Mini Project report on

AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCES

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement

For the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
T. PRASANTH 15KA1A0101
K.JESWANTH 15KA1A0103
T. BHANU PRASAD 15KA1A0116

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

ANANTHPUR COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING KALIKIRI
KALIKIRI-517234,CHITTOOR(Dt.),ANDHRA PRADESH
2015-2019
 CONTENTS

Introduction

Need for study

Different types of agricultural water resources

Analysis

Conclusion
 INTRODUCTION

Agricultural water is also known as

farm water , is water commited for the production of food and fibers . On average,80 percent
of fresh water withdrawn from rivers and ground water is used to produce food and
agricultural products . Agricultural water may include water used in irrigation of crops or
watering of livestock.

water is one of the most fundamental

part of global economy . It has been shown that in areas without healthy resources and
sanitation services , economic growth cannot be sustained . Without access to clean water ,
nearly every industry should suffer, most notably would be agriculture . As water scarcity
grows as a global concern , food security is also brought into consideration . A recent
example of this could be the drought in california , it is projected that for every $100spent
on the food from this state , a consumer is expect to pay up to $15 additionally .

Agricultural water use includes water

abstracted from surface and ground water , and return flows from irrigation for some
countries , but excludes precipitation directly onto the agricultural land.
 NEED FOR STUDY

As water being the main part of the agriculture , water plays the important role
in the food production . The quality and quantity of the water used for agriculture should e
maintained accurately thought the crop period , for good yield of crops . Therefore , the
water resource from which the water is abstracted should be good to meet the requirements
of yield of crops .

The mode of adoption of type of resource from which the water is to abstracted plays an
crucial role in the yielding of crop

The mode of applying water to the fields varies from plays to place due to variation in the
temperature , topography and other geological aspects .

This aspects gives rise to the immediate importance for the need for the study of the
agricultural water resources .

The study of agricultural water resources will bring the awareness in type of water resource
that to be adopted for better yielding of crops .
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF AGRICULTURAL WATER RESOURCES

Basically the agricultural water resources from which the water is abstracted ,
is generally classified into three categories . They are given as follows ,

Surface water resource

Ground water resource

Recycled water resource

 SURFACE WATER RESOURCES

Surface water is water on the surface of the planet such as in a river , lake ,
wetland or ocean . It can be contrasted with groundwater and atmospheric water . Surface
water originates mostly from rainfall and is a mixture of surface run-off and ground water .
It include large rivers , ponds , lakes , and the small upland streams which may originate
from springs and collect the run-off from the watersheds . The quantity of run-off depends
upon a large number of factors , the most important of which are the amount and intensity of
rainfall , the climate and vegetation ,and also the geological ,geographical , and
topographical features of the area under consideration . It varies widely , from about 20% in
arid and sandy areas where the annual rainfall is heavy . Of the remaining portion of the
rainfall . Some of the water percolates into the ground and the rest is lost by evaporation ,
transpiration and absorption

The quality of the surface water is governed by its content of living organisms
and by the minerals and organic matter which it may have picked up in the course of
formation . As rain falls through the atmosphere , it collect dust and absorbs oxygen and
carbon dioxide from the air . While flowing over the ground , surface water collect silt and
particles of organic matter , some of which will ultimately go into solution . It also picks up
more carbon dioxide from the vegetation and micro-organisms and bacteria from the top
soil and from decaying matter . On inhabited watersheds , pollution may include faecal
material and pathogenic organisms , as well as other human and industrial wastes which
have not been properly disposed of .
 In rural areas , water from small streams draining isolated or uninhabited
watersheds may posses adequate bacteriological and chemical quality for human
consumption in its natural state . However , in most instances surface water is subject to
pollution and contamination by pathogenic organisms and cannot considered safe without
treatment . It should be remembered that clear water is not necessarily fit for human
consumption and that one cannot depend wholly on self-purification to produce potable
water .

70% of India’s water is surface water resource

Rivers ,lakes and ponds

Rivers are most important for water resources

India’s important rivers : Himalayan rivers and peninsular river

 INDIA’S MOST IMPROTANT RIVERS

HIALAYAN RIVERS PENINSULAR RIVERS

Seasonal rivers
Perennial rivers

Smaller , not broad catchment , hard

Larger , wide flood plain , huge
rock below ,no shifting of course .
sediments , low slope gradient ,
meandering
Less food prone

Flood prone
Not navigable

Navigable ( Allahabad to Hugli and

Need pumping for irrigation – river
sadia to Dhubri)
basing located on higher plateau

Easily diverted for irrigation

 TYPE OF SURFACE WATER RESOURCES

Depending upon the usage of water the surface water resources are basically
divided in six types . They are

