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1981 OTC 4067 Palmer PDF
1981 OTC 4067 Palmer PDF
1981 OTC 4067 Palmer PDF
It is helpful to begin by considering why the The idealizations used in the analysis are those
pipeline should tend to move. The operating temperature customary in pipeline engineering, and the errors they
and pressure are higher than the temperature and introduce will almost always be negligible in practice.
pressure when the pipe was tied in. Because the They are :
temperature is higher, the pipeline tends to expand. (1) that the pipe remains elastic, am that its
Far from the platform, the expansion is constrained by material properties are described by Young 1 s modulus E,
friction between the pipeline and the sea bottom, am Poisson's ratio v and linear thermal expansion
longitudinal expansion stresses are set up. At the coefficient ll.
platform, however, the pipeline is only slightly
constrained (by the vertical leg of the riser, which is (2) that the pipe can be treated as a straight thin-
relatively flexible) , and there it can expand freely walled circular tube of thickness t and mean radius R
(defined as ~ (outside diameter - t».
17
(3) that the limiting longitudinal force f per unit The length Z over which movanent occurs can be found ..
length, between the pipeline and the bottom, is f.rom the condition that cr L is continuous at z, and so,
uniform along the length, independent of the distance by equating the values of crL in equations (5) and (7),
moved, and the same for either direction of motion. z is the solution of
(4) that when the line was tied in, its temperature was 2
Z = (1TR p/f){1- 2v+ 2E:lt exp(-Z!A)} • (8)
the same as that of the sea water during subsequent
operation, that its internal pressure was negligible,
If the temperature is uniform, this reduces to
and there was no cold spring.
Z = (1TR2 p/f)(I - 2v + 2Ea8 l t/pR) • (9)
(S) that the force differences associated with the
longitudinal pressure gradient are negligible over The displacement u, positive away from the platform,
the length of pipeline that takes part in the movement is related to the longitudinal strain by
(6) that the temperature of the line is not necessarily E:L '" du/dx • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • (1.0)
uniform, but can be represented by an exponential
and can be determined by substituting (7) into (2)
function of distance from the platform, so that and then integrating (10)'. At the platform, the
8 (x) = 8 exp (-x/A) • • • • • • • • • • (1) movement !::. is
1
where 8 (x) is the temperature difference between the
pipeline and the water, at a distance x from the !::. = ~:E:L(X) dx
platform, 8 is the difference at the platform, and A
is a decay length over which the temperature difference a8 l A{l-exp (-z/A) )+~{ {~-V)pRz/t - f z 2/41TRt}
falls to lie (0.369) of its initial value. This assumed (11)
distribution corresponds to the steady state reached if
and if the temperature is uniform
fluid flows along the pipeline away from the platform
at a uniform rate, and the overall heat transfer
coefficient is independent of time and temperature. !::. = 1TRE (a8 l )2t / f { 1 + E:8l r'~-V)}2 •• (12)
A negative value of A represents flow towards the It should be noted that the temperature effect and the
platform, and a zero value represents uniform pressure effect interact in a nonlinear manner the
temperature. total expansion movement is not the sum of the
movement that would be induced by pressure alone and
(7) that the shear force in the vertical riser leg is
the movement that would be induced by temperature
negligible by comparison with other forces in the
alone.
system.
If the temperature and pressure are reduced, a
The longitudinal strain E: and stress cr , the
segment of the pipeline moves away from the platform,
circumferential stress cr H and Lthe temperatu~e rise 8
and on that segment the frictional force acts towards
are related by the stress-strain-temperature relation
the platform. If the temperature is uniform both
1.
