Environment

Introduction

Word "environment" is most commonly used describing "natural" environment and means the sum
of all living and non-living things that surround an organism, or group of organisms. Environment
includes all elements, factors , and conditions that have some impact on growth and development
of certain organism

Environment includes both biotic and abiotic factors that have influence on observed organism.
factors such as light, temperature, water, atmospheric gases combine with biotic factors (all
surrounding living species).

Environment is sum total of water, air and land, inter-relationships among themselves and also
with the human beings, other living organisms and property.‖

Multidisciplinary nature of Environment:-

Environmental science is now a mature, viable discipline. The past three decades have witnessed
a growing awareness of the affects of human activity upon our earth‘s resources and during this
period environmental study has emerged as a multi-disciplinary field of study to examine the
interaction of the people and their environments

It helps us to understand the nature of environment and its components, nature of disturbing factors
and the various methods to overcome disturbing factors. The disturbing factors pressurize
sustainability and natural living.
Life Sciences:-

Biology , Physical Sciences:-

Microbiology, Basic & Applied studies
Biochemistry, Physics, Chemistry ,Earth
Biotechnology etc. Science,Atmospheric
Science, Oceanography,
Geology
Technology Modelling

Environmental
Studies Mathematics , Statistics,
Civil Engg., Chemical
Computer Science etc.
Engg., Hydraulics,
Nanotechnology etc.

Management & Awareness

Economics, Sociology, Law,

Education, Management, mass
communication

Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Stuidies

Scope of Environment:-
In short scope of environmental studies is broad based and it encompasses a large number
of areas and aspects, broadly listed below:

Natural Resources- their conservation and management

Ecology and biodiversity
Environmental pollution and control
Social issues in relation to development and environment
Human population and environment

In recent years several career options have emerged in this field that are broadly categorized as:-

1. Research & development in Environment

2. Green Advocacy

3. Green marketing

4. Environmental consultancy

5. Green Media
Ecosystem:-

An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular

area, as well as all the nonliving (abiotic), physical components of the environment with which the
organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight.

The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of certain processes that link the living, or
biotic, components to the non-living, or abiotic, components. Energy transformations and
biogeochemical cycling are the main processes that comprise the field of ecosystem ecology. As
we learned earlier, ecology generally is defined as the interactions of organisms with one another
and with the environment in which they occur. We can study ecology at the level of the individual,
the population, the community, and the ecosystem.

Studies of individuals are concerned mostly about physiology, reproduction, development or

behavior, and studies of populations usually focus on the habitat and resource needs of individual
species, their group behaviors, population growth, and what limits their abundance or causes
extinction. Studies of communities examine how populations of many species interact with one
another, such as predators and their prey, or competitors that share common needs or resources.

Components of Ecosystem:-

An ecosystem comprises of two basic components

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS BIOTIC COMPONENTS

Sunlight Primary producers

Temperature Herbivores

Precipitation Carnivores

Water or moisture Omnivores

Soil or water chemistry (e.g., P, NH4+) Detritivores

etc. etc.
All of these vary over space/time

i) Abiotic components and

ii) Biotic components

The relationship between the biotic components and abiotic components of an ecosystem is
called 'holocoenosis'.
Abiotic Components

These include the non-living, physico - chemical factors such as air, water, soil and the basic
elements and compounds of the environment.

Abiotic factors are broadly classified under three categories.

Climatic factors which include the climatic regime and physical factors of the environment like
light, humidity, atmospheric temperature, wind, etc.

Edaphic factors which are related to the structure and composition of soil including its physical
and chemical properties, like soil and its types, soil profile, minerals, organic matter, soil water,
soil organisms.

Inorganic substances like water, carbon, sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus and so on. Organic
substances like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, humic substances etc.

Biotic Components

It comprises the living part of the environment, which includes the association of a number of
interrelated populations belonging to different species in a common environment.

The populations are that of animal community, plant community and microbial community.

Biotic community is distinguished into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs.

Autotrophs (Gr: auto - self, trophos - feeder) are also called producers, convertors or transducers.

These are photosynthetic plants, generally chlorophyll bearing, which synthesize high-energy
complex organic compounds (food) from inorganic raw materials with the help of sunlight, and
the process is referred as photosynthesis.

Autortophs form the basis of any biotic system.

In terrestrial ecosystems, the autotrophs are mainly the rooted plants.

In aquatic ecosystems, floating plants called phytoplankton and shallow water rooted plants called
macrophytes are the dominant producers.

Heterotrophs (Gr: heteros - other; trophs - feeder) are called consumers, which are generally
animals feeding on other organisms.

Consumer's also referred as phagotrophs (phago - to ingest or swallow) or macroconsumers are

mainly herbivores and carnivores.

Herbivores are referred as First order consumers or primary consumers, as they feed directly on
plants.

For e.g., Terrestrial ecosystem consumers like cattle, deer, rabbit, grass hopper, etc.

Aquatic ecosystem consumers like protozoans, crustaceans, etc.

Carnivores are animals, which feed or prey upon other animals.

Primary carnivores or Second order consumers include the animals which feed on the
herbivorous animals.

For e.g., fox, frog, predatory birds, smaller fishes, snakes, etc.

Secondary carnivores or Third order consumers include the animals, which feed on the primary
carnivores.

For e.g., wolf, peacock, owl, etc.

Secondary carnivores are preyed upon by some larger carnivores.

Tertiary carnivores or Quaternary consumers include the animals, which feed on the secondary
carnivores.
For e.g., lion, tiger, etc.

These are not eaten by any other animals.

The larger carnivores, which cannot be preyed upon further are called top carnivores.

Saprotrophs (Gr: sapros - rotten; trophos - feeder) are also called decomposers or reducers.
They break down the complex organic compounds of dead matter (of plants and animals).

Decomposers do not ingest their food. Instead they secrete digestive enzymes into the dead and
decaying plant and animal remains to digest the organic material. Enzymes act upon the complex
organic compounds of the dead matter.

Decomposers absorb a part of the decomposition products for their own nourishment. The
remaining substances are added as minerals to the substratum (mineralisation).

Released minerals are reused (utilised) as nutrients by the plants (produ

Ecological Pyramids

An ecological pyramid (also trophic pyramid or energy pyramid) is a graphical representation

designed to show the biomass or biomass productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem.

Ecological pyramids begin with producers on the bottom (such as plants) and proceed through the
various trophic levels (such as herbivores that eat plants, then carnivores that eat herbivores, then
carnivores that eat those carnivores, and so on). The highest level is the top of the food chain.
Types of Ecological Pyramids

There are three types of pyramids: of numbers, of biomass, and of energy.