Rivers

Lakes

Man made reservoirs

Bank filtration

Desalination

Conjunctive use
 RIVERS

River water is an important surface water resource for house holds , agriculture and industry .
More over , rivers also provide many eco –system services . River water quality and quantity strongly depends
on its run off system , the seasonal change and the general soil and vegetation it flows through on it way to the
sea . There are several methods to extract river water for use ; some of them need skilled labour . To protect
the river water , waste water has to be treated before it is discharged into it . Simple river regimes have their

runoff peak once, caused through rainfall or melting water from glaciers and snow. But when river catchment
areas are covered by at least 15 to 20% of glaciers they have different regimes. They have their highest level
in warm months (melt water) and the lowest in cold months. Totally different are tropical regimes, where the
most important factor is the rainy and the dry season. The highest peaks can appear after the rainy season,
when groundwater streams are added. Most river regimes react more complex, both because they are long
and therefore part of different climatic regions, or the catchment areas are supplied by different factors, such
as rain and glaciers .
 RIVER SHAPES

The development of a river channel consists of three stages: youthful, mature

and old age . River patterns (fluvial styles) have been classified by LEOPOLD & WOLMAN
(1957) as braided, meandering and straight. This classification is essentially based on the
shape of the river channel, as it appears on aerial photographs. Later, SMITH (1983) added
anastomosed rivers as a distinct fluvial style . Often, in urbanised areas, rivers are
corrected in order to regain land. Corrected rivers flow through a straight constructed bed,
avoiding meandering or braiding.
 LAKES

Lakes are surface water sources, with water levels changing depending on the
seasons. Lakes usually play an important role in the supply of water for the regional
population (household use), industry and agriculture. Lakes management has to consider
that the amount of water extracted is not higher than water entering the lake; pollution and
eutrophication; as well as sedimentation to guarantee an ecological balance and a constant
quality of water for use. There are natural lakes and man-made lakes, also called reservoirs.
 MAN MADE RESERVOIRS

A reservoir is an artificial lake called man-made reservoir. It can be formed by

building a dam across a valley, by excavating the land or by surrounding a piece of land
with dykesand diverting a part of the river flow into the reservoir. The water is stored in the
reservoir and can be used for irrigation, hydro-power or as a water source for domestic
or industry use. Man-made reservoirs are also very effective constructions to control
unexpected floods (see also stormwater management). A reservoir is fed by precipitation,
rainwater runoff or from a constant flow of a river. Water loss can occur due to evaporation
(especially in arid regions) and depending on the reservoir bottom due to percolation (small
reservoirs are often lined). Sediments from rivers or surface runoff can reduce the storage
volume of a man-made reservoir significantly Water stored in a valley usually has a higher
level than the valley bottom downstream of the dam. Because of this difference in level, the
valley can be irrigated by a gravity system or other distribution systems. Water can be taken
from the reservoir via a concrete or steel pipe. This pipe connects the reservoir to an
irrigation canal downstream. A valve is usually located on the upstream end of the pipe to
control the discharge of water into the canal . The kinetic energy of reservoirs is often used
to produce electricity
 BANK FILTRAATION

Bank filtration is the infiltration of surface water, mostly from a river system
into a groundwater system induced by water abstraction close to the surface water (e.g. a
river bank). This water abstraction is commonly done by operating wells. As the water flows
through the soil, it is filtered and its quality hence is improved. In the context of developing
or newly-industrialised countries, bank filtration may contribute to a more sustainable water
cycle by recharging stressed groundwater bodies with filtered surface water . Besides the
treatment of surface water for drinking purposes . Bank filtration is also a managed aquifer
recharge (mar technique, since the water flows through the soil and mixes with the existing
groundwater from the aquifer. MAR is used to enhance the quality of treated sewage and
surface water for both drinking and non-drinking purposes and prevents overuse of aquifers,
saltwater intrusion and land subsidence
 DESALINATION

The chemical process of changing seawater into potable or fresh water is called
desalination. Thermal distillation and membrane processes are the two main approaches
used around the world to desalinise water. Desalination processes may be used in municipal,
industrial, or commercial applications. With improvements in technology, desalination
processes are becoming cost-competitive with other methods of producing usable water to
respond to a growing demand. Stand-alone desalination plants can use renewable energy to
operate. The pure water that is obtained after desalination must be re-mineralised to be
adequate for human consumption. The concentrated brine produced in desalination
processes needs to be disposed of properly.
 CONJUNCTIVE USE

Conjunctive use of water relates to the combined use of ground and surface
water. Due to the augmented water source, higher water reliability can be achieved.
Conjunctive use therefore functions as a buffer for periods of water scarcity. The idea of this
management approach is to use surface water when the water table is high and change to
groundwater when the water table is low. This technique might be especially important as a
buffer function for mitigating impacts of climate change, such as increased heat and
drought
 GROUND WATER RESOURCES

When rain falls to the ground , some of it flows along the land surface to
streams , rivers or lakes , some moisturizes the ground . Part of this water is used by
vegetation ; some evaporates and returns to the atmosphere . Part of the water also seeps
into the ground , flows through the unsaturated zone and reaches the water table , which is
an imaginary surface from where the ground beneath is saturated .

