Chapters 11, 12 & 13 Outline (Review This For The Test!

CHAPTER 11 - Industry and Manufacturing

Chapter Outline

Geographers are interested in studying industry because the choice of location of an industry is fundamentally about spatial
relationships among raw materials, markets, and site factors.

Key Issue 1: Where Is Industry Distributed?

Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was a series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the
process of manufacturing goods. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, people made household tools and agricultural
equipment in their own homes or obtained them in the local village. Home-based manufacturing was known as the cottage
industry system.

Several inventions transformed the way in which goods were manufactured, beginning with the steam engine. The
revolution in industrial technology created an unprecedented expansion in productivity, resulting in substantially higher
standards of living. The Industrial Revolution resulted in new social, economic, and political inventions, not just traditional
ones. The changes involved a gradual diffusion of new ideas and techniques over decades rather than an instantaneous
revolution.

Industrial Regions Industry is concentrated in Europe, North America, and East Asia. European industrial areas tend to be
located in regions with abundant energy, raw materials such as iron ore, and labor concentrations. North American
industrial areas are located in a band from the Great Lakes to the East Coast and the California Coast. East Asia’s industrial
areas are in China along the coast and in Japan.

Key Issue 2: Why Are Situation and Site Factors Important?

Nonmetallic Minerals In weight, more than 90 percent of minerals that humans use are nonmetallic, but metallic minerals
are important for economic activities and carry relatively high value. Building stones, gemstones, and fertilizers are
examples of nonmetallic minerals that humans commonly use.

Metallic Minerals Metallic minerals have properties that are especially valuable for fashioning machinery, vehicles, and
other essential elements of contemporary society. Many metals are capable of combining with other metals to form alloys
with distinctive properties important for industry. A ferrous alloy contains iron and a nonferrous one does not. Iron is
extracted from iron ore, by far the world’s most widely used ore.

Bulk-Gaining Industries A bulk-gaining industry makes something that gains volume or weight during production. To
minimize transport costs, a bulk-gaining industry needs to locate near where the product is sold. A prominent example of a
bulk gaining industry is the fabrication of parts and machinery from steel and other metals. For example, steelmakers have
traditionally located near raw materials; steel fabricators have traditionally located near the markets. Beverage bottlers also
locate near large markets to cut down on the cost of shipping.

Single-Market Manufacturers Are specialized manufacturers with only one or two customers. The optimal location for
these factories is often close proximity to the customers. An example of a single-market manufacturer is a producer of
buttons, zippers, clips, pins, or other specialized components attached to clothing. The makers of parts for motor vehicles
are another example of specialized manufacturers with only one or two customers. Proximity to the assembly plant is
increasingly important for parts producers because of the diffusion of “just-in-time” delivery.

Perishable Products To deliver their products to consumers as rapidly as possible, perishable-product industries must be
located near their markets. Because few people want stale bread or sour milk, food producers such as bakers and milk
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bottlers must locate near their customers to assure rapid delivery. The daily newspaper is an example of a product other
than food that is highly perishable because it contains dated information. Newspaper publishers must locate near the
markets to minimize transportation costs. People demand their newspaper as soon after it’s printing as possible.

Ship, Rail, Truck, or Air? Shipping costs are variable depending on the mode of transport used. Inputs and products are
transported in one of four ways: via ship, rail, truck, or air. Firms seek the lowest-cost mode of transport, but which of the
four alternatives is cheapest changes with the distance that goods are being sent. Long-distance shipping is the least
expensive shipping option. Industries which use a number of different shipping modes tend to locate at break-of-bulk
points, where it is easy to repackage products and change the shipping method.

Containerization has facilitated transfer of packages between modes. Containers may be packed into a rail car, transferred
quickly to a container ship to cross the ocean and unloaded into trucks at the other end. Large ships have been specially
built to accommodate large numbers of rectangular boxlike containers. Regardless of transportation mode, costs rises each
time inputs or products are transferred from one mode to another. For example, workers must unload goods from a truck
and then reload them onto a plane.

Copper: Proximity to Inputs or Markets? Copper production involves several steps. Mining copper ore is a bulk reducing
industry because the heavy, bulky ore that is extracted from the mines is mostly waste. The second step in copper
production is the concentration mills that grind the ore into fine particles that produce copper concentrate that is only 25
percent copper. Copper smelters then remove more impurities. As a bulk reducing industry, copper concentration mills and
smelters are built near the mines to minimize transportation costs. Since so much waste has already been disposed of,
proximity to the mines is a less critical factor in determining the location of the refineries.

Steel: Changing Inputs The two principal inputs in steel production are iron ore and coal. Because of the need for large
quantities of bulky, heavy iron ore and coal, steelmaking traditionally clustered near sources of the two key raw materials.
Within the United States, the distribution of steel production has changed several times because of changing inputs. Steel
mills were highly clustered near the southern Great Lakes, especially Lake Erie and Lake Michigan. These areas were close
to the bulky coal and iron ore to minimize transportation costs.

The increasing importance of proximity to markets is demonstrated by the recent growth of steel minimills. Rather than
iron ore and coal, the main input into minimill production is scrap metal. Minimills, are less expensive to operate then
traditional steel mills and they can locate near their markets because their main input—scrap metal—is widely available.
World steel production is declining in developed countries and increasing in developing countries. Overall world steel
production doubled between 1980 and 2010, with the biggest increase in production taking place in China.

Motor Vehicles: Changing Markets Carmakers manufacture vehicles at final assembly plants, using thousands of parts
supplied by independent companies. Three-fourths of vehicles sold in North America are assembled in North America.
Similarly, most vehicles sold in Europe are assembled in Europe, most vehicles sold in Japan are assembled in Japan, and
most vehicles sold in China are manufactured in China. Carmakers’ assembly plants account for only around 30 percent of
the value of the vehicles that bear their names. Independent parts makers supply the other 70 percent of the value.