Pyramid of Biomass

Biomass is renewable organic (living) material. A pyramid of biomass is a representation

of the amount of energy contained in biomass, at different trophic levels for a particular
time. It is measured in grams per meter2,
There are two types of biomass pyramids: upright and inverted. An upright pyramid is one
where the combined weight of producers is larger than the combined weight of consumers.
An example is a forest ecosystem. An inverted pyramid is one where the combined weight
of producers is smaller than the combined weight of consumers. An example is an aquatic
ecosystem.

Pyramid of Numbers

The pyramid of numbers represents the number of organisms in each trophic level. This
pyramid consists of a plot of relationships between the number herbivores (primary
consumers), first level carnivore (secondary consumers), second level carnivore (tertiary
consumers) and so forth.
Upright, partly upright and inverted are the three types of pyramids of numbers. An aquatic
ecosystem is an example of upright pyramid where the number of organisms becomes
fewer and fewer higher up in the pyramid. A forest ecosystem is an example of a partially
upright pyramid, as fewer producers support more primary consumers, but there are less
secondary and tertiary consumers. An inverted pyramid of numbers is one where the
number of organisms depending on the lower levels grows closer toward the apex. A
parasitic food chain is an example.
Pyramid of Energy

The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of energy consumed by each trophic
level. An energy pyramid is always upright as the total amount of energy available for
utilization in the layers above is less than the energy available in the lower levels. This
happens because during energy transfer from lower to higher levels, some energy is always
lost.
Food Chains
If an ecosystem is to be self-sustaining it must contain a flow of energy. One way of
representing the flow of energy through the living components of an ecosystem is through the
use of a food chain. A food chain indicates the transfer of energy from producers through a
series of organisms which feed upon each other.

A Food Chain
The algae and floating
plants are the
producers in this food
chain. The aquatic
crustaceans are the
primary consumers
which eat the
producers.

Fish are secondary

Note that the arrows in the food chain consumers eating
point to the organisms which are doing the primary
the eating. Thus the arrows in the food consumers.
chain represent the flow of energy
through the ecosystem. A food chain may
also contain third
level or other
consumers as
indicated by the
raccoons in this food
chain.

Food Webs
In a natural community, the flow of energy and materials is much more complicated than
illustrated by any one food chain. A food web is a series of interrelated food chains which
provides a more accurate picture of the feeding relationships in an ecosystem, as more than one
thing will usually eat a particular species.

A Food Web
Energy flow in a
food web also
starts with the
producer
organisms
through the
various levels of
consumer
organisms as in a
food chain.
The Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle represents one of the most important nutrient cycles found in terrestrial
ecosystems (Figure 9s-1). Nitrogen is used by living organisms to produce a number of complex
organic molecules like amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The store of nitrogen found in the
atmosphere, where it exists as a gas (mainly N2), plays an important role for life. This store is about
one million times larger than the total nitrogen contained in living organisms. Other major stores
of nitrogen include organic matter in soil and the oceans. Despite its abundance in the atmosphere,
nitrogen is often the most limiting nutrient for plant growth. This problem occurs because most
plants can only take up nitrogen in two solid forms: ammonium ion (NH4+ ) and the ion nitrate
(NO3- ). Most plants obtain the nitrogen they need as inorganic nitrate from the soil solution.
Ammonium is used less by plants for uptake because in large concentrations it is extremely toxic.
Animals receive the required nitrogen they need for metabolism, growth, and reproduction by the
consumption of living or dead organic matter containing molecules composed partially of nitrogen.

Figure 9s-1: Nitrogen cycle.

In most ecosystems nitrogen is primarily stored in living and dead organic matter. This organic
nitrogen is converted into inorganic forms when it re-enters the biogeochemical cycle via
decomposition. Decomposers, found in the upper soil layer, chemically modify the nitrogen
found in organic matter from ammonia (NH3 ) to ammonium salts (NH4+ ). This process is known
as mineralization and it is carried out by a variety of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi.

Nitrogen in the form of ammonium can be absorbed onto the surfaces of clay particles in the soil.
The ion of ammonium has a positive molecular charge is normally held by soil colloids. This
process is sometimes called micelle fixation (see Figure 9s-1). Ammonium is released from the
colloids by way of cation exchange. When released, most of the ammonium is often chemically
altered by a specific type of autotrophic bacteria (bacteria that belong to the genus Nitrosomonas)
into nitrite (NO2- ). Further modification by another type of bacteria (belonging to the genus
Nitrobacter) converts the nitrite to nitrate (NO3- ). Both of these processes involve chemical
oxidation and are known as nitrification. However, nitrate is very soluble and it is easily lost from
the soil system by leaching. Some of this leached nitrate flows through the hydrologic system until
it reaches the oceans where it can be returned to the atmosphere by denitrification. Denitrification
is also common in anaerobic soils and is carried out by heterotrophic bacteria. The process of
denitrification involves the metabolic reduction of nitrate (NO3- ) into nitrogen (N2) or nitrous
oxide (N2O) gas. Both of these gases then diffuse into the atmosphere.

Almost all of the nitrogen found in any terrestrial ecosystem originally came from the atmosphere.
Significant amounts enter the soil in rainfall or through the effects of lightning. The majority,
however, is biochemically fixed within the soil by specialized micro-organisms like bacteria,
actinomycetes, and cyanobacteria. Members of the bean family (legumes) and some other kinds
of plants form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing bacteria. In exchange for
some nitrogen, the bacteria receive from the plants carbohydrates and special structures (nodules)
in roots where they can exist in a moist environment. Scientists estimate that biological fixation
globally adds approximately 140 million metric tons of nitrogen to ecosystems every year.

Water cycle
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as water
vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. Evapotranspiration is
water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. Rising air currents take the vapor up
into the atmosphere where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move
water vapor around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation.
Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which
can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snowpacks can thaw and melt and the melted water
flows over land as snowmelt. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the
water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the
landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and groundwater are stored
as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as
infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which store
freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep
back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater finds
openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. Over time, the water returns to
the ocean, where our water cycle started.

Carbon cycle
Carbon exists in the Earth's atmosphere primarily as the gas carbon dioxide (CO2). Although it is
a small percentage of the atmosphere (approximately 0.04% on a molar basis), it plays a vital role
in supporting life. Other gases containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and
chlorofluorocarbons (the latter is entirely anthropogenic). Trees and other green plants such as
grass convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates during photosynthesis, releasing oxygen in the
process. This process is most prolific in relatively new forests where tree growth is still rapid. The
effect is strongest in deciduous forests during spring leafing out. This is visible as an annual signal
in the Keeling curve of measured CO2 concentration. Northern hemisphere spring predominates,
as there is far more land in temperate latitudes in that hemisphere than in the southern.