Water present in pore spaces of permeable rocks below the surface

Rain water percolate the soil through pores and cracks reach till aquifer

Sand or permeable rocks like sand stone acts as a good aquifer

When all the pore of the rock is filled up with water then the rock will get saturated which
thereby forms a saturated zone

Top most layer of the saturated zone is called as water table

All the layers of the ground surface is classified into three layers

They are zone of areation , zone of saturation ,water table

Based on the water storing and absorbing characteristics the ground layer is divided into
aquifer ,aquitaed , aquiclde , aquifringe .

Aquifer is divide into confined aquifer and unconfined aquifer

Ground water reserves 30 - 40 ml ha in India . Ground water is not found every where .

Gound water resource is divide into four most prominent regions .

Alluvial sedimentary – northern plains . This is a peninsular river basin , deltas of river ,
high water table .

Bhabhar ( fot hills of Himalyas ) . This are of coarse topography , not important for
agriculture .

East and West coastal plains . Eastern coastal plain broader and receive large amount of
rivers , vulnerable of salinity .

Peninsular gneissic and granitic rocks . Impermeable rocks water stored in cracks , once
water is extracted difficult to recharge and easily exhaausted .

Telangana , Dharwad , Bastar , Rayalaseema .are examples of peninsular gneissic .

 GROUND WATER RESERVE IN INDIA

Ground water reserve Total ground water reserve

Ganga ~ 17 ml ha

Godavari ~5 ml ha

Brahmaputra ~2.8 ml ha

Krishna ~2.6 ml ha

Indus ~2.5 ml ha
 DEVELOPMENT OF USE OF GROUND WATER

Ground water reserve Level of ground water

development

Indus ~80%

Cauveri ~45%

Kutchh - Saurashtra ~40%

Ganga basin ~31%

Penner basin ~30%

 GROUND WATER EXTRACTION

The ground water can be extracted in four ways .They are

Recirculation wells

Deep wells

Vacuum fillers

Drains
 RECIRCULATION WELLS

There are various ways of implementation. Here are some examples of the
systems developed in Germany . They are the vacuum evaporation source (VES) and the
coaxial ground-water aeration (CGA) .

VES is suitable for the treatment of shallow and deeper groundwater (in
practice, to a depth of ca. 40 m). CGA systems are also partly filtered in unsaturated zone
and are thus particularly suited for the treatment of the unsaturated zone as well as the upper
metres of the water-saturated zone (to a depth of ca. 10 m-mv.) VES and CGA are based on
the principle of in-well air stripping. In such a situation, “re-infiltration of cleaned ground-
water” is not applicable, which means that these systems do not encounter permit-related
problems.

For pollutants that are present at great depths, there are recirculation systems
which are fitted with multiple filter clusters (generally three) stacked on each other. In
principle, this approach allows cleaning to a depth of 90 m-mv. In this case, water is
pumped equal to the height of the middle filter, whereby re-circulation streams are created
between the middle and lower filter, and the middle and the upper filter. The pumped
ground-water is normally cleaned above ground and is then returned to the same filter. This
creates circulation streams as illustrated in the figure below.
Figure: Diagram of recirculation source with multiple filtering. Extraction at middle filter,
the above-ground purified water is re-infiltrated to lower and upper filter. The highlighted
water flows are thus created. The horizontal catchment area is strongly determined by the
scale of stratification in the soil (relationship Kh/Kh).
 DEEP WELLS

A deep well consists of a vertical bore hole with a diameter of 100 to 600 mm,
within which an extraction pipe is placed that has a perforated section (filter) and sand trap,
surrounded by filter gravel. An underwater pump is placed in the pumping well, which
brings the water to a height at which it can be drained using a discharge pipe. Besides the
pumping well, a level indicator is often also placed in the bore hole in order to measure the
level of ground-water in the deep well. If the ground-water reaches a particular height, it can
also be extracted using a vacuum pump at ground level. The diameter of the bore hold (100
to 600 mm) and the filter are determined by the diameter of the pump, which is in-turn
dependent of the desired extraction volume. The depth of the deep well depends on the
required filter surface and the ground-water level, and takes ground-water sinking into
account. With a longer and deeper filter, the drainage volume will increase. The rising pipe
and the filter are mainly made of HDPE or PVC. The filtering material is determined by the
soil texture. If the water-separating clay or peat layers in the soil are cut, the filtering
material level to these layers is sealed with clay pellets/bentonite .
 VACUUM FILTERS

Vacuum filters are used for the extraction of (ground) water. Vacuum filters are
vertical synthetic tubes with a perforated section, which is normally drilled or extruded into
the ground (extrusion is only permitted in non-polluted zone), though in principle, pulsing,
auger boring and compression are also possible). The vacuum filters are attached to a (ring)
pipe, which is subject to sub-normal pressure. This helps to extract the ground-water and
lower the ground-water level. The diameter of filters is normally 50 mm (2 inches), though
larger ones can also be employed.

