LANDING GEAR

Landing gear is the undercarriage of the aircraft or space craft which primarily
supports the static and dynamic loads acting on the platform, also crucial in
various phases of flight.

The major purpose of using the landing gear is:

1. To support static loads

2. To dampen and withstand vertical loads
3. To control horizontal component of velocity
4. To taxi and steer the aircraft
5. To withstand takeoff and landing loads

Landing design parameters vary with aircraft design as static and dynamic
loads vary also the position of the cg also changes.

Different types of wheel configurations:

1. Bicycle
2. Tricycle
3. Tail based

Tricycle is used because there is ease of loading of cargo and the pilot has
better visual reference on the ground. The carriage is located behind the cg.

Tail based used where more prop clearance is required, this configuration
might cause difficulty in loading, lesser visual reference on ground. The
carriage is located ahead of cg.

Types of landing gears:

Telescopic: This configuration follows a cylinder in cylinder type arrangement

the shock absorber is oleo pneumatic. The oil and nitrogen used act as
damping agents.

Articulate: This configuration consist a number of joints and joining members.

There is a suspended lever which is attached to the wheel assembly the
direction bar dictates the direction of retraction and extension. This is
generally used when the sink rates are lower and also the ground clearance.

Semi articulate: This is similar to articulate but has lesser number of joints.

Nitrogen is generally preferred in the shock absorber because the gas is

thermodynamically inert has large molecular size and is non corrosive in
nature.

The shock absorber consists of a flutter valve which regulates the flow of fluid
so that required reactive forces could be generated so that the impulsive loads
can be dampened.

The braking system of the landing gear consist of set of rotors and stators
which on interacting with each other produce the required braking force. The
rotor discs are made of carbon fibre.

The ABS system prevents skidding by pressure fluctuation through suitable

input from wheel accelometers and pressure transducers.

The up lock and down lock mechanisms ensure proper locking of the gear
when in fully extended and retracted position. Directional solenoid controls
the opening and closing of the doors. The steering mechanism follows a rack
and pinion type arrangement.

REAR LANDING GEAR OF LCA

 HYDRAULICS
Hydraulic systems are widely used in flight controls, braking, deployment of
landing gear or we could wherever actuation ease is required hydraulics are
used.

Hydraulic systems generally work on Pascal’s law which states that pressure is
transmitted equally in all directions through which large forces could be
transmitted through application of less effort.

They form a vital component in a power assisted control loop and have major
advantages:

1. High power to weight ratio

2. Ability to hold a control position without fluctuation
3. Reliable and easy access for maintainence.

The major components of a hydraulic system are:

1. Reservoir
2. Non return valves and directional valves
3. Pressure relief valves
4. Accumulators
5. Pumps
6. Filters
7. Actuators

Reservoir is the component where the hydraulic fluid is stored the fuel stored
here is clean, pressurized and froth free. Strap type reservoirs are used in
military aircraft.

The non return and directional valves control the flow of hydraulic fluid in the
loop so that required actuating effect takes place.

When there is excess pressure development in the loop then the pressure
relief valve reduces the excess pressure development.
Accumulators provide pressurized fluid when there is sudden requirement of
actuation. They are nitrogen pressurized vessels containing a certain amount
of fluid.

Pumps are devices which pressurize the fluid; these are generally engine driven
of electrically driven. Pumps can be piston or gear type.

Filters ensure that no eroded material or debris mixes with the fluid and are
responsible for keeping then fluid clean.

Actuators are devices which convert the hydraulic input to mechanical output.
They are generally double sided where on one side the pressurized fluid acts
and on the other the used fluid is moved to the reservoir.

The hydraulic fluid used in military aircraft are of MIL5606H standard since the
fluid might heat up during operation the fluid must operate in a wide
temperature range (-40 to 135*C)
 POWER PLANT AND FUEL SYSTEM
The power plant and fuel department is concerned with the choice of the
power plant its design parameters like shape, size, thrust and performance
parameters. Also the sizing of the fuel channel, LRU’S for transfer and storing
fuel, fuel movement and dynamics are all studied in the group.

