PLANT REPRODUCTION: Asexual Reproduction

• No fusion of sex cell or gametes

• Only a single parent is involved
• Produce from vegetative units
• Genetically identical to the parent

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Fission

• Example: yeast or bacteria
• 2, 4, or 8 daughter cells
• Binary (2) or multiple (4) daughter cells
• Each daughter cell grows into a new organism
Binary Fission- a process where one cell divides to form
two identical cells. This an example of asexual
reproduction.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Budding

• Build-like growth in the side of the parent cell
• Separate from the parent cell
• Becomes new organism
• E.G Hydra

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Fragmentation

• Accidental breaking off into many fragments
• Gives rise to a new organism through cell division
• E.G Spirogyra

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Spore Formation

• Occurs in lower plants
• E.g. pteridopytes and bryophytes
• Special reproductive units developed asexually on the
parent’s body (spores)
• Develop into new plants

VEGITATIVE REPRODUCTION
• Formation of new plants form a somatic (vegetative)
cell
• Only requires mitotic division
• No gametic fusion occurs
• Daughter plants are exact copies of their parents
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Fusion of male and female
gametes
• Haploid gametes
• Contain the half genetic material
• Fertilization results in the formation of a diploid zygote
• Offspring are not genetically similar to their parents

REPRODUCTION IN LOWER PLANTS: Chlamydomanas

• Unicellular algae
• Haploid
• Flagella
• Large chloroplast is present
• May undergo sexual (loses flagella) or asexual
(zoospores) reproduction

REPRODUCTION IN LOWER PLANTS: Spirogyra

• Free-floating algae
• Contains a row rectangular cells join end-to-end
• Vegetative reproduction (fragmentation) or sexual
reproduction (scalariform conjugation)
REPRODUCTION IN ANGIOSPERMS (Flowering Plants)
• Flower: basic reproductive unit
• Annuals: live for one year
• Biennials: live for two seasons
• Perennials: live for several years
• Monocarpic: perennial plants that reproduce only once
during their lifetime and the die

INITIATION OF FLOWERING
• Germination
• Young plant grows until it has a definite shape and size
• Young or juvenile phase
• Plant completes vegetative growth
• Vegetative shoot apex transform into a floral apex
• Flowering stage

FACTORS AFFECTING FLOWERING

• Photoperiodism (light)
• Vernalisation (temperature)
• Gibberrelin
• Auxin
• Ethylene

ANATOMY OF A FLOWERS
• Four whorls on a stalk (thalamus)
• Sepals comprise the calyx
• Petals comprise the corolla
• Outer whorls = accessory whorls
• Inner whorls = androecium (male) gynoecium (female)

STAMEN, MICROSPORAGIA, AND POLLEN GRAIN

• Stamen: contains anther with microsporagia
•Microsporagia: four pollen sacs supported by filament
• Sporangium has prominent nucleus and cytoplasm
• Also known as microspore mother cells
• Microsporangium has epidermis and tapetum
• Undergoes meiosis
• Has four haploid microspores
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MALE GAMETOPHYTE
• Outer wall of microspore has two layers: exine and
intine
• Exine: made of sporopollenin and has germ pores
• Intine: cellulosic wall
• Pollen tube grows out through germ pores
• Pollen grain not male gamete but produces the male
gamete

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEMALE GAMETE

• Ovule is covered by integuments
• Ovule is attached to the ovary via a furniculus
• Basal part is known as chalaza
• Pistil (gynoecium) is the reproductive part
• Megasporagia are future seeds
• Ovule consists of integuments and nuclei; attached to
placenta on the other end
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEMALE GAMETE
• A single hypodermal cell becomes larger
• Becomes the megaspore mother cell
• Undergoes meiotic cell division
• Gives rise to four haploid megaspore cells
• Three degenerate, one remains functional
• 8 nuclei form= embryo sac
• Migrate and form three groups
• Two at center of the sac= central cell

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION IN ANGIOSPERMS

• Natural Method: underground modification of stems
(ginger, potation, onion, corn)
• Artificial Method: cutting, layering, aerial layering

ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
• Sexual or asexual
• Fission
• Budding
• Sexual reproduction
• Union of two gametes
• Mitosis
• Meiosis

DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO SEX

• Parthenogenesis (virgin birth)
• Hermaphroditism
• Sequential hermaphroditism
• Protogyny
• Protandry

SEX DETERMINATION
• Fish: conditions which determine sex
• Mammals: sex is predetermined during embryonic
stage
• Reproductive systems of both males and females
identical during first 40 days of embryonic development
• Sex-determining gene (SRY) highly conserved during
evolution

FERTILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT

• External fertilization: occurs in organisms in the ocean,
dispersion of sperm over large distances
• Internal fertilization: introduction of male gamete into
female reproductive tract
• Oviparity
• Oviviparity
• Viviparity

REPRODUCTION IN FISH AND AMPHIBIANS

• Teleosts: fertilization occurs externally; enough yolk
until ready to hatch
• Cartilagenous fish: fertilization occurs externally;
introduction of sperm through modified pelvic fin;
viviparous development

REPRODUCTION IN FISH AND AMPHIBIANS

• In most cases, amphibians use external fertilization
• Gametes released through the cloaca
• Cloaca: special opening
• Eggs develop in the water
• Time required for development longer than fish
• Embryonic, larval, and adult stages

REPRODUCTION IN REPTILES AND BIRDS

• Most are oviparous
• Reptile eggs are leathery
• Birds: internal fertilization
• Larger birds: male cloaca extend to form a false penis
• Glands in oviduct secrete egg whites to form egg shells
• Homeotherms

REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS
• Reproductive cycles vary
• Estrus: period of sexual receptivity
• Estrous cycle: reproductive cycle
• Changes according to FSH and LH
• Secreted by anterior pituitary gland
• Changes in egg cell development and hormone
secretion in the ovaries

OVERVIEW OF GENETICS: GENES AND CHROMOSOMES

• Gregor Mendel
• Breeding experiments with peas in 1865
• Mendelian genetics
• Allele: specifies a certain inherited trait
• Dominant allele
• Recessive allele

OVERVIEW OF GENETICS: GENES AND CHROMOSOMES

•Drosophila melanogaster
• Eye color, wing shape
• Linked genes
• Genetic recombination
• Frequency of recombination can be used for mapping
the positions of genes on chromosomes

OVERVIEW OF GENETICS: GENES AND ENZYMES

• Phenylketoneuria: genetic defect in the synthesis of
phenylalanine
• Watson and Crick
• Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine
• Complementary base pairing