In general, filters are made from PVC. In long-term ground-water extractions,

due to the chemical resistance, HDPE or another material may also be used. The vacuum
tube (row filters) is attached to a vacuum pump. If the ground-water table sinks below the
top of the perforated section of a filter, air is sucked in and the drainage stops. This can be
prevented by :

Making sure that the perforated section is placed deep enough .

Fitting extraction tubes ( or hangers) to the filters .

An extraction tube is an un-perforated pipe or tube, which is attached inside

the filter, whereby the under-side is set slightly (circa 0.10 m) above the under-side of the
filter. The extraction tube is then attached to the ring-pipe. The water streams through the
filter and is pumped up via the extraction tube.
 DRAINS

A drain is a perforated pipe, with or without a sheath, which is laid horizontally in the
ground . The drain can be laid:

Mechanically, with a drainage machine, up to maximum 5 m under ground level (deep

drainage can go to ca. 6 to 7 m under ground level);

Manually, by digging a trench. For this, the ground-water level must be temporarily
lowered.

Horizontally placed bores from ground level. The bore hole is supported by a bentonite or a
biologically degradable support fluid. This technique is in development.

Horizontal compactors from a coffer-dam. For this, the ground-water level in the coffer-dam
must be temporarily lowered.

The drain can be linked to a pump well by using an under-water pump (free decay) or a
concealed pipe on the vacuum pump. The drain is generally made from ribbed PVC and
diameters can vary from 50 to 200 mm. The drains can also be equipped with polyethylene
(HDPE) or polypropylene (PP), should the ground-water be very polluted. Drains can be
coated with synthetic fibres . PP is most commonly used as coating material. There are
various types of PP 700/450/350. Type PP 700 means a polypropylene sheath, with a
characteristic pore size of O90 of 700 (90% of pores are smaller than 700 µ m). The material
for the drain and the sheath is selected on the basis of soil texture , chemical resistance ,
deposition forming , sustainability , quality .
 RECYCLED WATER RESOURCES – MUNICIPAL RECYLED WATER

Urban wastewater, after treatment to a suitable level, is a good substitute for

groundwater or imported surface water for irrigation and other on-farm uses. The California
Water Recycling Criteria (encoded in Title 22 of the California Code of Administration)
allow 43 specified uses of recycled water—including irrigation of all types of food crops.
These criteria include different water quality requirements for irrigation of each type of
crop; those eaten raw, those receiving processing before consumption, and those not
involving any human contact before industrial processing. These regulations are among the
most stringent in the world and have been used as a model for many other countries’
guidelines and water reuse regulations. In California, growers using recycled water meeting
the Title 22 criteria have shown over the last 50 years that this practice is safe and
economical. Recycled water is also sustainable, conserves energy and provides a significant
portion of the nutrients needed by the crops—nitrogen, phosphorus and micronutrients.

BENEFITS :

Water saving

Energy saving

Benefits for water treatment plants

Environmental benifits
 ANALYSIS

In view of all the above discussions , we can see that water plays an important role in any
sort of industry and house holds.

Among all the industries agricultural industry will severely effected by deficiency of water
resources .

Surface water resource occupy more than 70% of the India’s water resources .

Surface water resources are economical to use and they do not need any electrical power to
lift the water .

Ground water resource and recycled water resources forms a little part in the agriculture
water resources because of their low availability and uneconomical .

CONCLUSION

The study of agricultural water resources is very important to know the

yielding of the crops with respective the water source . And to us the water resource which
gives the better yielding of crops and good quality of water . Every water resource can be
used in the agriculture but will not be productable . Therefore better knowledge on the
agricultural water resources should be must to give a better crop with good quality and
quantity . Notably the national economy also increases with the increase in the production
of food .
 REFFERANCE

Applied Hydrogeology, Fourth Edition by C.W. Fetter.

R.A. Young and J.D. Bredehoeft Digital simulation for solving management problems with
conjunctive groundwater and surface water systems from Water Resources Research 8:5
56

GROUD WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT BY HAMILL AND F G BELL