Many parts makers are examples of single-market manufacturers because they ship most of their products to one or
perhaps a handful of assembly plants. Motor vehicle seats, for example, are invariably manufactured within an hour of the
final assembly plant. A seat is an especially large and bulky object and carmakers do not want to waste valuable space in
their assembly plants by piling up an inventory of them. On the other hand, some parts do not need to be manufactured
close to the customer. Some locate in countries that have relatively low labor costs.

Labor Minimizing labor costs is important for some industries and the variation of labor costs around the world is large. A
labor-intensive industry is an industry in which wages and other compensation paid to employees constitutes a high
percentage of expenses. The reverse case, an industry with a much lower-than-average percentage of expenditures on

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labor, is considered capital intensive. A labor intensive industry is not the same as a high-wage industry. Labor-intensive is
measured as a percentage, whereas high-wage is measured in dollars. Motor vehicle workers are paid much higher hourly
wages than textile workers, yet the textile industry is labor intensive and the auto industry is not.

Capital The U.S. motor-vehicle industry concentrated in Michigan early in the twentieth century largely because that
region’s financial institutions were more willing than eastern banks to lend money to the industry’s pioneers. High-tech
industries have been risky propositions—roughly two-thirds of them fail—but Silicon Valley financial institutions have
continued to lend money to engineers who have good ideas so that they can buy the software, communications, and
networks they need to get started. The ability to borrow money has become a critical factor in the distribution of industry in
developing countries.

Land Contemporary factories operate most efficiently when laid out in one-story buildings. Raw materials are typically
delivered at one end and moved through the factory in conveyors or forklift trucks. The land needed to build one-story
factories is now more likely to be available in suburban and rural locations. With trucks now responsible for transporting
most inputs and products, proximity to major highways is important for factories. Especially attractive is the proximity to
the junction of a long-distance route and the beltway, or ring road that encircles most cities.

Textiles and Apparel: Changing Inputs Production of textiles (woven fabrics) and apparel (clothing) is a prominent example
of an industry that generally requires less-skilled, low-cost workers. Spinning, weaving, and sewing are all labor intensive
compared to other industries, but the importance of labor varies somewhat among them. Textile and apparel production
involves three principle steps: spinning, weaving, and assembly.

Key Issue 3: Why Does Industry Cause Pollution?

Global-Scale Air Pollution Earth is warmed by sunlight that passes through the atmosphere, strikes the surface, and is
converted into heat. When the heat tries to pass back through the atmosphere to space, some gets through and some gets
trapped. A concentration of trace gasses in the atmosphere can block or delay the return of some of the heat leaving the
surface heading for space, thereby raising Earth’s temperature. When fossil fuels are burned, one of the trace gasses,
carbon dioxide, is discharged into the atmosphere. The anticipated increase in Earth’s temperature, caused by carbon
dioxide trapping some of the radiation emitted by the surface, is called the greenhouse effect.

The stratosphere contains a concentration of ozone gas. The ozone layer absorbs dangerous ultraviolet rays from the Sun.
Were it not for the ozone in the stratosphere, ultraviolet rays would damage plants, cause skin cancer, and disrupt food
chains. Earth’s protective ozone layer is threatened by pollutants called chlorofluorocarbons.

Regional-Scale Air Pollution Air pollution may damage a region’s vegetation and water supply through acid deposition. Acid
precipitation damages lakes, killing fish and plants. On land, concentrations of acid in the soil can injure plants by depriving
them of nutrients and can harm worms and insects. Buildings and monuments made of marble and limestone have suffered
corrosion from acid rain. Geographers are particularly interested in the effects of acid precipitation because the worst
damage is not experienced at the same location as the emission of the pollutants.

Local-Scale Air Pollution Air pollution is especially severe in places where emission sources are concentrated, such as urban
areas. The air above urban areas may be polluted because a large number of factories, motor vehicles, and other polluters
emit residuals in a concentrated area. Urban air pollution has three basic components: carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
and particulates. Progress in controlling urban air pollution has had mixed results.

Sanitary Landfill Using a sanitary landfill is by far the most common strategy for disposal of solid waste in the United States.
Thousands of small-town “dumps” have been closed and replaced by a small number of large regional ones. Given the
shortage of landfills, alternatives have been sought to dispose of solid waste. A rapidly growing alternative is incineration.

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Burning releases some toxins into the air and some toxins also remain in ash. Thus solving one pollution problem may
increase another.

Hazardous Waste Disposing of hazardous waste is especially difficult. Hazardous waste includes heavy metals (including
mercury, cadmium, and zinc), PCB oils from electrical equipment, cyanides, strong solvents, acids, and caustics. These may
be unwanted by-products generated in manufacturing or waste to be discarded after usage. If poisonous industrial
residuals are not carefully placed in protective containers, the chemicals may leach into the soil and contaminate
groundwater or escape into the atmosphere.

Water Pollution Sources Pollution enters a body of water at a specific location is called point-source pollution. Point-
source water pollution originates from a specific point, such as a pipe from a wastewater treatment plants. The two main
point sources of pollution are manufacturers and municipal sewer systems. Nonpoint-source pollution comes from a large,
diffuse area. Nonpoint sources usually pollute in greater quantities and are much harder to control than point sources of
pollution. The principle nonpoint source is agriculture. Fertilizers and pesticides spread on fields are carried to rivers and
lakes by irrigation systems and natural runoff.

