕 ln 𝑟 𝜕 ln 𝑟
Δ𝑡 𝑣
1 − cos 𝜙
𝑐 𝜕 ln 𝑇
For isothermal gas, = 0.
𝜕 ln 𝑟
𝑣 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑝 ⁄𝑐
=
𝑐 sin 𝜙 + (𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑝 ⁄𝑐 ) cos 𝜙 X-ray luminosity: ℒ𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 1.42 × 10−40 𝑛𝑒2 √𝑇 Wm−3

vapp is maximum for angle corresponding to smallest v/c 4

𝐿𝑋 = 𝜋𝑅3 ℒ𝑣𝑜𝑙
angle 3
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑝 3𝐿𝑋
cot 𝜙min = 𝑛𝑒 = √
𝑐 1
4𝜋𝑅3 𝑇 2 (1.42 × 10−40 )
𝑣min 2 ⁄𝑐 2
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑝
=√ 4
𝑐 2 ⁄𝑐 2
1 + 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑀𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝜋𝑅3 𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝐻
3
1 Star formation law: ∑ 𝑆𝐹𝑅 ∝ (∑ 𝑔𝑎𝑠)𝑛 where 𝑛 ≈ 1.5
𝛾min =
2 ⁄ 2
√1 − 𝑣min 𝑐 Resolution: R=λ/Δλ
θ is angle between lensing mass and source image 𝜆
Lyman Alpha emitters: 1 + 𝑧 =
1215.67 Å
4𝐺𝑀 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑑𝐿
𝜃 2 − 𝛽𝜃 − ( )=0 Wien: 𝜆max =
𝑏
𝑐2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐿 𝑇

ℎ𝜈
𝛽 = 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 2ℎ𝜈3
Wien approx.: 𝐼(𝜈, 𝑇) = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑇
𝑐2
𝜃1 𝜃2 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐿
𝑀=− ( ) Stephan-Boltzman: 𝐿 = 4𝜋𝑅2 𝜎𝑇𝑒 4
4𝐺 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑑𝐿

4𝐺𝑀 𝑑𝑠 −𝑑𝐿
Einstein Rings (β=0): 𝜃𝐸 = √ ( ) rad
𝑐2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐿

𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
Tidal Features: 𝐹 ∝ (𝑅−𝑟)2 and 𝐹 ∝ (𝑅+𝑟)2

2𝐺𝑀𝑟
for 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅
𝑅3
𝐺𝑚
Binding force for satellite:
𝑟2
1
𝑚 3
Tidal radius: 𝑟𝑡 = ( ) 𝑅
2𝑀

If r>rt, material is stripped

𝐺𝑀 2
𝐹𝑑𝑦𝑛 ≈ 𝐶 ( ) 𝜌
𝑣
𝑣2
Flat rotation curve: 𝜌(𝑟) =
4𝜋𝐺𝑟 2
𝐶𝐺𝑀2
𝐹𝑑𝑦𝑛 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝐿 𝑑
𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹𝑑𝑦𝑛 = = (𝑀𝑣𝑟)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟 𝑟𝐶𝐺𝑀2 𝐶𝐺𝑀2
∴ 𝑀𝑣 =− =
𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 2 4𝜋𝑟
2𝜋𝑣𝑅2
𝑇=
𝐶𝐺𝑀