CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Mechanical energy cannot be achieved successfully without petroleum, natural

gas, coal, hydroelectricity and nuclear energy and they became the basic natural
sources for the energy. The demand of petroleum and its by-products are increasing
continuously due to the increase in population and industrialization. The discriminate
use of petroleum sourced fuels is now widely recognized as unsustainable because it
is non-renewable resources. In the last 10 years, many studies have been conducted on
biofuels for substituting fossil fuels and reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission
which is responsible for global warming (Bastianoni et al., 2008). Energy is one of the
main human needs and currently energy resources are running low. It caused by a
commonly used fuel derived from petroleum which is not renewable and difficult to
obtain because over a period of thousands of years. The energy crisis that hit this time
is a problem that must be addressed.
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Continuous exploitation of the fossil fuels which are non-renewable energy

consumption for industry, transport and households resulted in dwindling presence in
nature. It has been led to the level of oil consumption to an average rise of 6% per year
(Suroso, 2005). With such issues like global warming, air pollution, and other
environmental problems that have resulted somewhat from using fossil fuels to create
energy, the future must include the use of clean burning fuels instead of fossil fuels.
To overcome this problem, various modifications of vegetable oils have been
employed such as trans-esterification, micro-emulsion formation and the use of
viscosity reducers. Among these, trans-esterification was considered as the most
suitable modification because technical properties of esters are nearly similar to diesel.
Through trans-esterification, these vegetable oils are converted to the alkyl esters of
the fatty acids present in the vegetable oil (Al Widyan M.I., Al Shyoukh A.O.,
Bioresources Technology, 2002). These esters are commonly referred to as biodiesel.

It has been widely reported that not less than ten major oil fields from the 20
largest world oil producers are already experiencing declined in oil reserves. Recently
published data also revealed a total of 29 major world oil producing countries already
experiencing declining oil reserves from year 2005 to 2007 (EIA, 2007; Alamu et al.,
2007a). In comparison to petroleum-based fuels, biodiesel offered reduced exhaust
emissions, improved biodegradability, reduced toxicity and higher cetane rating which
can improve performance and clean up emissions. Typical biodiesel produces about
65% less net carbon monoxide, 78% less carbon dioxide, 90% less sulphur dioxide
and 50% less unburnt hydrocarbon emission (Margaroni, 1998; Ryan et al., 1982;
Knothe and Steidley, 2005; Krahl et al., 2006).

In view of the recurrent instability in oil prices and the fact that crude oil is a
wasting asset, biodiesel stands as an attractive and alternative source of energy. While
it is worthy to note that biodiesel may not completely displace petroleum diesel at
present, biodiesel has its place as an alternative fuel and can be a source of lubricity
enhancing additive to diesel fuel. The emissions produced from biodiesel are cleaner
compared to petroleum-based diesel fuel. Particulate emissions, soot, and carbon
monoxide are lower since biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel and burns more completely.
However, emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOX) are higher when biodiesel is used
due to the high temperature and pressure in the engine that promotes dissociation
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during combustion (Antolín et al, 2002; Al-Widyan and Al-Shyoukh, 2002; Ma et al.,
1999).

1.2 IMPORTANT OF BIOMASS

Biomass energy can be implemented on a very large scale with almost no

modifications and this is a much cleaner burning fuel source comparing to fossil fuels.
Investing in renewable alternative sources of energy now means that in 10 or 20 years,
dependence on foreign oil and fossil fuels will no longer be a problem. There is also
wind farms that create so much energy that excess is sold to power companies and
there are homes that use solar energy in combination with other traditional energy
sources. Cars have been created that can run on gasoline blends that burn up to 85
percent ethanol mixed with 15 percent gasoline. Vehicles that burn this fuel blend are
called flexible fuel vehicles and are very friendly to the environment and a tight budget.
Surely, energy in the future will see a lot more biomass energy production, biofuels
being used exclusively, and alternative energy sources becoming common and
standard.