Forests store 86% of the planet's terrestrial above-ground carbon and 73% of the planet's
soil carbon.
At the surface of the oceans towards the poles, seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic
acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble. This is coupled to the ocean's thermohaline
circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean's interior (see the entry on the
solubility pump).
In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity, organisms convert reduced carbon to
tissues, or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests. These are, respectively,
oxidized (soft-tissue pump) and redissolved (carbonate pump) at lower average levels of the
ocean than those at which they formed, resulting in a downward flow of carbon (see entry on
the biological pump).
The weathering of silicate rock (see carbonate-silicate cycle). Carbonic acid reacts with
weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions. The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the
ocean, where they are used to make marine carbonates. Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium
or tissues which decay weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can
readily return to the atmosphere.
 In 1958, atmospheric carbon dioxide at Mauna Loa was about 320 parts per million (ppm),
and in 2011 it is about 391ppm.
Future CO2 emission can be calculated by the kaya identity

Carbon is released into the atmosphere in several ways:

Through the respiration performed by plants and animals. This is an exothermic reaction
and it involves the breaking down of glucose (or other organic molecules) into carbon dioxide
and water.
Through the decay of animal and plant matter. Fungi and bacteria break down the carbon
compounds in dead animals and plants and convert the carbon to carbon dioxide if oxygen is
present, or methane if not.
Through combustion of organic material which oxidizes the carbon it contains, producing
carbon dioxide (and other things, like water vapor). Burning fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum products, and natural gas releases carbon that has been stored in the geosphere for
millions of years. Burning agrofuels also releases carbon dioxide which has been stored for
only a few years or less.
Production of cement. Carbon dioxide is released when limestone (calcium carbonate) is
heated to produce lime (calcium oxide), a component of cement.
At the surface of the oceans where the water becomes warmer, dissolved carbon dioxide is
released back into the atmosphere.
Volcanic eruptions and metamorphism release gases into the atmosphere. Volcanic gases
are primarily water vapor, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. The carbon dioxide released is
roughly equal to the amount removed by silicate weathering;[citation needed] so the two
processes, which are the chemical reverse of each other, sum to roughly zero, and do not affect
the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide on time scales of less than about 100,000 years.

In the biosphere

Carbon is an essential part of life on Earth. About half the dry weight of most living organisms is
carbon. It plays an important role in the structure, biochemistry, and nutrition of all living cells.
Living biomass holds about 575 gigatons of carbon, most of which is wood. Soils hold
approximately 1,500 gigatons, mostly in the form of organic carbon, with perhaps a third of that
inorganic forms of carbon such as calcium carbonate.
Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own organic compounds using carbon dioxide
from the air or water in which they live. To do this they require an external source of energy.
Almost all autotrophs use solar radiation to provide this, and their production process is called
photosynthesis. A small number of autotrophs exploit chemical energy sources in a process
called chemosynthesis. The most important autotrophs for the carbon cycle are trees in forests
on land and phytoplankton in the Earth's oceans. Photosynthesis follows the reaction 6CO2 +
6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon is transferred within the biosphere as heterotrophs feed on other organisms or their
parts (e.g., fruits). This includes the uptake of dead organic material (detritus) by fungi and
bacteria for fermentation or decay.
 Most carbon leaves the biosphere through respiration. When oxygen is present, aerobic
respiration occurs, which releases carbon dioxide into the surrounding air or water, following
the reaction C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O. Otherwise, anaerobic respiration occurs and
releases methane into the surrounding environment, which eventually makes its way into the
atmosphere or hydrosphere (e.g., as marsh gas or flatulence).
Burning of biomass (e.g. forest fires, wood used for heating, anything else organic) can
also transfer substantial amounts of carbon to the atmosphere
Carbon may also be circulated within the biosphere when dead organic matter (such as
peat) becomes incorporated in the geosphere. Animal shells of calcium carbonate, in particular,
may eventually become limestone through the process of sedimentation.
Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean. For example, a
recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses (commonly known as "sinkers") are created
in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been
previously detected by sediment traps.[6] Because of their size and composition, these houses
are rarely collected in such traps, so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored
them.
 Types of Ecosystem

1.The Forest Ecosystem

The forest ecosystem covers the flora, fauna and ground conditions with in the parameters
of a forest. From the climatic conditions to the members and relationships in the food chain, the
forest ecosystem is dependent on the major resources available. In the forest ecosystem the
proportion of flora, including the varieties of trees, grasses, fungi and flowers will effect the way
in which fauna exist.

The fauna in a forest ecosystem will include the minute and the massive. The forest ecosystem
offers shelter and living conditions to insects, birds, arachnids and mammals, from the tiny bush
mouse to the largest primate or predator.

Tropical rainforest

An area of the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil. The tropical rainforests of South America contain the
largest diversity of species on Earth

A tropical rainforest is a place roughly within 28 degrees north or south of the equator (in the
equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn). They are found in Asia,
Australia, Africa, South America, Central America, Mexico and on many of the Pacific Islands.
Within the World Wildlife Fund's biome classification, tropical rainforests are thought to be a type
of tropical wet forest (or tropical moist broadleaf forest)
Amazon river rain forest in Peru

Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall. This often results in poor soils due to
leaching of soluble nutrients. Minimum normal annual rainfall between 175 cm (69 in) and 200
cm (79 in) occurs in this climate region. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during
all months of the year. The monsoon trough, alternatively known as the intertropical convergence
zone, plays a significant role in creating the climatic conditions necessary for the Earth's tropical
rainforests.

Forest Structure

The undergrowth or understory in a rainforest is often restricted by the lack of sunlight at ground
level, and generally consists of shade-tolerant shrubs, herbs, ferns, small trees, and large woody
vines which climb into the trees to capture sunlight. Rainforests are divided into different strata,
or layers. The vegetation is organized into a vertical pattern from the top of the soil to the canopy
Each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular area. Only the emergent
layer is unique to tropical rainforests, while the others are also found in temperate rainforests.

Emergent layer

The emergent layer contains a small number of very large trees called emergents, which grow
above the general canopy, reaching heights of 45–55 m, although on occasion a few species will
grow to 70–80 m tall. They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong
winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Eagles, Butterfly|butterflies, bats and certain
monkeys inhabit this layer.
The canopy at the Forest Research Institute Malaysia

Canopy layer

The canopy is the primary layer of the forest forming a roof over the two remaining layers. It
contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30–45 m tall. Tall, broad-leaved evergreen trees
are the dominant plants. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, as it often
supports a rich flora of epiphytes, including orchids, bromeliads, mosses, and lichens. These
epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris
that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer, but
more diverse. Many species of birds inhabit this area as well as other taxa including: snakes, tree
frogs, and insects. A quarter of all insect species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy.
Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, but have only recently
developed practical methods of exploring it

Understory layer

The understory layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. The understory is home to a
number of birds, small mammals, insects, and reptiles, as well as predators such as jaguars, boa
(genus)|boa constrictors and leopards. Only about 5% of the sunlight shining on the rainforest
canopy reaches the understory so plants seldom grow to 3 m (10 feet) although the leaves are much
larger at this level so as to obtain sufficient sunlight. Insect life is also abundant. Many seedlings
that will grow to the canopy level are present in the understory. This layer can be called a shrub
layer, although the shrub layer may also be considered a separate layer.

