BioPsych Handout IV RESTRUCTURED

I. Nervous tissue
A. Neuron (can be stellate, globular or flask shaped)
PARTS
1. Cell Membrane - semi permeable membrane that encloses the
neuron
2. Cell Body (soma) - metabolic center of the neuron
3. Processes
a. Dendrites - receive most of the synaptic contacts from other
neurons
b. Axon – tube-like part of the neuron which carries messages away
-Axon hillock or implantation cone; cone-shaped region at the
junction between the axon and the cell body
4. Myelin sheath
-Myelin is the fatty insulation around many axons
5. Nodes of ranvier - gaps between sections of myelin
6. Buttons - button-like endings of the axons which release chemicals
into synapses
7. Synapse
-presynaptic ending for neurotransmitters
-synaptic cleft
-postsynaptic ending that contains receptor cell
8. ORGANELLES
a. Mitochondria - supply all the necessary biological energy of the
cell
*1890 – Richard Altmann called it bioblasts
*1897 – Benda coined the term mitochondrion
*1920s – Warburg, a biochemist, discovered oxidation rxns in cells
b. Ribosomes - act as messengers to receive and transmit critical
information; important in protein synthesis
c. Golgi Bodies - responsible for determining which proteins are to
be transported outside the cell
*Golgi stain – Camillo Golgi (1890 Italian physician)
- neurons in sight for the first time
-how? Meninges are stained which exposed a block of neural tissue
using K2Cr2O4 AgNO32
 **d. Nissl granules – trigoid bodies or chromatophil substances (RER)
-Franz Nissl – nissl staining method (cresyl violet for dyeing)
*Chromatolysis
**e. Neurofibrils - give support and shape the nerve cell
**organelles found only in neurons
9. Internal features
a. Synaptic vesicles
b. Neurotransmitters
CLASSIFICATION ACC. TO FXN
1. Sensory neurons – afferent
2. Motor neurons – efferent
3. Internuncial neurons – connecting sensory and motor neurons
CLASSIFICATION ACC. TO # OF PROCESSES (structural)
1. Multipolar neuron – most common, motor; 2+ processes
2. Unipolar neuron – sensory in PNS ganglion
3. Bipolar neuron – 2 processes
4. Interneurons – w/ short axon or none at all

B. Neuroglia or glial cells - supportive framework of the neurons

-CNS (Sattelite cells – PNS)
- 10X more than the neurons at CNS
Types:
1. Astrocytes – abundant in white matter
-protoplasmic @ grey matter
-cell metabolism; role in the reuptake process of neurotransmitter
molecules into the synaptic vesicles of the presynaptic neuron
2. Oligodendrocytes – myelin sheath preservation
3. Microglia – mesoglia; phagocytic function

C. Aggregations of Neurons found in the PNS

1. Ganglion
2. ANS’ symp and parasymp ganglia
3. Spiral ganglia – first neuron in auditory
4. Dorsal root ganglia – 1st neuron in somatic sensation
II. ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN
DIVISIONS
A. Prosencephalon (Forebrain)
1. Telencephalon (Cerebral Hemisphere)
a. Cerebrum
*Lobes – divided by Central fissure & Lateral fissure
1. Frontal
-Precentral gyrus
-Adjacent frontal cortex
2. Parietal
-Post central gyrus
-Somatosensory
3. Occipital
4. Temporal
-Superior temporal gyrus: hearing and language
-Inferior temporal cortex: complex visual pattern identification
-Medial portion of temporal cortex: memory
*Specialized Areas
1. Somatosensory area
2. Sensory association Cortex
3. Primary motor area
4. Premotor cortex
5. Prefrontal cortex
6. Broca’s area
7. Wernicke’s area
*Layers
1. Gray matter
2. White matter
3. Basal nuclei and Limbic system
b. Limbic System
1. Amygdala
2. Hippocampus
3. Cingulate cortex
4. Fornix
5. Septum
6. Hypothalamus
 c. Basal ganglia
1. Amygdala
2. Striatum
-Caudate nucleus
-Putamen
-Nucleus Accumbens
3. Globus Pallidus
BRAIN STEM consists of
2. Diencephalon
a. Thalamus
-Lateral geniculate nucleus
-Medial g.n.
-Ventrolateral g.n.
b. Hypothalamus
c. Epithalamus
*Choroid plexus