Impact of Water Pollution on Aquatic Life Polluted water can harm aquatic life. Aquatic plants and animals consume
oxygen and so does the decomposing organic waste that humans dump in the water. If too much waste is discharged into
water, the water becomes oxygen starved and the fish die. Many factories and power plants use water for cooling and then
discharge the warm water back into the river or lake. Fish adapted to cold water, such as salmon or trout, might not be able
to survive the warmer water.

Key Issue 4: Why Are Situation and Site Factors Changing?

Shifts within the United States The northeastern United States lost 6 million jobs in manufacturing between 1950 and
2009. Industrial growth in the South since the 1930s has been stimulated in part by government policies to reduce historical
disparities. The Tennessee Valley Authority brought electricity to much of the rural South, and roads were constructed in
previously inaccessible sections of the Appalachians, the Piedmont, and Ozarks. Steel, textiles, tobacco products, and
furniture industries have become dispersed through smaller communities in the South, many in search of a labor force
willing to work for less pay than the North. The textile industry is an example of an industry that used to be concentrated in
the Northeast and is now mostly found in the South.

The principle lure for many manufacturers to locate in the South has been right-to-work laws. A right-to-work law requires
a factory to maintain a so-called “open shop” and prohibits a “closed shop”. In a “closed shop” a company and union agree
that everyone must join a union to work in the factory. The percentage of workers who are union members is much lower
in the South than elsewhere in the United States. More importantly, the region has been especially attractive for companies
working hard to keep out the unions altogether.

Interregional Shifts in Europe Manufacturing has diffused from traditional industrial centers in northwestern Europe
towards Southern and Eastern Europe. Several European countries situated east of Germany and west of Russia have
become major centers of industrial investment since the fall of communism in the early 1990s. These countries offer
manufactures an attractive combination of two important site and situation factors: labor and market proximity. The
workers offer manufacturers good value for money; they are less skilled but much cheaper than in Western Europe and
they are more skilled than workers in Asia and Latin America. The region is also close to the wealthy markets of Western
Europe.

Outsourcing Transnational corporations have been especially aggressive in using low-cost labor in developing countries.
Despite the greater transportation cost, transnational can profitably transfer some work to developing countries, given
their substantially lower wages compared to those in developed countries. Transnational corporations allocate production
to low-wage countries through outsourcing, which is turning over much of the responsibility for production to independent

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suppliers. Outsourcing contrasts with the approach typical of traditional mass production, called vertical integration, in
which a company controls all phases of a highly complex production process.

Mexico and NAFTA The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), effective in 1994, eliminated barriers to moving
goods among Mexico, Canada, and the United States. Because it is the nearest low-wage country to the United States,
Mexico attracts labor-intensive industries that also need proximity to the U.S. market. Plants in Mexico near the U.S. border
are known as maquiladoras, from the Spanish verb maqullar, which means “to receive payment for grinding or processing
corn.” Under U.S. and Mexican laws, companies receive tax breaks if they ship materials from the United States, assemble
the components at a maquiladora plant in Mexico, and export the finished product back to the United States.

Bric and Brics Much of the world’s future growth in manufacturing is expected to locate outside the principle industrial
regions described earlier. The financial analysis firm Goldman Sachs coined the acronym BRIC to indicate the countries it
expects to dominate global manufacturing during the twenty-first century: Brazil, Russia, India, and China. The four BRIC
countries together currently control one-fourth of the world’s land area and contain 3 billion of the world’s 7 billion
inhabitants. Their economies rank second (China), seventh (Brazil), ninth (Russia), and eleventh (India) in the world.

Proximity to Skilled Labor Traditionally, factories assigned each worker one specific task to perform repeatedly. Some
geographers call this approach Fordist production because the Ford Motor Company was one of the first companies to
organize its production this way early in the twentieth century. Most workers did not need education or skills to do their
jobs. Many industries now follow a lean, or flexible, production approach. The term post-Fordist production is sometimes
used to describe lean production in contrasts with Fordist production.

Just-in-Time Delivery As the name implies, just-in-time is shipment of parts and materials to arrive at a factory moments
before they are needed. Under just-in-time, parts and materials arrive at a factory frequently, in many cases daily or even
hourly. Just-in-time delivery reduces the money that a manufacturer must tie up in wasteful inventory. In fact, the
percentage of the U.S. economy tied up in inventory has been cut in half during the past three decades. Manufacturers can
also reduce the size of the factory because space does not have to be wasted on piling up a mountain of inventory.

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CHAPTER 12 - Services and Settlements

Chapter Outline

The service sector is inextricably linked to settlements, so the discussion of why settlements cluster where they do also
introduces the concept of cities as central places, a discussion continued in Chapter 13.

Key Issue 1: Where Are Services Distributed?

Consumer Services The principle purpose of consumer services is to provide services to individual consumers who desire
them and can afford to pay for them. Nearly half of all jobs in the United States are in consumer services. Four main types
of consumer services are retail and wholesale services, leisure and hospitality services, health and social services, and
education.

Business Services The principle purpose of business services is to facilitate the activities of other businesses. One-fourth of
all jobs in the United States are in business services. The three main types of business services are transportation and
information services, professional services, and financial services.

Public Services The purpose of public services is to provide security and protection for citizens and businesses. About 10
percent of all U.S. jobs are in the public sector. Excluding educators, one-sixth of public-sector employees work for the

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federal government, one-fourth for one of the 50 state governments, and three-fifths for one of the tens of thousands of
local governments.

Changes in Number of Employees All growth in employment in the United States has been in services, whereas
employment in primary and secondary sector activities has declined. Within business services, jobs expanded most rapidly
in professional services (such as engineering, management, and law), data processing, advertising, and temporary
employment agencies. On the consumer services side, the most rapid increase has been in the provision of health care, but
other large increases have been recorded in education, entertainment, and recreation.