"'L = E(O"L - VO"H) + eta •••• • • • (2) before and after a temperature reduction fran a 1. to a 2 I
18
6 l exp(-x/Al) to 62exp(-x/A2)' for instance. A segment used to find the force needed to move it. In this
of pipeline close to the platform then moves away from instance f is taken as 1500 N/m (153 kg/m), which
it, but another intermediate segment moves towards the corresponds to a coefficient of 0.9 and a gas-filled
platform, because of interaction between the non- suhnerged weight of 1670 N/m (170 kg/m), but in
uniform distribution of thermal strain and a reduction order to check the influence of the choice of
in axial compressive force that follows from the coefficient a Second set of calculations was made with
reversal of movement. Analysis then leads to coupled f equal to 1330 N/m.
differential equations that have to be integrated step
The temperature decay length is determined by
by step. However, in many practical instances of
temperature and pressure reductions during operation, A = mcp /g • • • • • • • • (18)
the length of pipeline influenced by reversed movement
where m is the mass flow rate, c p the gas specific heat
is small enough for the simple idealization of uniform
and g the rate of heat transfer :from the pipeline, per
temperature to be a reasonable one.
unit length per unit temperature difference from the
It is sometimes necessary to reduce expansion surrounding water : it is assumed that the thermal
movements by increasing the resistance to movement resistance between the gas and the steel pipe is small
after the pipeline has gone into operation. This can be by comparison with that between the steel and the water
done by backfilling gravel or crushed roock over the The estimated value of g is 100 W/m degC. The decay
pipeline. An important practical case is the following length A is found to be several kIn, even at low flow
sequence rates.
first pressure PI' temperature 6l exP(-x/Al) The combination of pressure, temperature and flow
rate that would be expected to induce the maximum
then anchoring backfill is placed over the line,
movement occurred on one of three days in the fall of
and increases the limiting resistance to
1979, and each will be examined in turn.
longitudinal movement by F(x) per unit length
then On September 30, conditions were as follows :
the pressure is increased to P3 and the
pressure 2
temperature to 6 3exp(-x/A3) > 6l exp(-x/Al) l3l bars (12.8 MN/m )
temperature 38 0c
After the anchor is installed, the length v over which
flow rate 28 Mcm/day (990 MMscf/d)
further movement occurs is the solution of the
equation The sea temperature.is taken as SoC, and so the
temperature rise 61 is 33 dege. Fig. 3 is a graph of
~:F (x)dx + 2~RtE{(63exP(-v/A3 calculated movement at the platform as a
for the alternative assumed values of f.
function of ,
The estimated
-6 exp (-v/A )} (16
1 l value of A is 8.7 kIn. The calculated and observed
movements are as follows :
and the additional movement at the platform is z
.movement distance over
t. ad = (~-v) (P3-P J.)RV/Et
at which movement
l»
+ a(63A3(J.-exp(-v/A3)-61Al (l-exp(-v/A platform occurs
- 27f~tE1: s: F(~) d~
em) (m)
dx • • • • • • (17) calculated
f 1500 N/m, A 8.7 kIn 1.084 3430
COMPARISON BETWEEN FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND THEORY
f = 1330 N/m, A 8.7 kIn 1.192 3780
observed 1.035
The Frigg gas pipeline 1 at treatment platform TPl
in the North Sea provides an unusually favourable
opportunity for comparison between observation and The agreement between observed and calculated values
is good.
analysis. The riser is in a vertical shaft inside the
concrete platform; the shaft is usually dry, but is On October 22, conditions w:ere as follows
normally flooded in winter. After an elbow at the
pressure 133. bars (13.0 MN/m 2 )
bottom of the riser, the pipeline passes through a seal
and leaves the platform through a horizontal tunnel. temperature 39.5 °c
flow rate 25 Mcm/day
Access to the elbow through the shaft permits accurate
measurements of pipeline movement, without the need to and the estimated value of A was 7.6 kIn. The calculated
rely on divers. movement is 1.114 m for 1500 N/m longitudinal friction,
and the movement observed was 0.970 m. It is not clear
The analysis requires data on the platform why the observed movement was 0.065 m less than on
pressure, the gas temperature, and the pipe properties, September 30, but the most likely explanation is that
all readily available and SUbject to little uncertainty. the system temperature had not fully returned to its
It also requires the limiting longitudinal frictional steady-state distribution after a brief shutdown on
force f per unit length, and the temperature decay October 21..