Forest floor

Rainforest in the Blue Mountains, Australia

The forest floor, the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to
low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps and clearings, where dense
undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight
penetration. This makes it easy to walk through undisturbed, mature rainforest allowing for
movement of animals such as: ungulates like the Okapi, rodents like capybaras, larger mammals
like tapirs and gorillas, as well as many species of herptiles and insects. If the leaf canopy is
destroyed or thinned, the ground beneath is soon colonized by a dense, tangled growth of vines,
shrubs and small trees, called a jungle. It also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which
disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of
fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste. A leaf that might take one year to
decompose in a regular climate will disappear in 6 weeks.

Temperate forest

Temperate forests correspond to forest concentrations formed in the northern hemisphere. Main
characteristics include: wide leaves, big and tall trees and non seasonal vegetation. Specific
information should be inquired for each of the different types of Temperate Forests.

Temperate deciduous forest

Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Temperate coniferous forest
Temperate rainforest

Temperate Forests

The term ‗temperate forest‘ is very broad. It covers the forests found between the tropical and
subtropical regions and the barren, treeless lands of the far north and extreme south.
There are many types of temperate forests, but the main categories are: coniferous forests, mixed
broadleaved/ coniferous forests; and broadleaved forests.

Mediterranean forests
Within each of these categories there are many different subtypes of forest. The kind of forest that
can grow depends on local soils, temperatures and rainfall. For example, in southern Europe, long
hot summers encourage the growth of a special kind of vegetation called the Mediterranean
scrublands. Although they rarely grow thickly enough to be called a true forest, the trees in the
Mediterranean scrub lands include small oaks and pines. A characteristic tree of these lands is the
cork-oak, which occurs naturally but is also planted for its valuable bark.

Overgrazing by sheep and goats has changed much of the once-forested areas of the Mediterranean
into scrubland known as ‗maquis‘. Mediterranean scrublands are rich in wildflowers and birds,
especially insect-eating birds which are abundant in summer. One of the most spectacular birds
found here is the azure-winged magpie.
Temperate forests of the world.
© WWF

Wildlife in Temperate Forests

Kangaroo
Giant Panda

Related links

Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forest Ecoregions

Temperate Coniferous Forest Ecoregions
Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub Ecoregions

Temperate rainforests
Some temperate forests receive so much rain they are sometimes called rainforests! The great
Douglas fir and hemlock forests of the United States' Pacific Northwest and Canada's British
Colombia receive more than 2,000 mm of rain a year. They are dominated by coniferous trees.

Another type of temperate, evergreen rainforest occurs in Chile, South America. Here there is a
great diversity of broadleaved trees including the Southern Beech.

Deciduous forests
Broadleaved trees have big, thin-skinned leaves which allow them to absorb maximum sunlight.
These leaves are delicate and vulnerable to winter winds, frost and snow. Broadleaved trees that
grow in colder areas shed their leaves in winter - they are deciduous.

In autumn, the leaves turn beautiful shades of red, orange and yellow before they drop off the trees.
Common deciduous trees are the oak, elm and beech. Others are maple, lime and chestnut.

In much of the northern hemisphere, most of the natural broadleaved forests have been cut down
to provide farmlands. Forests survive only in small patches, or on mountains. The only large areas
of forest left are the coniferous forests of northern Scandinavia, Siberia, the north western United
States, Canada and Alaska. Even here, there are few areas of forest left that are in their
natural state.

Temperate forests are simpler in structure than tropical forests and support a smaller number of
tree species.
Temperate coniferous forest is a terrestrial biome found in temperate regions of the world with
warm summers and cool winters and adequate rainfall to sustain a forest. In most temperate
coniferous forests, evergreen conifers predominate, while some are a mix of conifers and broadleaf
evergreen trees and/or broadleaf deciduous trees. Temperate evergreen forests are common in the
coastal areas of regions that have mild winters and heavy rainfall, or inland in drier climates or
mountain areas. Many species of trees inhabit these forests including cedar, cypress, douglas-fir,
fir, juniper, kauri, pine, podocarpus, spruce, redwood and yew. The understory also contains a
wide variety of herbaceous and shrub species.

A pine forest is an example of a temperate coniferous forest

Structurally, these forests are rather simple, generally consisting of two layers: an overstory and
understory. Some forests may support an intermediate layer of shrubs. Pine forests support an
herbaceous understory that is generally dominated by grasses and herbaceous perennials, and are
often subject to ecologically important wildfires.

Carpathian montane conifer forest, Slovakia

Temperate rain forests occur only in seven regions around the world: the Pacific temperate rain
forests of the Pacific Northwest, the Valdivian temperate rain forests of southwestern South
America, the rain forests of New Zealand and Tasmania, northwest Europe (small pockets in
Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Iceland and a somewhat larger area in Norway), southern Japan, and the
eastern Black Sea-Caspian Sea region of Turkey and Georgia to northern Iran. The moist
conditions of temperate rain forests generally support an understory of mosses, ferns and some
shrubs. Temperate rain forests can be temperate coniferous forests or temperate broadleaf and
mixed forests.

The temperate coniferous rain forests sustain the highest levels of biomass in any terrestrial
ecosystem and are notable for trees of massive proportions, including Giant Sequoia
(Sequoiadendron gigantea), Coast Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii), Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis), Alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides) and Kauri (Agathis
australis). These forests are quite rare, occurring in small areas of North America, southwestern
South America and northern New Zealand. The Klamath-Siskiyou forests of northwestern
California and southwestern Oregon is known for its rich variety of plant and animal species,
including many endemic species

2. Grassland
.

A grassland in the Antelope Valley, California

Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae) and other
herbaceous (non-woody) plants (forbs). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae)
families can also be found. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica. In
temperate latitudes, such as northwestern Europe and the Great Plains and California in North
America, native grasslands are dominated by perennial bunch grass species, whereas in warmer
climates annual species form a greater component of the vegetation.

Grasslands are found in most ecoregion of the Earth. For example there are five terrestrial
ecoregion classifications (subdivisions) of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
biome ('ecosystem'), which is one of eight terrestrial ecozones of the Earth's surface.

Vegetation

Grassland vegetation can vary in height from very short, as in chalk where the vegetation may be
less than 30 cm (12 in) high, to quite tall, as in the case of North American tallgrass prairie, South
American grasslands and African savanna.