Services in the Recession The service sector triggered the severe economic recession that began in 2008. Principle
contributors to the recession were some of the practices involved in financial and real estate services. The early twenty-first
century recession was also distinctive because it rapidly affected every region of the world. The impact of the global
recession varied by region and locality.

Key Issue 2: Where Are Consumer Services Distributed?

Market Area of a Service The concept of central place theory helps to explain how the most profitable location can be
identified. A central place is a market center for the exchange of goods and services by people attracted from the
surrounding area. The central place is so called because it is centrally located to maximize accessibility. Businesses in central
places compete against each other to serve as markets for goods and services for the surrounding region. The area
surrounding a service from which customers are attracted is the market area or hinterland. To establish a market area, a
circle is drawn around the node of a service on a map. The territory around the circle is its market area.

Because most people prefer to get services from the nearest location, consumers near the center of the circle obtain
services from local establishment. The closer to the periphery of the circle, the greater the percentage of consumers who
will choose to obtain services from other nodes. People on the circumference of the market-area circle are equally likely to
use the service or go elsewhere.

Range of a Service The range is the maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service. People are willing to go
only a short distance for everyday consumer services, such as groceries and pharmacies. But they will travel longer
distances for other services such as a concert or professional ball game. As a rule, people tend to go to the nearest available
service. Therefore, the range of a service must be determined from the radius of a circle that is irregularly shaped rather
than perfectly round. The irregularly shaped circle takes in the territory for which the proposed site is closer than
competitors’ sites.

Threshold of a Service The threshold of a service is the minimum number of people needed to support the service. Every
enterprise has a minimum number of customers required to generate enough sales to make a profit. So once the range has
been determined, a service provider must determine whether a location is suitable by counting the potential customers
inside the irregularly shaped circle. How expected consumers inside the range are counted depends on the product.
Convenience stores and fast-food restaurants appeal to nearly everyone, whereas other goods and services appeal
primarily to certain consumer groups.

Nesting of Services and Settlements There are four different levels of a market area: hamlet, village, town, and city. Only
consumer services that have small thresholds and short ranges are found in hamlets or villages because too few people live
in these areas to support many services. A large department store cannot survive in a hamlet or village because the
threshold exceeds the population within range of the settlement. Towns and cities provide consumer services that have
larger thresholds and ranges. A city has a much larger variety of services than you would find in a hamlet or village.

Rank-Size Distribution of Settlements In many developed countries, geographers observe that ranking settlements from
largest to smallest (population) produces a regular pattern. This is called the rank-size rule. The second-largest city is one-

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half the size of the largest, the fourth-largest city is one-fourth the size of the largest, and so on. When plotted on
logarithmic paper, the rank-size distribution forms a fairly straight line. In the United States and a handful of other
countries, the distribution of settlements closely follows the rank-size rule.

If a country does not follow the rank-size rule, it may follow the primate city rule. A country’s largest city is called the
primate city. If a country follows the primate city rule it means that the country’s largest settlement has more than twice as
many people as the second-ranking settlement. The absence of rank-size distribution in many developing countries
indicates that there is not enough wealth in the society to pay full variety of services. The absence of a rank-size distribution
constitutes a hardship for people who must travel long distances to reach an urban settlement with shops and such services
as hospitals.

Profitability of a Location A suitable site is one with the potential for generating enough sales to justify using the
company’s scarce capital to build it. Service providers often say that the three most important factors in determining
whether a particular site will be profitable are, “location, location, and location.” One corner of an intersection can be
profitable and another corner of the same intersection unprofitable. The gravity model predicts that the optimal location of
a service is directly related to the number of people in an area and inversely related to the distance people must travel to
access it. The best location will be the one that minimizes the distances that all potential customers must travel to reach the
service.

Periodic Markets A periodic market is typically set up in a street or other public space early in the morning, taken down at
the end of the day, and set up in another location the next day. A periodic market provides goods to residents of developing
countries, as well as rural areas in developing countries, where sparse populations and low incomes produce purchasing
power too low to support full-time retailing. Many vendors in periodic markets are mobile, driving their trucks from farm to
market, back to the farm to restock, then to another market. Other vendors, especially local residents who cannot or prefer
not to travel to other villages, operate on a part-time basis, perhaps only a few times a year.

Key Issue 3: Why Are Business Services Distributed?

Business Services in Global Cities Global cities are most closely integrated into the global economic system because they
are at the center of the flow of information and capital. Business services, including law, banking, insurance, accounting,
and advertising, concentrate in disproportionately large numbers in global cities. Global cities are divided into three levels:
alpha, beta, and gamma. A combination of economic, political, cultural, and infrastructure factors are used to identify
global cities and to distinguish among the various ranks.

Consumer and Public Services in Global Cities Because of their large size, global cities have retail services with extensive
market areas. A disproportionately large number of wealthy people live in global cities, so luxury and highly specialized
products are especially likely to be sold there. Global cities are also centers of national and international political power.
Most are national capitals, and they contain mansions or palaces for the head of state. Structures for national legislature
and offices for government agencies are also located in global cities. Also clustered in global cities are offices for groups
having business with the government, such as representatives of foreign countries, trade associations, labor unions, and
professional organizations.

Offshore Financial Services Small countries exploit niches in the circulation of global capital by offering offshore financial
services. The privacy laws and low tax rates in offshore centers can also provide havens to tax dodges and other illegal
schemes. By definition, the extent of illegal activities is unknown and unknowable. A prominent example of an offshore
banking center is the Cayman Islands. Several hundred banks with assets of more than $1 trillion are legally based in the
Caymans. Most of these banks have only a handful of people, if any, actually working in the Caymans.