1.3 ADVANTAGES OF BIOFUELS

Biofuels can come from a wide variety of sources and can be roughly divided
into four categories or "generations". First generation biofuels are made from sugars,
starches, oil, and animal fats that are converted into fuel using already-known
processes or technologies. These fuels include biodiesel, bio-alcohols, ethanol, and
bio-gasses, like methane captured from landfill decomposition. Second generation
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biofuels are made from non-food crops or agricultural waste, especially lingo-
cellulosic biomass like switch-grass, willow, or wood chips. Third generation biofuels
are made from algae or other quickly growing biomass sources. Fourth generation
biofuels are made from specially engineered plants or biomass that may have higher
energy yields or lower barriers to cellulosic breakdown or are able to be grown on non-
agricultural land or bodies of water.

1.4 BIODIESEL (PART OF BIOFUELS)

Biodiesel is a clean-burning replacement for petroleum diesel fuel, renewable

fuel alternative to conventional diesel, biodegradable fuel, alternative fuel. Biodiesel
is one source of alternative energy diesel fuel that is biodegradable and has several
advantages in terms of the environment when compared with petroleum diesel (Chisti,
2007). The energy sources made from living things, or the waste that living things
produce. Supporters of biofuels argue that their use could significantly reduce
greenhouse gas emissions; while burning the fuels produces carbon dioxide, growing
the plants or biomass removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Detractors claim
that biofuel production poses a major threat to global food systems and the natural
environment.

The term biodiesel has no unambiguous definition. It stands for neat vegetable
oils used as DF as well as neat methyl esters prepared from vegetable oils or animal
fats and blends of conventional diesel fuel with vegetable oils or methyl esters. With
increasing emphasis on the use of esters as DF, however, the term “biodiesel”
increasingly refers to alkyl esters of vegetable oils and animal fats and not the oils or
fats themselves. In an article on proposed ASTM standards, biodiesel was defined
(Jefferson City, MO, March 1996.) as “the mono alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids
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derived from renewable lipid feedstock, such as vegetable oils or animal fats, for use
in compression ignition (diesel) engines.” Nevertheless, clear distinction between
these different vegetable oil-based or -derived alternative diesel fuels is necessary.

Biodiesel production from algae is an emerging technology considered by

many as a very promising source of energy, mainly because of its reduced competition
for land. Among these, especially, algae were found to be an alternative nature source
of renewable petroleum resources that is capable of meeting the global demand for
fuels (Chisti, 2007, 2008). The idea of using algae as a source of fuel is not new (Chisti,
1981; Nagle and Lemke, 1990; Sawayama et al., 1995), but it is now being taken
seriously because of the increasing price of petroleum and more significantly, the
emerging concern about global warm that is associated with burning fossil fuels
(Gavrilescu and Chisti, 2005).

Biodiesel is a standardised fuel that consists of vegetable oil Methyl Ester. It is

a product of vegetable oil that reacts with an alcohol (methanol) and a catalyst (sodium
hydroxide). This process generates two products: glycerine, which can often be used
in soap production, and biodiesel. There are two fully developed standards of
biodiesel, ASTM-D6751 in the U.S. and EN14214 in the E.U. Following these
standards upholds the guarantee of the engine manufacturer [4]. Positive impacts on
engines include increased lubricity and a reduction of visible particles in the exhaust.
Secondly, other (waste) vegetable oil can be included in the feedstock of biodiesel
production. The major disadvantage of biodiesel is its high costs through the use of a
chemical facility and the requirement of imported methanol. Current research by the
University of the South Pacific will have to point out whether the production of
standard biodiesel can be competitive using locally produced ethanol from sugarcane.
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1.5 THE USE OF BIODIESEL

Biodiesel is a standardised fuel that consists of vegetable oil Methyl Ester. It is

a product of vegetable oil that reacts with an alcohol (methanol) and a catalyst (sodium
hydroxide). This process generates two products: glycerine, which can be used in soap
production, and biodiesel. There are two fully developed standards of biodiesel,
ASTM-D 6751 in the U.S. and EN14214 in the E.U. Following these standards
upholds the guarantee of the engine manufacturer (EMA Engine Manufacturers
Association, 2003). Positive impacts on engines include increased lubricity and a
reduction of visible particles in the exhaust. Secondly, other (waste) vegetable oil can
be included in the feedstock of biodiesel production.