length A. These two quantities are more difficult to On November 16, conditions were as follows
estimate, and it was therefore desirable to investigate 2
the sensitivity of the results to the assumed values. pressure 144 bars (14.4 MN/m )
temperature 40.3 °c
Since the pipeline was not buried, its limiting flow rate 30 Mcm/day
frictional resistance could be estimated by multiplying
its suhnerged weight by a longitudinal friction and the estimated value of A was 9.5 kIn. The calculated
coefficient. Experience in bottom pull installation of movement was 1.272 m, again for 1500 N/m longitudinal
indicates that if a pipeline has been in place for friction, and the observed movement was 1.090 m.
some time, a coefficient of between 0.8 and 1 should be The analytical model can be tested further by
19
comparison between observed and calculated movements Loeken l has described a second instance of
during a shutdown. A brief shutdown lasting 12 hours submarine pipeline movement, in the 36-inch (914.4 rom)
took place on November 14 1979, and the observed Ekofisk-Emden gas line at platform R. Stephens and
reverse movement was 0.230 m after 12 hours. The Rawlins2 describe work on the creep movement of an
pressure drop was not measured, but was estimated to be unspecified 'pipeline E I, but a comparison between the
4.0 MN/m2 (41 bars) after 12 hours. An estimate of the papers strongly suggests that they are describing the
rate of temperature drop was made by assuming the heat same line as Loeken. The submerged weight is not
transfer rate to be 100 W/m degC, the same as when gas available, but can be estimated at 1860 N/m (190 kg/m)
is flowing (which is reasonable, since most of the in operation. The first 400 m from the platform are
thermal resistance is associated with the concrete, unburied, and so in this section the longitudinal
rather than with heat transfer at the inside wall); the resistance is 1680 N/m if the friction coefficient is
thermal capacity of the pipeline and the gas is 0.9. Beyond that there is 2 to 3 m cover of sand. The
estimated to be 1.32 MJ/m deg C. After the 12 hours, additional resistance generated by this cover is hard
the estimated fall in temperature ~1-e2 is 33.7 degC, to estimate, but Loeken suggests a value of 44 kN/m for
and so the temperature had fallen from its initial 1.8 m cover and a soil friction angle of 400 • Within
value of 400 C almost to the sea temperature of SoC. In the period covered by the reported movement data, the
calculating the longitudinal movement, it was assumed maximum movement away from the platform should
that f was 1500 N/m, and that the effect of variation correspond to mid-April 1978, when the maximum pressure
of temperature with distance from the platform was was 11.7 MN/m 2 (1700 Ib/in 2 ) and the temperature
negligible, a reasonable assumption since the distance reached 42 0 c (l08 0 F). The calculated end movement is
over which reversed movement occurs is only 1500 m. The plotted in Fig. 5, as a function of the uncertain
calculated reverse movement was 0.337 m. The agreement longitudinal resistance F in the buried section. The
with the measured value is quite gbod, in the light of observed movement is somewhat less than the calculated
the sensitivity of the result to the changes of movement, unless F is as low as 10 kN/m (1 tonne/m;
temperature and pressure, neither of which was measured 700 lb/ft). The result is sensitive to the amount of
directly. cover between 400 and 800 m from the platform, and
10 kN/m may be a reasonable value, particularly if
After an evaluation of the movements observed at
arching is significant or if the cover is less than
the platform, it was decided to take action to reduce
intended.
the movements that would follow future increases in
operating temperature and pressure. In the early months
CREEP BETWEEN A PIPELINE AND ITS WEIGHT COATING
of 1980, crushed rock backfill was placed on a number
of sections of the pipeline close to the platform, as Some instances of thermal movement may be due to
part of a wider program of span correction. The deformation of bituminous corrosion coating, which
specified cover above the pipe is 1 m. Taking the may soften when the pipeline temperature rises as it
rock particle specific gravity as 2.7, and the in-place goes into operation, and will then deform as a viscous
voids ratio as 0.6 (porosity 0.38), the submerged unit fluid. That would allow the pipe to expand even though
weight is 10.3 kN/m3 (1050 kg/m 3 ). The estimated its concrete coating remained statiQIlary, by shear
add~t~onaL Long~tud~naL res~stance F ~s L4.L kN/m ~f deformat~on w~th~ the corros~on coat~ng, and th~s
the pipeline moves through the rock (against the extra mechanism is one explanation of movements which
friction generated by the rock's weight) and 12.7 kN/m continue to increase after the pipeline is in operation
if the rock above the pipeline is carried along with It is important to make clear that it is not the only
it. However, since the calculation of F involves a or most likely explanation of such movements : in most
number of uncertain factors (among them the state of pipelines, the operating pressure, temperature and flow
stress in the rock above the pipeline, and the extent rate are progressively increased after start-up, and
to which arching can transfer the weight of the rock quite modest increases can produce substantial
above the line to the rock on either side), it was additional movements.