Woody plants, shrubs or trees, may occur on some grasslands - forming savannas, scrubby
grassland or semi-wooded grassland, such as the African savannas or the Iberian dehesa. Such
grasslands are sometimes referred to as wood-pasture or woodland.
As flowering plants, grasses grow in great concentrations in climates where annual rainfall ranges
between 500 and 900 mm (20 and 35 in). The root systems of perennial grasses and
forbs form complex mats that hold the soil in place.

Climate

Natural grasslands primarily occur in regions that receive between 250 and 900 mm (9.8 and 35
in) of rain per year, as compared with deserts, which receive less than 250 mm (9.8 in) and tropical
rainforests, which receive more than 2,000 mm (79 in). Anthropogenic grasslands often occur in
much higher rainfall zones, as high as 200 cm (79 in) annual rainfall. Grassland can exist naturally
in areas with higher rainfall when other factors prevent the growth of forests, such as in serpentine
barrens, where minerals in the soil inhibit most plants from growing.

Average daily temperatures range between -20 and 30 °C. Temperate grasslands have warm
summers and cold winters with rain or some snow.

Grasslands are of vital importance for raising livestock for human consumption and for milk and
other dairy products.

Grassland vegetation remains dominant in a particular area usually due to grazing, cutting, or
natural or manmade fires, all discouraging colonisation by and survival of tree and shrub seedlings.
Some of the world's largest expanses of grassland are found in African savanna, and these are
maintained by wild herbivores as well as by nomadic pastoralists and their cattle, sheep or goats.

Grasslands may occur naturally or as the result of human activity. Grasslands created and
maintained by human activity are called anthropogenic grasslands. Hunting peoples around the
world often set regular fires to maintain and extend grasslands, and prevent fire-intolerant trees
and shrubs from taking hold. The tallgrass prairies in the American Midwest may have been
extended eastward into Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio by human agency. Much grassland in northwest
Europe developed after the Neolithic Period, when people gradually cleared the forest to create
areas for raising their livestock.

Grassland types ( biomes )

Tropical and subtropical grasslands

These grasslands are classified with tropical and subtropical savannas and shrublands as the
tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Notable tropical and
subtropical grasslands include the Llanos grasslands of northern South America.

Temperate grasslands

Mid-latitude grasslands, including the Prairie and Pacific Grasslands of North America, the
Pampas of Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, calcareous downland, and the steppes of Europe. They
are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the temperate grasslands,
savannas, and shrublands biome. Temperate grasslands are the home to many large herbivores,
such as bison, gazelles, zebras, rhinoceroses, and wild horses. Carnivores like lions, wolves and
cheetahs and leopards are also found in temperate grasslands. Other animals of this region include:
deer, prairie dogs, mice, jack rabbits, skunks, coyotes, snakes, fox, owls, badgers, blackbirds (both
Old and New World varieties), grasshoppers, meadowlarks, sparrows, quails, hawks and hyenas.

Negri-Nepote Temperate Grasslands in New Jersey

Flooded grasslands

Grasslands that are flooded seasonally or year-round, like the Everglades of Florida, the Pantanal
of Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay or the Esteros del Ibera in Argentina.They are classified with
flooded savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome and occur mostly in the tropics
and subtropics.

Watermeadows are grasslands that are deliberately flooded for short periods.

Montane grasslands

High-altitude grasslands located on high mountain ranges around the world, like the Páramo of the
Andes Mountains. They are part of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome and also
constitute tundra.

Tundra grasslands

Similar to montane grasslands, polar arctic tundra can have grasses, but high soil moisture means
that few tundras are grass-dominated today. However, during the Pleistocene ice ages, a polar
grassland known as steppe-tundra occupied large areas of the Northern hemisphere. These are in
the tundra biome.
Desert and xeric grasslands

Also called desert grasslands, this is composed of sparse grassland ecoregions located in the deserts
and xeric shrublands biome.

Fauna

Mites, insect larvae, nematodes and earthworms inhabit deep soil, which can reach 6 metres (20
ft) underground in undisturbed grasslands on the richest soils of the world. These invertebrates,
along with symbiotic fungi, extend the root systems, break apart hard soil, enrich it with urea and
other natural fertilizers, trap minerals and water and promote growth. Some types of fungi make
the plants more resistant to insect and microbial attacks.

Grassland in all its form supports a vast variety of mammals, reptiles, birds, and insects. Typical
large mammals include the Blue Wildebeest, American Bison, Giant Anteater and Przewalski's
Horse.

While grasslands in general support diverse wildlife, given the lack of hiding places for predators,
the African savanna regions support a much greater diversity in wildlife than do temperate
grasslands.
There is evidence for grassland being much the product of animal behaviour and movement; some
examples include migratory herds of antelope trampling vegetation and African Bush Elephants
eating Acacia saplings before the plant has a chance to grow into a mature tree

3. Desert

A desert is a landscape or region that receives an extremely low amount of precipitation, less than
enough to support growth of most plants. Most deserts have an average annual precipitation of less
than 400 millimetres (16 in). A common definition distinguishes between true deserts, which
receive less than 250 millimetres (10 in) of average annual precipitation, and semideserts or
steppes, which receive between 250 millimetres (10 in) and 400 to 500 millimetres (16 to 20
in).

Deserts can also be described as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as
precipitation. In the Köppen climate classification system, deserts are classed as BWh (hot
desert) or BWk (temperate desert). In the Thornthwaite climate classification system, deserts would
be classified as arid megathermal climates.
Classification

In 1961, Peveril Meigs divided desert regions on Earth into three categories according to the
amount of precipitation they received. In this now widely accepted system, extremely arid lands
have at least 12 consecutive months without rainfall, arid lands have less than 250 mm (10 in) of
annual rainfall, and semiarid lands have a mean annual precipitation of between 250 and 500 mm
(10–20 in). Arid and extremely arid lands are deserts, and semiarid areas are generally referred to
as steppes.

Definition

Measurement of rainfall alone cannot provide an accurate definition of what a desert is because
being arid also depends on evaporation, which depends in part on temperature. For example,
Phoenix, Arizona receives less than 250 millimeters (10 in) of precipitation per year, and is
immediately recognized as being located in a desert due to its arid adapted plants. The North Slope
of Alaska's Brooks Range also receives less than 250 millimeters (10 in) of precipitation per year
and is often classified as a cold desert. Other regions of the world have cold deserts,
including areas of the Himalayas and other high altitude areas in other parts of the worldPolar
deserts cover much of the ice free areas of the arctic and Antarctic.

Potential evapotranspiration supplements the measurement of rainfall in providing a scientific

measurement-based definition of a desert. The water budget of an area can be calculated using the
formula P − PE ± S, wherein P is precipitation, PE is potential evapotranspiration rates and S is
amount of surface storage of water. Evapotranspiration is the combination of water loss through
atmospheric evaporation and through the life processes of plants. Potential evapotranspiration,
then, is the amount of water that could evaporate in any given region. As an
example, Tucson, Arizona receives about 300 millimeters (12 in) of rain per year, however about
2500 millimeters (100 in) of water could evaporate over the course of a year.[citation needed] In other
words, about 8 times more water could evaporate from the region than actually falls. Rates of
evapotranspiration in cold regions such as Alaska are much lower because of the lack of heat to
aid in the evaporation process.