The requirement of the fuel system is that in all altitude and attitudes the fuel
rates and the amount of fuel supplied to the power plant must be same.

Fuel is fed to the aircraft mainly through methods:

1. Gravity feed
2. Pressure feed (4000 lit of fuel can be fed in 8 min)

Fuel feed system consists of a hydraulic pump or electrical pump

(redundancy), a supply channel, filters, Lp lock, jet fuel starters. For inverted
flights there is a special feed system.

Since fuel is being consumed during flight the position of the cg shifts which
affects the stability. Here the transfer system comes into play where fuel is
mobilized from the main tanks to the tanks present in the wings.

Fuel measurement system consists of probes which work on capacitive

principles to measure the fuel levels. These probes may be positioned in
different locations to get correct measurements in different attitudes.

MFD display of the cockpit gives all vital information like fuel levels , EGT, oil
temp & pressure, manifold pressure hence giving vital information on the
health of the power plant and fuel feed system.
 WING AND EMPANNAGE DESIGN
Wings are the major lift producing component the geometric and structural
parameters must be carefully planned.

Wings are able to produce lift owing to their airfoil cross section where there is
difference in pressures on the top and bottom surfaces hence generating the
required lift.

Geometric parameters like span, taper ratio, MAC, wing area have to carefully
decided on as each have their own aerodynamic implications.

A wing could be divided into three major regions:

1. Nose box
2. Torsion box
3. Rear box

Major structural members of the wing are:

1. Spars (front and rear spars)

2. Stringers
3. Skin
4. Ribs

Due to large amount of aerodynamic loads (lift distribution span wise) acting
the wings experience a bending moment at the root, these bending moments
are taken by the spar. Special attachments in the wing fuselage interface resist
the bending loads. There are special shear attachments which resist shear
loading.

Apart from these loads the wing also experiences torsional loads; the
magnitude of these loads is determined by the eccentricity of the elastic line
and the aerodynamic centre. The torsion box is carefully designed to resist
these torsional loads.
Stringers are generally stiffening members they stiffen the skin so that they
don’t buckle under load.

Skin is the covering member of the wing mainly responsible for resisting shear
stresses.

Ribs are those members who maintain the airfoil shape of the wing also act as
support brackets for taking concentrated loads. Wings generally employ thick
airfoils because of height of attachment at the fuselage. (NACA 6 digit).
Generally wings are designed to stall the root first so that we don’t lose aileron
controllability.

Wings can also be dihedral or anhedral whether we want our platform to be

stable or maneuverable respectively. They can also be delta, swept back, and
swept forward, to enhance aerodynamic performance.

There are various devices which enhance flow over wings like nose droppers,
strakes, slats & slots, fences, turbulators. Warning devices like breaker strips
warn pilots from stalling.

Skin pockets and holes in various elements of the wing are meant for weight
reduction. These passages are also meant for hydraulic lines and fuel.

Wings are auxiliary fuel tanks where fuel can stored and utilized, the fuel tanks
are present between two ribs and are made leak proof by application of
sealant. (PR1770). These tanks are also called dry bays.

Wings also have control surfaces (ailerons, flaps, spoilers) which are of utmost
importance in flight control; these surfaces require rotational freedom and are
connected to hinges. The control surfaces are attached to wing by shroud
riblets, actuators are placed in holding brackets.
The skin is attached to the wing by rivets or they are integrated, the latter
design is generally followed.

COMPONENTS OF WING

DELTA DESIGN FOR A MILITARY AIRCRAFT

 ENVIRNOMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
All modern day aircrafts operate at high speeds and altitudes, at such
operating conditions the human physiology becomes adverse and survival
becomes difficult.

At high altitudes the temperature, density, vapour pressure all lower which
needs to be considered by this group so that preventive measures can be
taken.

At high altitudes due to the low vapour and rarity of the atmosphere the
oxygen present in air is not able to diffuse in the blood stream causing a
condition called hypoxia this may affect consciousness and decision making.

Conditions like bends; caused due to expansion of nitrogen may result in pain
in joints, the skin can expand as a balloon and the blood may begin to boil as
well. The loss in humidity can cause dry skin and irritation in nasal passages.
Ozone present at these altitudes might also cause irritation.

