Basics of forming

Roll formed products

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Steel body with hang on parts
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 Stress
• Engineering stress

P
σ engineering =
A original

• True stress
P
σ true =
A actual

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 Strain
• Engineering strain

δl l final − l original
e engineering = =
l original l original

• True strain (Tension)

dl  l   A original 
ε true = ∫ = ln   == ln  
l l
 original   A 
2
 D original   D original 
...... = ln   = 2 ln  
 D   D 
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Stress-strain curve

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Effect of temperature

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Relationship with true stress –true strain
values

σ true = Kε n

K = strength co-efficient

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 Comparison of normal and shear
stresses
• In tension and torsion states of stress:
– In tension, uni-axial stress σ is the effective stress
as well a the principal stress
– In torsion, principal stresses σ1 = - σ3 and occur on
planes whose normal's are at 45o to the
longitudinal axis. While σ2 = 0.
– In torsion, σ1 = k

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 Yield criterion
Tresca’s maximum shear stress
criterion
• If the principal stresses are ordered as
σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3
σ1 = -σ3 = k
& σ2 = 0
For plastic deformation to occur
1
(σ1 − σ3 ) = τ max ≥ k
2
 k = shear..yield..stress.of .material
& Y = uniaxial .tensile.yield.stress = (σ1 − σ3 )
∴ Y ≥ 2k
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Von Mises’ maximum distortion energy criterion
(σ1 − σ 2 )2 − (σ 2 − σ3 )2 − (σ3 − σ1 )2 = 2Y 2

 Y = uniaxial .tensile.yield..stress

Under pure torsion

σ1 = k , σ3 = −k , σ 2 = 0
∴ (k + 0) 2 + (0 + k )2 + (− k − k )2 = 2Y 2
6k 2 = 2Y 2
⇒ Y = 3k

Von Mises’ criterion is more realistic than Tresca’s criterion

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 Working temperature
• Cold working • Re-crystallization
– Below re-crystallization – New equi-axed grains
temperature – Strain free grains
• Warm working – Older grains are replaced
– Intermediate temperature Are formed
• Hot working – Temperature of re-
crystallization ranges
– Above re-crystallization
temperature 0.3 Tm to 0.5 Tm
Where Tm is melting point of the
metal
• Grain growth
– With increase in temperature
the grains grow.

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 Temperature range for various
processes

Process T/Tm
Cold working < 0.3
Warm working 0.3 to 0.5
Hot working > 0.6

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 Problem 1
• A metal rod of 2 m length is pulled in four
steps by applying forces; first to length of 2.5
m, second to 3 m, third to 3.5 m and finally to
a length of 4 m. Compute (a) engineering
strain and (b) true strain. Prove that the true
strains are additive, whereas the engineering
strain are not additive.

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 Problem 2
• A metal wire of 2 mm diameter is drawn out
from a rod of 20 mm. During the pulling
process, the wire has been subjected to
longitudinal and lateral strains. Calculate the
engineering and true strains.

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Thanks

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