The Fundamental Laws of Chemistry

Law of Conservation of Mass

The first of these Fundamental Laws to be discovered was the Law of Conservation of Mass.

The total mass of material present after a chemical reaction is the same as before the reaction.

This Law was discovered by Antoine Lavoisier in about 1789. In a turn about of the Scientific
Method, Lavoisier had always assumed this Law was true, and sought out experiments which would
verify his assumptions. As a result of numerous combustion experiments conducted on systems in
closed containers, so as to retain any gases present, Lavoisier was able to unambiguously verify his
assumptions and formally state the Law of Conservation of Mass.

For an example, consider our combustion reactions of elemental Carbon. If the mass of the gasses are
accounted for, it is found:

Carbon + Oxygen Carbonic Acid

Before Rxn: 1.00g 2.66g = 3.66g
After Rxn: 0.00g 0.00g 3.66g = 3.66g

Carbon + Oxygen Carbonic Oxide

Before Rxn: 1.00g 1.66g = 2.66g
After Rxn: 0.00g 0.00g 2.66g = 2.66g

Of course, these results require that each reactant be present in perfectly balanced amounts, such that the
full quantity of each is consumed completely during the reaction. If this is not the case, some of the reagent
in excess will remain at the conclusion of the reaction. However, the Law of Conservation of Mass will
still apply.

Hydrogen + Oxygen Water

Before Rxn: 2.00g 10.00g = 12.00g
After Rxn: 0.74g 0.00g 11.26g = 12.00g

From this example, we see a total of 12.00g of material is present both before and after the chemical
reaction occurs, with some of the hydrogen reagent remaining as excess. Further, we can also note that
oxygen is the Limiting Reagent in carrying out this reaction; it limits the production of water. If more
oxygen were present, a greater amount of water would be produced.

Finally, once this Law is accepted, it can be used to predict the amount of an "unseen" reactant consumed
or produced without direct measurement. For instance, when iron burns in the air, its mass is seen to
increase:

Iron + Oxygen Iron Oxide

Before Rxn: 5.00g ?g
After Rxn: 0.00g 0.00g 7.15g
From these results we can calculate the mass of oxygen needed to carry-out the complete
combustion of 5.00g of iron:

mass Oxygen = 7.15g - 5.00g = 2.15g

Finally, it must be noted the Law of Conservation of Mass, though a Fundamental Law of Chemistry, is not
a fundamental law of nature. When an energy difference occurs during a reaction, minute amounts of mass
are either gained or lost. Mass is either converted to energy or energy is converted to mass. The energy-
mass equivalence was first postulated by Einstein in his famous formula; E = mc2. While these mass
differences are not detectable by the chemist, they are important in nuclear reactions.

Law of Definite Proportions

A chemical compound, no matter what its origin or its method of preparation, always has the
same composition; i.e., the same proportions by mass of constituent elements.

This Law, sometimes known as the Law of Definite Composition, was first enunciated by Joseph Proust in
1799. Proust discovered this law while analyzing samples of Cupric Carbonate. He found two samples, one
prepared via synthetic methods, and the other mined naturally (Malachite Green), possessed the same
composition of elemental Carbon, Oxygen and Copper:

% Copper % Oxygen % Carbon

Synthetic Sample: 51.35% 9.74% 38.91%
Natural Sample: 51.35% 9.74% 38.91%

So, for example, if we decompose water by electrolysis and we recover the elemental gases hydrogen and
oxygen (not a difficult task experimentally), and subsequently measure the masses of each gas respectively,
we can determine the composition of this compound:

Water Hydrogen + Oxygen

Before Rxn: 10.00g
After Rxn: 1.12g 8.88g
This data yields an elemental composition of:

In a similar manner, from the data presented above, we can determine the elemental composition of the
two Oxides of Carbon:

Carbonic Acid Carbonic Oxide

% Carbon 27.29 % 42.88 %
% Oxygen 72.71 % 57.12 %

Thus, we begin to see how these two compounds of carbon and oxygen differ, they differ in their relative
proportions of the two constituent elements. Each compound has a definite, well defined composition, but
different compounds of the same elements will have different compositions.
The validity of the Law of Definite Proportions was firmly established by a number experiments
conducted by Jons Jakob Berzelius. To cite one example, he heated powdered elemental lead with
powdered elemental sufur, in different proportions, to form the compound lead sulfide. In each case he
found the elemental composition of the lead sulfide remained unchanged.

Expt. #1
Lead + Sulfur Lead Sulfide
Before Rxn: 10.00g 1.56g
After Rxn: 0.00g 0.00g 11.56g ==> % Lead = 86.5 %
% Sulfur = 13.5 %

Expt. #2
Lead + Sulfur Lead Sulfide
Before Rxn: 10.00g 3.00g
After Rxn: 0.00g 1.44g 11.56g ==> % Lead = 86.5 %
% Sulfur = 13.5 %

Expt. #3
Lead + Sulfur Lead Sulfide
Before Rxn: 18.00g 1.56g
After Rxn: 8.00g 0.00g 11.56g ==> % Lead = 86.5 %
% Sulfur = 13.5 %

From the results given above, we see attempts to increase the amount of one elemental substance, without
likewise increasing the amount of the other, simply leads to an excess of that substance remaining after the
reaction, and not a change in the composition of the compound.

It should be noted that forming a mixture, such as a solution, is a distinctly different process than the
process associated with compound formation. Suppose copper and zinc are mixed to form brass. This is a
physical process rather than a chemical process. Brass is not a compound because its physical properties
(color, density, melting point, etc.) are not distinct; their exact values depend on the proportions in which
the copper and zinc are mixed. This is very similar to mixing Table Salt and water to form a Salt-Water
solution; the salt and water can be mixed in different proportions. We would not think of Salt-Water as a
compound. When we combine, or "mix," hydrogen and oxygen to form water, the result is a compound
whose composition is fixed and whose properties are distinct.

Once accepted, this Law can be used to predict the amount of product which can be formed from a given
elemental reactant. For example, from the data cited above, we know that Carbonic Acid is 27.29 % carbon
and 72.71 % oxygen. So, how much Carbonic Acid can be produced from 5.0g of carbon?