The ECS systems generally are of two types:

1. Air type (occupies lesser space)

2. Liquid type

The air type ECS system consists of:

1. Pressure tapping from the engine ( about 36 bar & 786*C)

2. Pressure reduction valve
3. Primary & secondary heat exchanger (finned type heat exchangers)
4. Cold air unit
5. Temprature control valve
6. Pressurization system for the cockpit seal
7. Radom pressurization unit (to prevent arcing)
8. Humidity control system (centrifuge type)

The air ECS system works on the air cycle principle heat exchangers take heat
from cockpit and dump heat to the surroundings, the expander cools the air
and compressor increases the pressure and temprature. Hence the required
temperature and pressure and other environmental conditions can be
maintained in the cabin.

The OBOGS is an autonomous system which provides pure oxygen supply to

meet all physiological conditions of the pilot it generally contains zeolite filters
which filter all other components of air and supply unadulterated oxygen upto
98% pure.

A TYPICAL OBOGS SCHEMATIC

 ARMAMENT AND EJECTION
The armament and ejection group are responsible for positioning and
accommodating stores (warheads) and integrating them in the aircraft.
While the seat ejection is a safety feature which is common in all combat
aircraft.

The LCA aircraft has 9 hard points and 8 weapon stations, the out board
has a capacity of 250kg, the middle board has a capacity of 800kg, the
inboard has a capacity of 1200kg. It also has a belly attachment provision
also a LDP bracket.

The stores are attached to wing through an attachment interface called

pylon. These pylons are meant to withstand the aerodynamic loads and
the inertial loads of the stores.

The pylon generally consists of; ERU (ejector release unit), PIB (pylon
interface box), fairings, motorized valves, throttle, fuzzing unit.

The ERU is a cartridge which on providing with an electric spark

generates high pressure gases which release the stores. The PIB
integrates the OAC with the store management system through a
weapon bus so that easy selection, tracking, fusing and release of
weapons are possible.

The design considerations for the pylon are:

1. Light weight
2. Sleek design
3. Spacing
4. Flexibility
5. Necessary clearances
6. Fairings should be aerodynamic
The in board pylons have ERU 120, the middle board pylons have
ERU 119 each having different dimensions of suspension tools.
The outboard pylons are missile launchers and they do not have
ERU’S.

There are various types of warhead like BVRM’S (beyond visual

range missiles), laser guided bombs, carpet bombs, glide bombs,
23mm cannon all can be integrated on the LCA.

There are various radar systems which could be integrated; active,

semi active, IR type radars.

The stores could be arranged in mainly 3 configurations; single,

side by side, tandem, triple type.

The seat ejection system is a complicated system in which various

design parameters like ejection speed & altitude, spin
stabilization, ejection height all have to consider carefully.

The ISS (intermediate seat selector) is a ejection protocol which

has two modes of BOTH & SOLO in which the seat is ejected in a
particular sequence. (rear within 0.17sec, 0.54sec front)

A seat ejection system has a set of rocket motors which propels

the seat along guide rails on pulling a cord in front of the seat,
after moving out of the guide rail the rocket motors is turned off
at a particular clearance distance, the drogue parachutes are
deployed (spin stabilization), then the main parachute is deployed.
The seat has a life support compartment which has all essentials
for survival (knife, fluids, blankets, lighters, ropes).
ABOVE PICTURES SHOWING EJECTION SEAT & STORES OF LCA
RESPECTIVELY.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
Flight controls group is responsible for designing the control system of
the aircraft. The flight controls that are required for maintaining
directional and attitude control. Data acquisition (vital flight parameters)
is also a region of responsibility of the group.

Flight controls are mainly three types:

1. Mechanical
2. Power assisted
3. Fly by wire

Mechanical control systems consist of rods, brackets, tension rods,

pulley system. The rods act as levers which reduces human effort in actuating
the concerned control surface. Brackets are generally used for transfer load
from one component to another.

Lever ratio is an important parameter which determines the ease of operation

of the concerned system. Mechanical systems are all subject to tension,
compression, torsional and variable loads.

