2 AGING

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Individuals over the age of 65 currently make up about 12.5% of

our citizenry (National Center for Health Statistics, 1993), and the
age group of 75+ will increase by 7 6 % in the 1990s alone (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 1991). As is indicated in Figure 1.1, the older
cohort is expected to continue to grow in the future. The rate of
increase is expected to slow during the next decade, however, due
to the small number of babies born during the Great Depression
of the 1930s, with the largest expansion predicted between 2010
and 2030 as the baby boom generation reaches age 65 (American
Association of Retired Persons [AARP], 1987). By the year 2010, it
is anticipated that the number of individuals over age 65 will reach
40 million, a number that has doubled in the past 40 years (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 1991). If current fertility and immigration
rates remain stable, there will be about 65 million older persons
by the year 2030 (AARP, 1987). The cultural changes and medical
advances that have contributed to the 5 0 % increase in life expec­
tancy during the 20th century may foster an increased level of
variability in later life that was not previously allowed by natural
selection (Plomin, 1986). As the age distribution shifts steadily
upward, describing individual differences in functioning and ad­
justment in later life and assessing the genetic and environmental
etiology of these differences will become increasingly important.

Biological, Psychological, and Social Aging

The term aging is often used in a global sense to refer to all

interindividual age differences and intraindividual age changes.
Copyright @ 1997. SAGE Publications, Inc.

The very word aging obscures our understanding of the process,

because aging is only loosely related to chronological age (the
number of years that have elapsed since a person's birth). Thus,
even though biomaturational changes and life experiences occur
in time, the passage of time itself does not produce the changes
that are associated with the aging process. To complicate this
situation even further, aging is used both as a label for an inde­
pendent variable to explain other phenomena and as a dependent
variable that is explained by other processes (Birren & Birren,

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 Aging Differently
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70 π

60
51.4

50
39.2
40 34.9

30

20

10 Η
Ο τ—'—'—[—'—'——·—[—·—^—Γ
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2010 2020 2030

Figure 1.1. The Number of Individuals (in millions) Aged 65 and Above
From 1900 to 2030

1 9 9 0 ) . B e c a u s e c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e p e r se is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l e v a n t
t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of d e v e l o p m e n t ( e s p e c i a l l y in l a t e r life), o t h e r
interpretations of "age" h a v e been provided.
F i g u r e 1.2 r e p r e s e n t s t h e m u l t i f a c e t e d n a t u r e o f t h e c o n c e p t of
a g i n g . T h e t h r e e m a j o r d o m a i n s in w^hich a g i n g h a s b e e n d e f i n e d
Copyright @ 1997. SAGE Publications, Inc.

a r e b i o l o g i c a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l , a n d social. Biological aging r e f e r s t o

a n a t o m i c a l a n d p h y s i o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s t h a t o c c u r o v e r t i m e in t h e
v a r i o u s s y s t e m s of t h e b o d y ( B i r r e n & C u n n i n g h a m , 1 9 8 5 ) , a n d
c a n a l s o refer t o a g e - r e l a t e d c h a n g e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p h y s i c a l
p a t h o l o g y (i.e., a n i n d e x of b i o l o g i c a l h e a l t h ) . B e c a u s e t h e b i o l o g i -
c a l e v e n t s t h a t follow b i r t h h a p p e n at different t i m e s a n d o c c u r at
different r a t e s for e a c h i n d i v i d u a l ( H a y f l i c k , 1 9 9 4 ) , a p e r s o n ' s
b i o l o g i c a l a g e is t h o u g h t of a s a n e s t i m a t e of a n individual's
p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o his o r h e r p o t e n t i a l life s p a n

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 4 AGING

(Birren, 1959). Psychological aging refers to age-related changes in

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behavior and mental process, such as cognitive functioning, per­

sonality, and psychopathology (Schroots & Birren, 1990). Psycho­
logical aging can also refer to changes in an individual's ability to
adapt, adjust, or cope effectively (Birren & Cunningham, 1985).
Social aging refers to age-related changes that result from forces
either arising from the society in which the individual lives or
from the individual's responses to socially imposed constraints
(McKenzie, 1980). For example, although society may "expect" an
elderly person to behave in a certain way, this socially imposed
expectation may be internalized by some individuals and rejected
by others. Issues related to social aging are demographic charac­
teristics; interpersonal dynamics; social roles and status; organiza­
tional affiliations; and age-related life events such as widowhood,
retirement, or changes in financial status. Clearly, these three
dimensions are interrelated. Not only are the biological, psycho­
logical, and social processes interwoven throughout development,
but there is also a high degree of independence among them; a
biologically young person can be psychologically old and vice
versa.
In overviewing the aging process from a behavioral genetic
perspective, this book will focus on the etiology of individual
differences for behavioral characteristics that are loosely associ­
ated with these three dimensions of aging. It is important to
remember, however, that separating attributes by whether they
represent biological, psychological, or social aging is intended as
a useful heuristic, not as a definitive (or exhaustive) categoriza­
tion. For example, the topic of biological aging is very broad; the
Copyright @ 1997. SAGE Publications, Inc.

questions that will be addressed relate to the etiology of individ­

ual differences for longevity and health. From a behavioral genetic
perspective, it is possible to answer questions such as, "Why do
some individuals live longer than others?" or "What is the etiol­
ogy of cardiovascular disease in later life?" For psychological
aging, the focus will be on genetic and environmental influences
on cognitive functioning, personality, and psychopathology. As
such, questions like, "Is intellectual ability heritable in adulthood

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 Aging Differently
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Biological

Social

Psychological

Figure 1.2. Model Representing the Three Interrelated Dimensions of

Age: Biological, Psychological, and Social
Copyright @ 1997. SAGE Publications, Inc.

and old age?" or "What is the etiology of continuity and change

in personality in later life?" will be addressed. In terms of social
aging, the focus will be on social support, family environment, the
experience of life events, and socioeconomic status, answering
questions such as, "How do some aging individuals preserve a
network of social support, whereas others suffer from social iso­
lation?" or "Why do some individuals have more than their share
of misfortune?"

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