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Ch3 The Bernoulli Equation: 3.1 Newton's Second Law
Ch3 The Bernoulli Equation: 3.1 Newton's Second Law
The most used and the most abused equation in fluid mechanics.
v
3.1 Newton’s Second Law: F = ma
• In general, most real flows are 3-D, unsteady (x, y, z, t; r, θ , z, t;
etc)
• Let consider a 2-D motion of flow along “streamlines”, as
shown below.
v
• Velocity ( V ): Time rate of change of the position of the
particle.
• Streamlines: The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors
throughout the flow field.
• Note: For steady flows, each particle slide along its path, and
its velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the path.
v
• Streamline coordinate: S = S (t ) ; V = dS / dt (the distance
v
along the streamline can be decided by V and R(s ) )
dV ∂ V dS ∂V V 2
• By chain rule, a s = = = V ; an =
dt ∂ S dt ∂S R
∂V
≠ 0; R ≠ ∞ (not straight line)
∂S
Forces: Gravity & Pressure (important)
∂V ∂V
N. ⇒ ∑ δ FS = δm ⋅ a S = δmV = ρδ∀V (3.2)
∂S ∂S
incompressible fluids)
streamline direction
∂P v ∂P v
net pressure force. ∇P = S+ n
∂S ∂n
Net Force ⇒ ∑ δFS = δWS + δFPS ;
∂V ∂P
ρV = −γ sin θ − (3.4)
∂S ∂S
Solution:
∂p ∂V
= − ρV (1)
∂s ∂s
with the given velocity variation along the streamline, the
∂V ∂V a3 3V0 a 3
acceleration term is V =V = V0 (1 + 3 )(− 2 )
∂s ∂x x x
a3 a3
= −3V02 (1 + 3
) 4
x x
where we have replaced s by x since the two coordinates are
identical (within an additive constant) along streamline A-B. It
down from V A = V0 to V B = 0 .
sphere. Note that the pressure gradient and pressure are directly
dz dV d V 2
Since sin θ =
1 ( )
, also V = , and along the
ds ds 2 ds
streamline, n = const , so dn = 0 .
Thus
∂p ∂p dp
dp = ds + dn = ds
∂s ∂n ds
dz dp 1 d (V 2 )
Eq. (3.4) → −γ − = ρ
ds ds 2 ds
along a streamline (s)
1
dp + ρd (V 2 ) + γdz = 0 (3.5)
2
dp1
or ∫ + V 2 + gz = const (3.6)
ρ 2
Note: if ρ ≠ constant , then ρ = f ( p ) must be known.
∂
2) = 0 (steady)
∂t
3) ρ = C (incompressible)
4) along a streamline ( dn = 0 )
(2).
■Figure E 3.2
through the air is flowing steadily toward the bicycle with speed
1 1
p1 + ρV12 + γz1 = p2 + ρV22 + γz 2
2 2
We consider (1) to be in the free stream so that V1 = V0 and (2)
1 1
p2 − p1 = ρV12 = ρV02 (Ans)
2 2
A similar result was obtained in Example 3.1 by integrating
v v
3.3 F = ma normal to a streamline
. Example: The devastating low-pressure region at the center
δmV 2 V2 v
. δFn = = ρδ = δm an (3.8)
R R
. δWn = −δW cosθ = −γδ∀ cosθ (θ = 90°; δWn = 0)
dz ∂P ρV 2
∴ −γ − = (3.10)
dn ∂n R
. if gravity is neglected or if the floor is horizontal
dz
γ =0 =0
dn
∂P ρV 2
⇒ =−
∂n R
∂P ∂n = dP dn if S = constant
dP V2
∫ ρ ∫ R
+ dn + gz = constant (3.11)
V2
p + ρ∫ dn + γz = C (3.12)
R
∂
if 1) 2) μ = 0 3) ρ = C
∂t
Example 3.3 Shown in Figs. E3.3a, b are two fields with
becomes
∂p ρV 2
=
∂r r
∂p
For case (a) this gives = ρC12 r
∂r
∂p ρC 22
While for case (b) it gives = 3
∂r r
1 1 1
p= ρC 22 ( 2 − 2 ) + p0 (Ans)
2 r0 r
centrifugal accelerations in cases (a) and (b) are not the same
The streamline patterns are the same for each case, however.
particle.
thermodynamics).
Example 3.4
Consider the flow of water from the syringe shown in Fig. 3.4. A
from the needle, point (2), with relatively high velocity and
Bernoulli equation.
■ Figure E 3.4
of the total energy of the water. According to Eq. 3.13 the sum
Point ρV 2
2 γz p
1 Small Zero Large
to eject the water from the needle. Gravity acting on the particle
energy loss between (1) and (3) and for the given p1 the water
Such friction may arise in the needle (see chapter 8, pipe flow)
or between the water stream and the surrounding air (see chapter
9, external flow).
the pressure variation between points (1) and (2) and points (3)
and (4).