There are different forms of deserts. Cold deserts can be covered in snow or ice; frozen water
unavailable to plant life. These are more commonly referred to as tundra if a short season of above-
freezing temperatures is experienced, or as an ice cap if the temperature remains below freezing
year-round, rendering the land almost completely lifeless.

Most non-polar deserts are hot in the day and chilly at night (for the latitude) because of the lack
of the moderating effect of water. In some parts of the world, deserts are created by a rain shadow
effect in which air masses lose much of their moisture as they move over a mountain range; other
areas are arid by virtue of being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture.
The Agasthiyamalai hills cut off Tirunelveli in India from the monsoons, creating a rainshadow
region.

Deserts are also classified by their geographical location and dominant weather pattern as trade
wind, mid-latitude, rain shadow, coastal, monsoon, or polar deserts. Former desert areas presently
in non-arid environments are paleodeserts.

Montane deserts are arid places with a very high altitude; the most prominent example is found
north of the Himalayas, especially in Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, in parts of the Kunlun
Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau. Many locations within this category have elevations exceeding
3,000 meters (10,000 ft) and the thermal regime can be hemiboreal. These places owe their
profound aridity (the average annual precipitation is often less than 40 mm or 1.5 in) to being very
far from the nearest available sources of moisture. Montane deserts are normally cold.

Rain shadow deserts form when tall mountain ranges block clouds from reaching areas in the
direction the wind is going. As the air moves over the mountains, it cools and moisture condenses,
causing precipitation on the windward side. When that air reaches the leeward side, it is dry
because it has lost the majority of its moisture, resulting in a desert. The air then warms, expands,
and blows across the desert. The warm, desiccated air takes with it any remaining moisture in the
desert.

4. Aquatic Ecosystem

An estuary mouth and coastal waters, part of an aquatic

ecosystem
An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body of water. Communities of organisms that are
dependent on each other and on their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The two main types
of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems.

Types

Marine

Marine ecosystems cover approximately 71% of the Earth's surface and contain approximately
97% of the planet's water. They generate 32% of the world's net primary production. They are
distinguished from freshwater ecosystems by the presence of dissolved compounds, especially
salts, in the water. Approximately 85% of the dissolved materials in seawater are sodium and
chlorine. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand (ppt) of water. Actual salinity
varies among different marine ecosystems.

Marine ecosystems can be divided into the following zones: oceanic (the open part of the ocean
where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live); profundal (bottom or deep water); benthic
(bottom substrates); intertidal (the area between high and low tides); estuaries; salt marshes; coral
reefs; and hydrothermal vents (where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the food base).

Classes of organisms found in marine ecosystems include brown algae, dinoflagellates, corals,
cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks. Fish caught in marine ecosystems are the biggest source of
commercial foods obtained from wild populations

Environmental problems concerning marine ecosystems include unsustainable exploitation of

marine resources (for example overfishing of certain species), marine pollution, climate change,
and building on coastal areas

Freshwater
Main article: Freshwater ecosystem

Freshwater ecosystems cover 0.80% of the Earth's surface and inhabit 0.009% of its total water.
They generate nearly 3% of its net primary production. Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the
world's known fish species.
There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:

Lentic: slow-moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes.

Lotic: rapidly-moving water, for example streams and rivers.
Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time.
Lake ecosystems can be divided into zones: pelagic (open offshore waters); profundal; littoral
(nearshore shallow waters); and riparian (the area of land bordering a body of water). Two
important subclasses of lakes are ponds, which typically are small lakes that intergrade with
wetlands, and water reservoirs. Many lakes, or bays within them, gradually become enriched by
nutrients and fill in with organic sediments, a process called eutrophication. Eutrophication is
accelerated by human activity within the water catchment area of the lake.

Freshwater ecosystem.

The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the velocity
of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of dissolved
oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow moving water of pools. These
distinctions forms the basis for the division of rivers into upland and lowland rivers. The food base
of streams within riparian forests is mostly derived from the trees, but wider streams and those that
lack a canopy derive the majority of their food base from algae. Anadromous fish are also an
important source of nutrients. Environmental threats to rivers include loss of water, dams, chemical
pollution and introduced species.

Wetlands are dominated by vascular plants that have adapted to saturated soil. Wetlands are the
most productive natural ecosystems because of the proximity of water and soil. Due to their
productivity, wetlands are often converted into dry land with dykes and drains and used for
agricultural purposes. Their closeness to lakes and rivers means that they are often developed for
human settlement.

Ponds

These are a specific type of freshwater ecosystems that are largely based on the autotroph algae
which provide the base trophic level for all life in the area. The largest predator in a pond ecosystem
will normally be a fish and in-between range smaller insects and microorganisms. It may have a
scale of organisms from small bacteria to big creatures like water snakes, beetles, water bugs,
frogs, tadpoles, and turtles. This is important for the environment.

Oceans

An ocean (from Greek Ὠκεανὸς, "okeanos" Oceanus) is a major body of saline water, and a
principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (~3.6×108 km2
) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal
oceans and smaller seas.

More than half of this area is over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanic salinity is around
35 parts per thousand (‰) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38
‰. Scientists estimate that 230,000 marine species are currently known, but the total could be up
to 10 times that number.

Oceans can be divided up into the coastal zone and the open sea. Here we will give an explanation
of the various types of life zones found in the coastal zone and in the open ocean, along with a
schematic overview of all these life zones.

Coastal life zones

The coastal zone makes up only 10% of the oceanic environment, but it contains 90% of all marine
species. Coastal zones are the most nutrient-rich life zones of the oceans. Coastal zones can be
divided up into several different life zones. One life zone that can be found in a coastal zone is an
estuary. Estuaries are enclosed areas of coastal water where seawater
mixes with freshwater from inland streams and rivers. Temperatures and salinity levels of estuaries
always depend upon the size of the flow from
saltwater oceans and freshwater rivers and streams. Another life zone found in a coastal zone is a
coastal wetland. Wetlands are land that is covered with salt water all or part of the year. Coastal
wetlands are the life zones for a number of species and they are popular recreation points. They
aid the maintenance of the coastal water quality by filtering and settling out pollutants and
nutrients. Coastal wetlands are particularly important because they protect coastal land from
flooding and from damage and erosion caused by storms. In the United States there are many
coastal wetlands. Examples are bays and lagoons. Examples of plant and animal species found
commonly on coastal wetlands are grasses and shrimps. Along tropical coasts with too much silt
for coastal wetlands we may find swamps. These help protect the coastline from erosion and are
the environment for over 2,000 species of fish, birds
and plants. In clear and warm coastal waters of tropics and subtropics, coral reefs may form. Coral
reefs are the most biologically divers aquatic life zones. In coral reefs many species live and
interact with one another in complex ecological relationships. An example of a large coral reef is
the Great Barrier Reef in Australia.