Business-Process Outsourcing Typical back-office functions include insurance claims processing, payroll management,
transcription work, and other routine clerical activities. Traditionally, companies housed their back-office staff in the same

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office building downtown as their management staff, or at least in nearby buildings. Rising rents downtown have induced
many business services to move routine work to lower-rent buildings elsewhere. For many business services, improved
telecommunications have eliminated the need for spatial proximity. Selected countries have been able to attract back office
work for two reasons related to labor: low wages and ability to speak English.

Economic Base of Settlements A settlement’s distinctive economic structure derives from its basic industries, which export
primarily to consumers outside the settlement. Nonbasic industries are enterprises whose customers live in the same
community. A community’s unique collection of basic industries defines its economic base. A settlement’s economic base is
important because exporting by the basic industries brings money into the local economy, thus stimulating the provision of
more nonbasic consumer services for the settlement.

Specialization of Cities in Different Services Settlements in the United States can be classified by their type of basic activity.
In a postindustrial society, such as the United States, increasingly the basic economic activities are in business, consumer, or
public services. Steel was once the most important basic industry of Cleveland and Pittsburg, but now health services such
as hospitals and clinics and medical high-technology research are more important. After Baltimore’s manufacturing base
declined, the city’s economic base turned increasingly to services, taking advantage of its clustering of research-oriented
universities. The city is trying to become a center for the provision of services in biotechnology.

Distribution of Talent Some cities have a higher percentage of talented individuals than others. Talented individuals are
attracted to cities with the most job opportunities and financial incentives. Individuals with special talents also gravitate
toward cities that offer more cultural diversity. Florida measured talent as a combination of the percentage of people in the
city with college degrees, the percentage employed as scientists or engineers, and the percentage employed as
professionals or technicians. Attracting talented individuals is important for a city because these individuals are responsible
for promoting economic innovation. They are likely to start new businesses and infuse the local economy with fresh ideas.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Services Cluster in Settlements?

Clustered Rural Settlements A clustered rural settlement is an agricultural-based community in which a number of families
live in close proximity to each other, with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings. This type of
settlement typically includes homes, barns, tools, sheds, and other farm structures, plus consumer services, such as
religious structures, schools, and shops. In common language, such a settlement is called a hamlet or village. The fields
must be accessible to the farmers and are thus limited to a radius of ½ or 1 mile. Clustered rural settlements are often
arranged in one of two types of patterns: circular or linear.

New England colonists built clustered settlements centered on an open area called a common. Settlers grouped their
homes and public buildings, such as the church and school, around a common. Each villager owned several discontinuous
parcels on the periphery of the settlements to provide the variety of land types needed for different crops. Beyond the
fields, the town held pastures and woodland for the common use of all residents. However, quaint New England towns are
little more than picturesque shells of clustered rural settlements because today’s residents work in shops and office rather
than on farms.

A dispersed rural settlement, typical of the North American rural landscape, is characterized by farmers living on individual
farms isolated from neighbors rather than alongside other farmers in settlements. The Middle Atlantic colonies were
settled by more heterogeneous groups than those in New England. Most arrived in Middle Atlantic colonies individually
rather as members of a cohesive cultural religious or cultural groups. Dispersed rural settlement patterns dominated in the
American Midwest in part because the early settlers came primarily from the Middle Atlantic colonies.

Dispersed rural settlements were considered more efficient for agriculture than clustered settlements. A prominent
example was the enclosure movement in Great Britain between 1750 and 1850. The British governments transformed the
rural landscape by consolidating individually owned strips of land surrounding a village into a single large farm owned by an

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individual. When necessary, the government forced people to give up their former holdings. The enclosure movement
brought greater agriculture efficiency, but it destroyed the self-contained world of village life.

Services in Early Settlements The earliest permanent settlements may have been established to offer consumer services,
specifically places to bury the dead. Having established a permanent resting place for the dead, the group might then install
priests at the site to perform the service of saying prayers for the deceased. This would have encouraged the building of
structures—places for ceremonies and dwellings. Until the invention of skyscrapers in the late nineteenth century, religious
buildings were often the tallest structures in a community. Settlements also may have been places to house families,
permitting unburdened males to travel farther in their search of food.

Public services probably followed religious activities into early permanent settlements. A group’s political leaders chose to
live permanently in the settlement, which may have been located for strategic reasons to protect the group’s land claims.
Thus settlements became centers of military power. People also brought objects and materials they collected or produced
into the settlement and exchanged them for items brought in by others. Settlements served as neutral ground where
several groups could safely come together to trade goods or services. Settlements later became manufacturing centers.

Earliest Urban Settlements The first ancient cities may have been in Mesopotamia. Ancient Ur, Athens, and later Rome
were all centers of services more complex than those found in smaller rural settlements. Medieval cities represented an
expansion of trade and increased liberty for residents compared to the life of rural serfs. Medieval cities lacked space for
construction because they were surrounded by walls, so ordinary shops and houses were nestled into the side of the walls
and large buildings. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, most of the world’s largest urban settlements were clustered
in China.

Rapid Growth of Urban Settlements The process by which the populations of urban settlements grow is known as
urbanization. Urbanization has two dimensions: an increase in the number of people living in urban settlements and an
increase in the percentage of people living urban settlements. MDCs are on average about 75 percent urban while LDCs are
on average about 40 percent urban. Urbanization is increasing in LDCs but a portion of that increase is due to high natural
increase rates, not economic factors.

Differences between Urban and Rural Settlements A century ago, social scientists observed striking differences between
urban and rural residents. An urban dweller follows a different way of life than a rural dweller. These urban settlements
differentiated from rural areas by their large size, high population density, and socially heterogeneous people. These
characteristics produced differences in the social behavior of urban and rural residents.