In power assisted controls there is an actuator which moves the concerned

control surface. These systems are used when aircraft travel at high speeds
where the dynamic pressures are so high that human effort can’t deploy the
surface. Also bigger aircrafts have bigger surfaces so greater the inertial loads.

In FLY BY WIRE system there is a computer interface between the pilot input
and the actuator the computer used in LCA is the qudraplex DFCC which has 4
channels of redundancy. The pilot signal is taken by the computer which gives
command to the actuator.

The two main components in this system are AFS (artificial feel system) which
replicates the same resistance in stick movement (contains a stopper as well).
The AFS consist of springs and dampers.

The second component is the linear variable differential transducer which

converts the mechanical movement of the stick into voltage. It works on the
principle of conductor motion in a magnetic field. This voltage is sent as input
to the DFCC.

The data acquisition mainly consists of measuring the; temperature, pressure,

airspeed, attitude angles like angle of attack and angle of side slip.

Temperature is measured through sensors which work on piezoelectric effect

where a piezoelectric membrane produces voltage in corresponding change in
temperature.

The angle of attack and side slip angles are measured through rotary
differential transducers.

NSADP (nose air data probe) and side air data probe give the required data
about equivalent airspeed, pressure and temperature. They generally employ
the pitot method to carry out the measurements.

De-icing system is also is present to prevent any malfunction due to ice

formation.

Various auxiliary systems like IMU (inertial measurement unit) measure the
pitch, roll, yaw accelerations since they consist of accelometers and
gyroscopes. It also consists of other systems like auto pilot, data recording unit
(RS 422) which play a vital role in formation of the control loop.
TYPICAL FLY BY WIRE CONTROL LOOP
 IRON BIRD TEST FACILITY
The iron bird test facility is a state of the art facility in HAL ARDC complex
where all hydraulics, flight response, and extensive simulation in various flight
conditions are tested. Test pilots of HAL and the air force constantly test the
LCA platform for its performance in various flight regimes and constantly tailor
its control performance.

The test rig in the facility tests the hydraulic system for actuation of the landing
gear (airforce & navy), actuation system for control surfaces like ailerons, flaps
LEVCONS.

A real time cockpit with all MFU’S and a projector give the pilot a real time
simulation and response in different flight envelopes.

The test section test various other interfaces like the OAC (open architecture
computer), ADC (air data computer), FDC (flight data computer), DFCC (digital
flight control computer), also the BHEEM controller (this converts electric
signals into pressure signals).

The ETS or engineering test section can simulate failure conditions where
adverse situation could be simulated.

PICTURE SHOWING TEST RIG

 FUSELAGE (FRONT & REAR)
The fuselage is a critical structural member which takes almost all
loads acting on the aircraft; also it houses the intake, cargo and
houses the LRU’S.

The fuselage is divided into 38 stations for the LCA, the fuselage
followed in today’s architecture is semi monocoque where the
load is taken by the bulkhead (station) and is transferred through
longitudinal members called longerons along with a skin.
Alternate design choice could be monocoque.

The rear fuselage (31 to 38) has provisions for mounting the LRU’s,
has provision for mounting the engine and attaching the fin. The
general structure of the rear fuselage is that the stations are
mounted on shroud. The shroud along with polyamide coating is
used for thermal insulation. The rear fuselage also has a dorsal
spine which houses the ECS pipelines and the parachute assembly.

The fuselage is joint mainly through rivets (where permanent joint

is required) panels where accessibility of LRU’S is required are
generally are fit with quick release fasteners called cam locks.

The centre fuselage is major load carrying member where the

wings are attached, intake is present, bracket for underbelly bomb
and acts as an attachment between front and rear fuselage. This
connection is made through 4 longerons.

Front fuselage houses the pilot, avionics bay and radome. The
major components of the front fuselage are the canopy and
windscreen (acrylic sheet) the canopy systems have a locking
system, counter poise, stowing bracket (for safety keys) and taxi
rods.
The method of fixing the windscreen and canopy are similar but
only variation is that the canopy has an extra surface to separate
the DFCC and the cockpit.

MID SECTION FUSELAGE OF LCA