Open ocean life zones

The open sea contains only about 10% of all marine species. The open ocean is divided up into
three life zones, the euphotic zone, the bathyal zone and the abyssal zone. The subdivision is
based on the penetration of sunlight. The euphotic zone is the upper oceanic zone, where producer
species produce oxygen. Nutrient levels are low and dissolved oxygen levels are high. The
euphotic zone makes up about 90% of the oceanic surface, whereas only about 10% of the world's
fish species are found here. Sunlight
penetration rates are high in this oceanic zone. The bathyal zone is hardly lit and the abyssal zone
is very dark. These zones are only found in the open sea and do not contain any producers, because
of a lack of penetrating sunlight. In the abyssal zone the water is very cold and dissolved oxygen
levels are very low. There are high nutrient levels that support many of the species found in the
open water. Below the abyssal zone, on the bottom of the ocean, there are many species of
decomposers, which break down the
organic material of dead oceanic organisms into nutrients. The open ocean has a very high
productivity. This makes the above-mentioned life zones of great importance.

Overview of oceanic life zones:

Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Coral
reefs are colonies of tiny living animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients. Most
coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups. The
polyps are like tiny sea anemones, to which they are closely related. Unlike sea anemones, coral
polyps secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect their bodies. Reefs grow
best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated waters.

Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection. The annual
global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated at $US375 billion. However, coral reefs
are fragile ecosystems, partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature. They are
under threat from climate change, ocean acidification, blast fishing, cyanide fishing for aquarium
fish, overuse of reef resources, and harmful land-use practices, including urban and agricultural
runoff and water pollution, which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algae growth.

Live coral are small animals embedded in calcium carbonate shells. It is a mistake to think of
coral as plants or rocks. Coral heads consist of accumulations of individual animals called polyps,
arranged in diverse shapes. Polyps are usually tiny, but they can range in size from a
pinhead to 12 inches (30 cm) across.

Reef-building or hermatypic corals live only in the photic zone (above 50 m), the depth to which
sufficient sunlight penetrates the water, allowing photosynthesis to occur. Coral polyps do not
themselves photosynthesize, but have a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae; these
organisms live within the tissues of polyps and provide organic nutrients that nourish the polyp.
Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear water, which admits more
sunlight. Without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow for the corals to form significant
reef structures. Corals get up to 90% of their nutrients from their symbionts.

Mangroves

Mangroves are marine tidal forests and they are most luxuriant around the mouthsof large rivers
and in sheltered bays and are found mainly in tropical countries where annual rainfall is fairly high.
Mangrove plants include trees, shrubs, ferns and palms. These plants are found in the tropics and
sub-tropics on riverbanks and along coastlines, being unusually adapted to anaerobic conditions
of both salt and fresh water environments. These plants have adapted to muddy, shifting, saline
conditions. They produce stilt roots, which project above the mud and water in order to absorb
oxygen. Mangrove plants form communities which help to stabilize banks and coastlines and
become home to many types of animals.

Biodiversity:-

Biodiversity is the variety and differences among living organisms from all
sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are a part. This includes genetic diversity
within and between species and of ecosystems. Thus, in essence, biodiversity
represents all life. India is one of the mega biodiversity centres in the world
and has two of the world's 18 ‗biodiversity hotspots‘ located in the Western
Ghats and in the Eastern Himalayas (Myers 1999). The forest cover in these areas is very dense
and diverse and of pristine beauty, and incredible biodiversity.

Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire
planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of
climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions support
fewer species.

Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions. One estimate is that less than 1%
of the species that have existed on Earth are extant.
Since life began on Earth, five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large
and sudden drops in biodiversity. The Phanerozoic eon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid
growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion—a period during which nearly every phylum
of multicellular organisms first appeared. The next 400 million years included repeated, massive
biodiversity losses classified as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforest collapse
led to a great loss of plant and animal life. The Permian–Triassic extinction event, 251 million
years ago, was the worst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years. The most recent, the
Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, occurred 65 million years ago, and has often attracted more
attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs.

This multilevel construct is consistent with Dasmann and Lovejoy. An explicit definition
consistent with this interpretation was first given in a paper by Bruce A. Wilcox commissioned by
the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) for the 1982
World National Parks Conference. Wilcox's definition was "Biological diversity is the variety of
life forms...at all levels of biological systems (i.e., molecular, organismic, population, species and
ecosystem)...". The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit defined "biological diversity" as "the
variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine, and
other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes
diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems". This definition is used in the United
Nations Convention on Biological Diversity.

Hotspots

A biodiversity hotspot is a region with a high level of endemic species. Hotspots were first named
in 1988 by Dr. Sabina Virk. Many hotspots have large nearby human
populations. While hotspots are spread all over the world, the majority are forest areas and most
are located in the tropics.

Brazil's Atlantic Forest is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000 plant species,
1,350 vertebrates, and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere else. The island of
Madagascar, particularly the unique Madagascar dry deciduous forests and lowland rainforests,
possess a high ratio of endemism. Since the island separated from mainland Africa 65 million years
ago, many species and ecosystems have evolved independently. Indonesia's 17,000 islands cover
735,355 square miles (1,904,560 km2) contain 10% of the world's flowering plants, 12% of
mammals and 17% of reptiles, amphibians and birds—along with nearly 240 million people. Many
regions of high biodiversity and/or endemism arise from specialized habitats which require
unusual adaptations, for example alpine environments in high mountains, or Northern European
peat bogs.

Accurately measuring differences in biodiversity can be difficult. Selection bias amongst

researchers may contribute to biased empirical research for modern estimates of biodiversity. In
1768 Rev. Gilbert White succinctly observed of his Selborne, Hampshire "all nature is so full, that
that district produces the most variety which is the most examined."

Value of Biodiversity:-

Economic benefits, both direct and indirect;

Aesthetic benefits;

Scientific and ethical knowledge;

Insurance against the future

Population diversity

While we often hear about species, what we generally see and interact with are populations -
distinct groups of members of a particular species that have a limited exchange of genetic material
among the groups. They can reproduce together but they don't often do so.

Extreme population variability can be a double-edged sword. For example, lake trout in Ontario's
Great Lakes were once very diverse. There were at least 15 to 20 different forms of lake trout
recognized by commercial fishermen before the sea lamprey appeared. The lake trout differed in
where they were found, when they spawned, and in their appearance. They were given such names
as blacks, redfins, yellowfins, paper bellies, fats, humpers and sand trout. Undoubtedly, the number
of genetically distinct populations was much higher.