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CHAPTER 13 - Urban Patterns

Chapter Outline

Introduction Urban geography is more than the distribution of settlements worldwide, as covered in Chapter 12. This
chapter examines the structure of cities and why people live where they do.

Key Issue 1: Why Do Services Cluster Downtown?

The central business district (CBD) is the core of the city where many services cluster. Services are attracted to the CBD
because of its accessibility. The CBD is usually near the original site of settlement. The CBDs of older cities are often situated
along a body of water.

Public Services in CBDs Public services typically located in a CBD include city hall, courts, county and state agencies, and
libraries. Public services are located in the CBD to facilitate access for people living in all parts of town. Sports facilities and

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convention centers are found in the CBD and attract many suburbanites and out-of-towners. Cities place these facilities in
the CBD because they hope to stimulate business for downtown restaurants, bars, and hotels.

Business Services in CBDs People in business services such as advertising, banking, journalism, and law depend on
proximity for professional colleagues. Even with the diffusion of modern communications, many professionals still exchange
information with colleagues primarily through face-to-face contact. A central location also helps businesses that employ
workers from a variety of neighborhoods.

Consumer Services in CBDs Retail services were once important to the CBD but are now less so. Retailers with a high range
and threshold traditionally preferred a CBD location in order to be accessible to many people. Many large retail stores have
moved to the suburbs. Changing shopping habits and residential habits have reduced the importance of retail services in
the CBD.

Specialized retailers and those serving downtown workers still remain in the CBD. Retailers selling office supplies,
computers, and clothing or offering shoe repair, rapid photocopying, or dry cleaning are actually expanding in the CBD. The
number of downtown office workers has increased and downtown offices are now requiring more services. The total
volume of sales in downtown areas has been stable, but the pattern of demand has changed.

Activities Excluded from CBDs In the past, inner-city factories and retail establishments relied on waterfront CBDs that
were once lined with piers for cargo ships to load and unload and unload and warehouses to store goods. Port facilities
have moved to more modern facilities downstream. Port cities have transformed their waterfronts from industry to
recreational activities. Derelict warehouses and rotting piers have been replaced with new offices, shops, parks, and
museums.

Many people used to live downtown. Many people were pulled to suburbs that offered larger homes with private yards and
modern schools. They were pushed from CBDs by high rents that businesses and retail services were willing to pay and by
dirt, crime, congestion, and poverty that they experienced by living downtown. Downtown living has become attractive
recently to people without school-age children. People without school-age children are attracted to the entertainment,
restaurants, museums, and nightlife that is clustered downtown.

Competition for Land in the CBD The CBD features high land costs because of the demand for the most accessible space in
the city. A vast underground network exists beneath most CBDs. The typical “underground city” includes garages, loading
docks for deliveries to offices and shops, electric and telephone wires, and pipes for water and sewer service. Subway trains
run beneath the streets of large CBS.

Skyscrapers develop to maximize the floor space in the highest-demand areas. Downtown skyscrapers give a city one of its
most distinctive images and unifying symbols. The first high-rises caused great inconvenience to neighboring structures
because they blocked light and air movements. Most North American and European cities enacted zoning ordinances early
in the twentieth century in part to control the location and height of skyscrapers.

CBDs outside North America Outside of North America, CBDs are less likely to be dominated by commercial services. They
instead feature religious or historical structures and parks. CBDs outside of North America are also more likely to have
residents. However, the 24-hour supermarket is rare outside of a North American CBD because of shopkeeper preferences,
government regulations, and long-time shopping habits. Many CBDs outside of North America ban motor vehicles from
busy shopping streets.

Key Issue 2: Where Are People Distributed Within Urban Areas?

Concentric Zone Model The concentric zone model was the first model to explain the distribution of different social groups
within urban areas. According to the concentric zone model, a city grows outward from a central area in a series of

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concentric rings, like growth rings of a tree. The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but the
same basic types of rings appear in the same order.

Sector Model In the sector model, the city develops in a series of sectors, not rings. Certain areas of the city are more
attractive for various activities, originally because of an environmental or even by mere chance. Once a district with high-
class housing is established, the most expensive new housing is built on the outer edge of that district, farther out from the
center. The best housing is therefore found in a corridor extending from downtown to the outer edge of the city. To some
extent the sector model is a refinement of the concentric zone model rather than a radical restatement.

Multiple Nuclei Model According to the multiple nuclei model, a city is a complex structure that includes more than one
center around which activities revolve. Examples of these nodes include a port, a neighborhood business center, a
university, an airport, and a park. The multiple nuclei theory states that some activities are attracted to particular nodes,
whereas others try to avoid them. Heavy industry and high-class housing rarely exist in the same neighborhood.

Geographic Application of the Models Effective use of the models depends on the availability of data at the scale of
individual neighborhoods. Urban areas in the United States are divided into census tracts that each contain approximately
5,000 residents and correspond, where possible, to neighborhood boundaries. Each decade the U.S. Bureau of the Census
publishes data summarizing the characteristics of the residents and housing in each tract. Social scientists can compare the
distribution of characteristics and create an overall picture of where various types of people tend to live. This kind of study
is known as social area analysis.

Applying the Models in Europe European cities display different patterns from North American cities. Poor residents live in
the outskirts and wealthy residents live closer to the core. Wealthy people are attracted by the opportunity to occupy
elegant residences in carefully restored, beautiful old buildings. Most of the newer housing built in the suburbs is high-rise
apartment buildings for low-income people or people who have immigrated from Africa and Asia. European officials
encourage the construction of high-density suburbs to help preserve the countryside from development and to avoid
inefficient sprawl. This type of suburban development in European countries has created social problems.