■ Figure E 3.5
p + γ z = constant
The constant can be determined by evaluating the known
give
p 1 = p 2 + γ ( z 2 − z 1 ) = p 2 + γ h 2 − 1 (Ans)
Note that since the radius of curvature of the streamline is
-dz)
2
Z V
p4 + ρ ∫ Z 34 ( − dz ) + γ z 4 = p 3 + γ z 3
R
With p4=0 and z4-z3=h4-3 this becomes
2
Z 4V
p3 = γh4−3 − ρ ∫Z 3 dz (Ans)
R
To evaluate the integral we must know the variation of V and R
path.
Note that we did not apply the Bernoulli equation (Eq. 3.13)
across the streamlines from (1) to (2) or (3) to (4). Rather we
elevation changes.
• p - static pressure
1
• ρV 2 -dynamic pressure
2
• stagnation point → V = 0
1
P2 = P1 + ρ1V12
2
• stagnation pressure → static pressure+dynamic pressure (if
Total pressure
pressure rise.
1
P T = γ Z + P + ρ V 2
2
Total P Hydrostatic P Static P Dynamic P
pressures
1
p+ ρV 2 + γz = pT = constant along a streamline
2
1
center tube: p3 = p + ρV
2
elevation is neglected.
2
outer tube: p 4 = p1 = p
1
p3 − p 4 = ρV 2 → V = 2 ( p 3 − p 4 ) / ρ
2
■ Figure 3.9 Typical pressure distribution along a
Pitot-static tube.
are equal, thus indicating that the center hole points directly
Pitot-static tube.
3.6 Example of Use of the Bernoulli Equation
one.
(1) - (2):
P1 = 0 (gage pressure); P2 = 0 (Free jet)
Z1 = h; Z2 = 0; V1 ≈ 0;
1
⇒ γh = ρV22
2
2γh
V2 = = 2 gh
ρ
(5): V5 = 2 g (h + H )
nozzle exit.
Figure 3.14 Typical flow patterns and contraction
coefficients for various round exit configurations.
the flow rate, Q, needed from the inflow pipe if the water depth
1 1
p1 + ρV12 + γz1 = p2 + ρV22 + γZ 2 (1)
2 2
With the assumptions that p1 = p2 = 0, z1 = h, and z2 = 0, Eq. 1
becomes
1 2 1
V1 + gh = V22 (2)
2 2
or
π π
D 2V1 = d 2V2
4 4
d
Hence, V1 = ( ) 2 V2 (3)
D
Equation 1 and 3 can be combined to give
2 gh
V 2=
1 − (d / D) 4
π
and Q = A1V1 = A2V2 = (0.1m) 2 (6.26m/s) = 0.0492m 3 /s (Ans)
4
water in the tank (V1 ≠ 0). If the tank diameter is large compared
to the jet diameter (D>>>d), Eq. 3 indicates that V1<<V2 and the
is plotted in Fig. E3.7b. With 0< d/D < 0.4 it follows that 1<
Example 3.9
Water flows through a pipe reducer as is shown in Fig. E3.9. The static pressure at (1)
and (2) are measured by the inverted U-tube manometer containing oil of specific
gravity. SG. Less than one. Determine the manometer reading, h.
FIGURE E 3.9
incompressible:
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
Chapter 2. Thus.
p1 − γ ( z 2 − z1 ) − γ l − γ h + SGγ h + γ l = p2
or p1 − p2 = γ ( z 2 − z1 ) + ( 1 − SG )γ h (2)
independent of θ.
in pressure.
2( P2 − P1 )
Q = A2 (3.20)
⎡ ⎛ A2 ⎞ ⎤
2
ρ ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ A1 ⎠ ⎦⎥
2 g( z 2 − z1 )
z Sluice gate: Q = z 2 b 2 (3.21)
⎛z ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ z1 ⎠
3
2
FIGURE 3.22 The energy line and hydraulic grade line for
p
Sol: p = ρ RT → ρ =
RT
dp dp
∫ = RT ∫ = RT ln p + c
ρ p
V12 V22 RT ⎛ p2 ⎞
∴ + z1 = + z2 + ln⎜ ⎟
2g 2g g ⎜⎝ p1 ⎟⎠
V12 RT ⎛ p1 ⎞ V22
or + z1 + ln⎜ ⎟ = + z2
2g g ⎜⎝ p2 ⎟⎠ 2 g
p1 p − p2 p − p2
Q if =1+ 1 = 1+ε , ε = 1 << 1
p2 p2 p2
⎛p ⎞ p − p2 p1
then ln⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = ln(1 + ε ) ≈ ε = 1 = −1
p
⎝ 2⎠ p 2 p 2
V12 RT p1 V22
+ z1 + ( − 1) = + z2
2g g p2 2g
V12 p1 V22 p
∴ + z1 + = + z2 + 2
2g γ 2g γ
∂V
ds + dp + ρ d (V 2 ) + γ dz = 0
1
ρ
∂t 2
along a streamline
z If incompressible, inviscid,
1 S ∂v 1
p1 + ρ 1V12 + γ z1 = ρ ∫S ds + p2 + ρ V22 + γ z2
2
2 1
∂t 2