B. Mesencephalon (Midbrain)
1. Corpora quadrigemina – four rounded protrusions
a. Tectum
-Superior colliculi
-Inferior c.c.
2. Tegmentum
-Periaqueductal gray
-Substantia nigra
-Red nucleus
3. Cerebral peduncles

C. Rhombencephalon (Hindbrain)
1. Metencephalon
a. Cerebellum
*Lobes
-Flocculo-nodular lobe
-Anterior
-Posterior
*Dysmetria
 *Layers
-Cerebellar cortex
-Corpus medullary substance
*Reticular Formation
b. Pons (or Pons Varolii)
2. Myelencephalon
a. Medulla

BRAIN CONDITIONS
1. Headache
2. Stroke (brain infarction)
3. Brain aneurysm
4. Subdural hematoma
5. Epidural hematoma
6. Intracerebral hemorrhage
7. Concussion
8. Cerebral edema
9. Brain tumor
10. Glioblastoma
11. Hydrocephalus
12. Normal pressure hydrocephalus
13. Meningitis
14. Encephalitis
15. Traumatic brain injury
16. Parkinson’s disease
17. Huntington’s disease
18. Epilepsy
19. Dementia
20. Alzheimer’s disease
21. Brain abscess
III. THE SPINAL CORD
- Aids in motility
- Sensory function
- BP maintenance, heart rate, and temp reg
1. Tracts
a. Ascending tract
b. Descending tract
2. Spinal nerves – nerve root
-31 pairs
a. Ventral root (motor)
b. Dorsal root (sensory)

 C1-C4 Breathing
 C2- head and neck movement
 C4-C6 heart rate
 C5- shoulder movement
 C6-C7 Wrist and elbow movement
 C7-C11 Hand and finger movement
 T1-T12 temperature regulations and trunk stability
 T11-L12 Ejaculation
 L2 Hip motion
 L3 Knee extension
 L4-S1 Foot motion
 L5- Knee Flexion
 S4-S5 Penile erection
 S2-S3 Bowel and bladdery

SPINAL CORD INJURY

1. Complete spinal cord injury
a. Complete paraplegia - permanent loss of motor and nerve function
at T1 level or below, resulting in loss of sensation and movement in
the legs, bowel, bladder and sexual region. Arms and hands retain
normal function.
b. Complete tetraplegia - the loss of hand and arm movement as well
2. Incomplete
a. Anterior Cord Syndrome - damage to the front of the spinal cord,
resulting in impaired temperature, touch and pain sensations below the
point of injury
b. Central Cord Syndrome - the loss of function in the arms but some
leg movement
c. Posterior Cord Syndrome - good muscle power, pain and temperature
sensation but poor coordination.
d. Brown Sequard Syndrome - damage to one side of the spinal cord,
resulting in impaired loss of movement but preserved movement and
loss of sensation on the other side of the body
e. Cauda Equina Lesion - injury to the nerves located between the first
and second lumbar region of the spine, resulting in partial or complete
loss of sensation

IV. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

-Ventricle is a cavity found in the brain which houses CSF
-Two lateral ventricles, third and fourth ventricle
-130ml-150ml
-slightly alkaline; 99% water

V. MENINGES
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid
-subarachnoid space
3. Pia mater

VI. Damages in the nervous system cause conditions such as:

A. Damage on the area of gray matter
1. Agnosia - failure of the individual to recognize objects in the absence
of sensory deficits or impairment
2. Apraxia - failure of the individual to demonstrate a learned act or
behavior upon command or request in the absence of paralysis
B. Damages in angular gyrus
1. Agraphia - inability to write
2. Alexia - loss of the ability to read though the individual sees the printed
words; word blindness or visual aphasia