However, even all this diversity could not withstand over-harvest, sea lamprey predation and loss
of habitat, particularly inshore rubble shoals required for spawning. The catches of lake trout
plunged to 10% of the original yield in Lake Superior and down to almost nothing in the other
Great Lakes. When conditions improved and it came time to try and reintroduce lake trout, the
results were disappointing in all but Lake Superior where enough wild populations survived to
make a decent comeback.

Species diversity

is all of the different kinds of living things found in a certain habitat or ecosystem. World-wide
more than 1.4 million species have been identified (Wilson, 1992) but estimates of the actual
number vary from 5 million up to 100 million. Fourteen million appears to be an estimate that is
commonly quoted in the literature (Global Biodiversity Assessment, 2001 Summary).

Globally the estimated numbers of species are:

35,000 micro-organisms
70,000 fungi
273,000 plants
875,000 invertebrates (insects, spiders, etc.)
19,000 fish
10,500 reptiles and amphibians
9,000 birds
4,000 mammals
105,000 other animals
Ecosystem diversity

is the variety of ecosystems within a landscape or region including wetlands, prairies or

savannahs, lakes and rivers, forests and agricultural landscapes. The basic principles of
biodiversity apply here as well but the scope is much larger. It is at this level that the interactions
and links among species and the consequences of those links are evident. Less diverse ecosystems,
such as coldwater streams or small lake trout lakes, contribute to the functioning and productivity
of larger areas such as bioregions

Biodiversity loss:-

The biodiversity is under threat all over the world. Western Ghats and northeast is rich in
biodiversity, they have a rich variety of vegetation as well as animals. Certain species fear a threat
of decline due to day by day contracting habitats, habitat quality and hunting of some mammals.

Fragmentation of habitats and the sharp decline in small subpopulations of plants and animals
bring them on the edge of decline. Species already restricted to a small area are more prone to
extinction according to the final technical report of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan.

All the 18 domestic poultry breeds are under threat and around 40 species of plants and animals
have extincted. The country has lost about 40% of its mangroves and some crucial part of its
wetlands.
Measures like establishing crop gene banks, seed banks and biodiversity knowledge registers are
needed to curb the loss of biodiversity.

Conservation:-
In-situ conservation

In-situ conservation is on-site conservation or the conservation of genetic resources in natural

populations of plant or animal species, such as forest genetic resources in natural populations of
tree species. It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural
habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from
predators. It is applied to conservation of agricultural biodiversity in agroecosystems by farmers,
especially those using unconventional farming practices.
Benefits

One benefit of in-situ conservation is that it maintains recovering populations in the surrounding
where they have developed their distinctive properties. Another is that this strategy helps ensure
the ongoing processes of evolution and adaptation within their environments. As a last resort, ex-
situ conservation may be used on some or all of the population, when in-situ conservation is too
difficult, or impossible.

Reserves

Wildlife and livestock conservation is mostly based on in situ conservation. This involves the
protection of wildlife habitats. Also, sufficiently large reserves are maintained to enable the target
species to exist in large numbers. The population size must be sufficient to enable the necessary
genetic diversity to survive within the population, so that it has a good chance of continuing to
adapt and evolve over time. This reserve size can be calculated for target species by examining the
population density in naturally-occurring situations. The reserves must then be protected from
intrusion or destruction by man, and against other catastrophes.

Agriculture

In agriculture, in situ conservation techniques are an effective way to improve, maintain and use
traditional or native varieties of agricultural crops. Such methodologies link the positive output of
scientific research with farmers experience and field work. First, the accessions of a variety stored
at a germplasm bank and those of the same variety multiplied by farmers are jointly tested in the
producers field and in the laboratory, under different situations and stresses. Thus, the scientific
knowledge about the production characteristics of the native varieties is enhanced. Later, the best
tested accessions are crossed / mixed and multiplied under replicable situations. At last, these
improved accessions are supplied to the producers. Thus, farmers are enabled to crop improved
selections of their own varieties, instead of being lured to substitute their own varieties with
commercial ones or to abandon their crop. This technique of conservation of agricultural
biodiversity is more successful in marginal areas, where commercial varieties are not expedient,
due to climate and soil fertility constraints. Or where the taste and cooking characteristics of
traditional varieties compensate for their lower yields.

Ex-situ conservation

means literally, "off-site conservation". It is the process of protecting an endangered species of

plant or animal outside of its natural habitat; for example, by removing part of the population from
a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, which may be a wild area or within the care
of humans. While ex-situ conservation comprises some of the oldest and best known conservation
methods, it also involves newer, sometimes controversial laboratory methods.

Human care methods

Zoos and botanical gardens are the most conventional methods of ex-situ conservation, all of which
house whole, protected specimens for breeding and reintroduction into the wild when
necessary and possible. These facilities provide not only housing and care for specimens of
endangered species, but also have an educational value. They inform the public of the threatened
status of endangered species and of those factors which cause the threat, with the hope of creating
public interest in stopping and reversing those factors which jeopardize a species' survival in the
first place. They are the most publicly visited ex-situ conservation sites, with the
WZCS (World Zoo Conservation Strategy) estimating that the 1100 organized zoos in the world
receive more than 600 million visitors annually.

Endangered plants may also be preserved in part through seedbanks or germplasm banks. The term
seedbank sometimes refers to a cryogenic laboratory facility in which the seeds of certain species
can be preserved for up to a century or more without losing their fertility. It can also be used to
refer to a special type of arboretum where seeds are harvested and the crop is rotated. For plants
that cannot be preserved in seedbanks, the only other option for preserving germplasm is in-vitro
storage, where cuttings of plants are kept under strict conditions in glass tubes and vessels.

A tank of liquid nitrogen, used to supply a cryogenic freezer (for storing laboratory samples at a
temperature of about −150 degrees Celsius).

Endangered animal species are preserved using similar techniques. The genetic information
needed in the future to reproduce endangered animal species can be preserved in genebanks, which
consist of cryogenic facilities used to store living sperm, eggs, or embryos. The Zoological Society
of San Diego has established a "Frozen zoo" to store such samples using modern cryopreservation
techniques from more than 355 species, including mammals, reptiles, and birds.

A potential technique for aiding in reproduction of endangered species is interspecific pregnancy,

implanting embryos of an endangered species into the womb of a female of a related species,
carrying it to term. It has been carried out for the Spanish Ibex.
Showy Indian clover, Trifolium amoenum, is an example of a species that was thought to be extinct,
but was rediscovered in 1993 by Peter Connors in the form of a single plant at a site in western
Sonoma County. Connors harvested seeds and grew specimens of this critically endangered
species in a controlled environment.

The Wollemi Pine is another example of a plant that is being preserved via ex-situ conservation,
as they are being grown in nurseries to be sold to the general public