A high cetane number and a low iodine number makes coconut oil well suited
for CI engines, but it has two main drawbacks: a high melting point and high viscosity,
both of which can be corrected by esterifying the oil into biodiesel. Biodiesel made
from coconut oil by trans-esterification, which is also called Coconut Methyl Ester
(CME), has a melting point that isbelow zero degree C and its cetane and iodine
numbers are nearly the same as coconut oil. CME has other advantages over coconut
oil ‐ its viscosity and other physical properties are similar to petroleum diesel so it can
be easily mixed, transported and distributed with diesel, and diesel engines do not need
any modification for using blends of biodiesel. For more details about biodiesel refer
“Biodiesel Handling and Use Guide” (NREL, 2006) Philippines has a government
supported program to produce Coconut Methyl Ester (CME) from coconut oil and
blend it with diesel fuel. The physico‐chemical properties of CME produced in the
Philippines and its blends with diesel have been measured . Results are compared in
Table11 with Philippine National Standard for diesel fuel quality (PNS2020:2003) and
biodiesel produced from Soyabean oil.
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Table 1.1 Physico-Chemical properties of Coconut Methyl Ester (CME)

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1.6 COCONUT OIL

For many decades, Coconut (Cocos Nucifera) known as the “tree of life”, has
been preferred raw material for the production of soap and cosmetics. As food item,
coconut oil provides many health benefits being anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal,
anti-microbial and many more (Dr.Bruce, 2009). Coconut oil like any other vegetable
oils and animal fats are triglycerides, inherently containing glycerin. Trans-
esterification turns the oils into esters, separating out the glycerin from the main
product (biodiesel). The heavier glycerin sinks to the bottom and the biodiesel floats
on top and is separated using separating funnel. The process substitute’s alcohol for
the glycerin, using a catalyst. It has one of the highest oil contents among plant oils
(Setiawan et al., 1997).

Diesel engines are known as the beasts of burden of the engine world because
of their high torque, robust construction and the fact that they consume almost any
kind of oil. Most simple triglycerides, such as coconut oil, will burn quite readily.
However, since most diesel engines are designed around the lower acid content and
specific viscosities/combustion properties of refined fuels they will eventually sustain
damage if raw oil is used for extended periods.

The two main causes of damage are coking and clogging. Coking is the
deposition of solid carbon inside the engine due to incomplete fuel combustion, which
may eventually cause the engine to seize up even with regular cleaning. Clogging
occurs when the oil starts to solidify or gel inside the engine, which occurs at 22-25°C
for 100% coconut oil. This is less of a problem in warmer climates. A pre-injection
fuel heater can be installed to prevent the oil from gelling, although it is more common
simply to use a blended fuel as this addresses most engine problems without the need
for engine modifications.
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1.7 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Today, various global concerns such as the dwindling crude oil reserve, global
warming and climatic change, air pollution and public health, and more importantly
the steady rise in the cost of fossil fuel, have altogether received great interest in the
use of renewable fuels. One of the most promising alternatives fuel that has properties
close to those of diesel is vegetable oils and their derivatives. With a wealth of palm
trees and the fruit of continuous production, it can be used in various sectors involving
the use of oil for biodiesel production. Therefore, to minimize this problem of rising
oil prices and the lack of fossil fuel, we have an alternative to the use of Coconut
(Cocos Nucifera) as a raw material in the production of biodiesel.

1.8 OBJECTIVES

The application of Coconut (Cocos Nucifera L.) for Production of Biodiesel.

The Objective of the study:

1. To investigate the physical properties of coconut as a raw material

for production of biodiesel.
2. To reduce harmful gas emission from vehicles such CO2, NOx,
SOx and other gas harmful that can pollute the environment.
3. To investigate the efficiency of using Coconut Biodiesel as an
alternate fuel substitute for diesel engines.
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4. As a direct substitute and additive for petroleum-diesel and bio-

diesel.

1.9 SCOPE OF STUDY

This study focused on the application of Coconut (Cocos Nucifera L.) as a raw
material for production of biodiesel. This study are to see the efficiency of coconut in
production biodiesel and as a alternative fuel due to the increasing of fuel prices and
the lack of fossil fuels.

Figure 1.1 Location of study