Applying the Models in Developing Countries Cities in Latin American feature sectors extending from the CBD where rich
live with services and amenities. Wealthy and middle-class residents avoid living near sectors of “disamenity,” which are
land uses that may be noisy or polluting or cater to low-income residents. Cities in developing countries are unable to house
the rapidly growing number of poor residents. Because of the housing shortage, a large percentage of poor immigrants to
urban areas in developing countries live in squatter settlements. Squatter settlements have few services because neither
the city or residents can afford them. The settlements generally lack schools, paved roads, telephones, and sewers.

Stages of Cities in Developing Countries European colonial policies left a heavy mark on cities in developing countries. Few
cities existed in Africa, Asia, and Latin America before the Europeans established colonies. Most people lived in rural
settlements. When Europeans gained control of area they expanded existing cities to provide colonial services, such as
administration, military command, and international trade, as well as housing for Europeans who settled the colony.
Existing native towns were either left to one side or demolished. All Spanish cities in Latin America were built according to
the Laws of the Indies. The laws explicitly outlined how colonial cities were to be constructed. The French laid out the cities
in their colonies differently than the Spanish.

Key Issue 3: Why Are Urban Areas Expanding?

The Peripheral Model According to the peripheral model, an urban area consists of an inner city surrounded by large
suburban residential and business areas tied together by a beltway or ring road. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities. The edge cities originated as suburban residences for people who worked in the
central cities and then shopping malls were built near the residents. Many edge cities now contain manufacturing centers
and office parks.

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Defining Urban Settlements The term city defines an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an
independent, self-governing unit. A city has locally elected officials, the ability to raise taxes, and the responsibility for
providing essential services. The official city’s legal boundary rarely represents the limits of the city as defined by dense
development.

An urban area is the central city plus its contiguous suburbs with high population densities. The census recognizes two
types of urban areas: an urbanized area is an urban area with at least 50,000 inhabitants and an urban cluster is an urban
area with between 2,500 and 50,000 inhabitants. Most data in the United States are collected for cities, counties, and other
local government units, but urbanized areas do not correspond to government boundaries.

The U.S. Bureau of the Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of a city, known as the metropolitan
statistical area (MSA). An MSA is composed of any county with a central city of greater than 50,000 people and any
adjacent counties with a large percentage of work commuters to the central city’s county. The census has also designated
smaller urban areas as micropolitan statistical areas. A micropolitan statistical area is an urbanized area of between
10,000 and 50,000 inhabitants.

All the metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas merged together are known as core based statistical areas. When
you combine a micropolitan or metropolitan area together with another micropolitan or metropolitan area it is known as
combined statistical areas (CSAs). The remaining micropolitan and metropolitan areas that are not parts of any CSAs are
known as primary census statistical areas (PCSAs).

Overlapping Metropolitan Areas In the northeastern United States, large metropolitan areas are so close together that
they now form one continuous urban complex, extending north of Boston to south of Washington, D.C., this region is
known as Megalopolis. Other continuous urban complexes exist in the United States—the southern Great Lakes between
Chicago and Milwaukee on the west and Pittsburgh on the east, and southern California from Los Angeles to Tijuana.

Local Government Fragmentation Because MSAs in the United States are composed of many independent suburbs and
central cities as well as counties, local governments are fragmented and less able to deal with regional problems. Most U.S.
metropolitan areas have a council of government, which is a cooperative agency consisting of representatives of the
various local governments in the region. The council of government may be empowered to do some overall planning for the
area that local governments cannot logically do.

Annexation The process of legally adding land area to a city is annexation. Normally, land can be annexed to a city only if a
majority of the residents in the affected area vote in favor of the annexation. Peripheral residents generally desired
annexation in the nineteenth century because the city offered better services, such as water supply, sewage disposal, trash
pickup, paved streets, public transportation, and police and fire protection. Today, cities are less likely to annex peripheral
land because residents prefer to organize their own services rather than pay the city taxes for them.

Density Gradient North American cities once followed a density gradient where density decreased consistently with
increasing distance from the city center. Suburbanization has flattened the density gradient as more and more people have
moved out of the city center and suburbs have become uniformly dense.

The Costs of Suburban Sprawl The U.S. suburbs are characterized by sprawl, which is a progressive spread of development
over the landscape. The U.S. suburbs sprawl across the landscape because of a desire for single-family housing surrounded
by private land. The benefits of this lifestyle choice are balanced by the costs of sprawl, which include tax burden from
increased infrastructure costs, the destruction of prime agricultural land, reduced access to recreation, and higher energy
costs. European cities restrict the availability of land for new development to preserve the greenbelts, which are rings of
open green space surrounding cities. Some U.S. cities have pursued smart growth laws to limit sprawl.

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Residential Segregation Zoning ordinances in the early decades of the twentieth century encourages spatial segregation.
They prevented the mixing of land uses within the same district. Single-family houses, apartments, industry, and commerce
were kept apart because the location of one activity near another was considered unhealthy and inefficient. Legal devices,
such as requiring each house to sit on a large lot and the prohibition of apartments, prevent low-income families from living
in many suburbs. Fences are built around some housing areas, and visitors must check in at a gatehouse to enter.

Suburbanization of Businesses The suburbs created segregated land uses, with residential areas separate from retail and
manufacturing activities, with the consequence of requiring automobile ownership for all trips. Retailing has been
increasingly concentrated in planned suburban shopping malls. Corner shops have been replaced by supermarkets in small
shopping centers. Generous parking lots surround stores. Malls have become centers for activities in suburban areas that
lack other types of community facilities.

Offices that do not require face-to-face contact are increasingly moving to suburbs, where rents are lower than in the CBD.
For some workers suburban office locations can pose hardships. Secretaries, custodians, and other lower-status office
workers may not have cars and public transportation may not serve the site. Factories and warehouses have migrated to
suburbia for more space, cheaper land, and better truck access. Suburban locations facilitate truck shipments by providing
good access to main highways and no central city traffic congestion.

Motor Vehicles Suburbanization is made possible by high levels of automobile ownership and now requires most U.S.
residents to drive daily to work and other trips. Population growth has led to traffic congestion and inefficient use of land
for roads and parking. An average city allocates about one-fourth of its land to roads and parking lots. Demand to use
congested roads is being reduced in a number of ways. Different countries are using different methods to reduce traffic
near the CBD.

The Car of the Future Carmakers are scrambling to bring alternative-fuel vehicles to the market. The Department of Energy
forecasts that around one-half of all new vehicles sold in the United States in 2020 will be powered by an alternative to
conventional gas engine. Alternative technologies include diesel, biofuel, hybrid, electric, and hydrogen. Alternative-fuel
vehicles reduce pollution and conserve petroleum resources.

Public Transportation The intense concentration of people in the CBD during working hours strains transportation systems
because a large number of people must reach a small area of land at the same time in the morning and disperse at the
same time in the afternoon. Rush hour is the four consecutive 15-minute periods that have the heaviest traffic. Public
transit is better suited than motor vehicles to moving large numbers of people because each transit traveler takes up far
less space. In the United States public transit service in minimal or nonresistant in many cities. The minimal level of public
transit service in most U.S. cities means that low-income people may not be able to reach places of employment. Rapid
transit (subways or fixed light-rail) is increasing in some U.S. cities.

European cities have well-developed public transit systems and continue to invest more than the United States. Public
transportation in the United States is caught in a vicious circle because fares do not cover operating costs. As patronage
declines and expenses rise, the fares are increased, which drives away passengers and leads to service reductions and still
higher fares. Public expenditures to subsidize construction and operating costs have increased, but the United States does
not fully recognize that public transportation is a vital utility deserving of a large subsidy.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Cities Face Challenges?

The Process of Deterioration Large houses built by wealthy families in the nineteenth century are subdivided by absentee
landlords into smaller dwellings for low-income families. This process of subdivision of houses by successive waves of
lower-income people is known as filtering. Landlords stop maintaining houses when the rent they collect becomes less than
the maintenance cost. The building will soon deteriorate and grows unfit for occupancy. The owner at this point may

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abandon the property because the rents that can be collected are less than the cost of taxes and upkeep. Some banks
engage in redlining—drawing lines on a map to identify areas in which they will refuse to loan money.

Many substandard inner-city houses have been demolished and replaced with public housing. A housing authority,
established by the local government, manages the buildings, and the federal government pays the cost of construction and
maintenance, repair, and management that are not covered by rent. The U.S. government has stopped funding
construction of new public housing. Because of poor conditions, high-rise public housing projects have been demolished in
many U.S. cities.

Gentrification Middle-class people sometimes move back to inner-city neighborhoods and improve the quality of housing in
a process called gentrification. Because renovating an old inner-city house can be nearly as expensive as buying a new one
in the suburbs, cities encourage the process by providing low-cost loans and tax breaks. Many people with lower incomes
are forced to move out of the gentrified neighborhoods because the rents in the area suddenly become too high for them.

Underclass Inner-city residents are frequently referred to as permanent underclass because they are trapped in an
unending cycle of economic and social problems. The future is especially bleak for the underclass because they are
increasingly unable to compete for jobs. Inner-city residents lack the technical skills needed for most jobs because fewer
than half complete high school. In the past, people with limited education could become factory workers or filing clerks, but
today these jobs require skills in computers and electronics. The remaining low-skilled jobs, such as custodial and fast-food
jobs, are increasingly in the distant suburbs. Some of the underclass are homeless.

Culture of Poverty Unwed mothers give birth to three-fourths of the babies in U.S. inner-city neighborhoods. Single
mothers may be forced to choose between working to generate income and staying home to take care of children.
Government officials provide very little incentives for the father to live with the mother and children. Some inner-city
residents turn to drugs, and gangs form in inner-city neighborhoods to control the lucrative drug distribution.

Suburban Stress As portions of the inner city are transformed into vibrant communities for higher-income people, inner
suburbs become home to lower-income people displaced from gentrifying urban neighborhoods. Thus, the inner suburbs
are unable to generate revenue to provide for the needs of a poorer population. In cities where gentrification is especially
strong, ethnic patterns are being altered.

The Eroding Tax Base Lower-income residents require public services but can pay very little of the taxes necessary to
support those services. Central cities face a growing gap between the cost of needed services in inner-city neighborhoods
and the availability of funds to pay for them. Inner-city fiscal problems used to be alleviated by increasing contributions
from the federal government. When adjusted for inflation, federal aid to U.S. cities has declined by two-thirds since the
1980s.

Impact of the Recession One of the principle causes of the severe recession that began in 2008 was the collapse of the
housing market in the inner city. In the years leading up to the recent recession, financial institutions sharply increased the
number of loans to low-income inner city households buying their first homes. In the first year of the recession, 10 percent
of all Americans with mortgages were behind on their mortgage payments or were already in foreclosure. In many cases,
the amount of the mortgage exceeded the value of the house once prices had fallen.

Reviving Consumer Services in the CBD Some retailing is thriving in CBDs if it combined with leisure activities. People are
willing to make a special trip to a specific destination downtown for unusual shops in dramatic settings. Some CBDs have
also restored their food markets, with individual stalls operated by different merchants. They may have a high range
because they attract customers who willingly travel far to find more exotic or higher-quality products.

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