decided to adopt a lower value of 7 kN/m for design
A complete analysis of creep deformation is
purposes.
complicated, because the corrosion coating has a
A further shutdown on March 22 made it possible complex rheological behavior close to its softening
to confirm the effectiveness of the backfill. At that temperature, may be non-Newtonian, and is strongly
time, rock had been placed over two sections, one of temperature-sensitive. However, a simplified model
464 m (from pk 360.136 to 360.600) and one of 93 m throws light on the factors that govern creep, and
(from pk 359.623 to 359.716); the platform tunnel allows one to determine whether or not it might be
entrance is at pk 361.068. Fig'. 4 shows the movements important.
and temperature and pressure changes that occurred.
Imagine a pipeline subject to thermal expansion
The observed movements can be compared with those
calculated under three alternative assumptions, that alone, so that the pressure effect is negligible. The
temperature increase is e(x,~) at time ~ and distance
the additional longitudinal resistance F generated by
x from the platform. The displacement of the pipe itse
the backfill is 14 kN/m, that it is 7 kN/m, and that it
tself is u{x,~), and the displacement of the concrete
is zero. The comparison confirms that the presence of
the backfill does reduce the movements significantly, coating is v(x,~), so u-v is the relative movement
between the pipe and the coating. The thickness of the
but the results are not sufficiently sensitive to the
value of F for it to be possible to make an corrosion coating is h, and its material is idealised
as a linear viscous fluid with viscosity n at the pipe
independent estimate. Another comparison can be made
temperature. The earlier assumption that the pipe is
by calculating the 'forward' movements after restart
at midnight on March 22/23. The calculated movements thin-walled is extended to include the coating, so
that the radius of the coating is identified with the
are 0.114 m if F is 14 kN/m, 0.118 m if F is 7 kN/m,
and 0.163 m if F is zero, in the first 5 hours of mean radius R. Longitudinal forces in the concrete are
operation, while the observed movement was 0.125 m. assumed to be negligible by comparison with those in
the steel. Fig.6 shows schematically the forces that
20
act on the different parts of an element dx. At the
left-hand end of the element, the thermal strain u(x,t)= - 2a6 { (~) ~exp (_x 2/4K~) - ~erfc (x 2/4K~)~}
component is a6 and the total longitudinal strain is ~ 2
au/ax, and so the longitudinal stress is E(au/ax - a6), + -- 1 - ~ u(x' ,0) exp -(x-x'
--- ) 2 - exp -" (x+x')
--- } (X) {
from (2), and the longitudinal force is this stress (~K~)~ 0 4K~ 4K~
multiplied by the wall cross-section 2~Rt. At the right dx' • (26)
end, the longitudinal force is different, because au/ax
and a6 will in general have different values. The where
shear force on the outer surface of the pipe is the K (Eth/n) ~ • • • • • • • • • (27)
product of the viscosity n, the velocity gradient
(au/a~ - av/a~)/h and the area 2~Rdx. Since inertia At the end, the displacement u (0 , ~) at time ~ is
terms are negligible, longitudinal equilibrium of the
pipe element gives the governing differential equation -2a6 - u(O,~)= (K~/~)I:! (~K~~Z2)'i s: (1_~)2exp{_ ~:~2} d~
au .- a:r
a:r av
= (Eth/n)
(a~
2u
- a ax
a6 ) • • • • • • (19)
(28)
21
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT REFERENCES
The authors thank Total Oil Marine Limited for 1. Loeken, P.A. 'The "creep" on the Ekofisk-Emden 36"
permission to publish this paper. gas pipeline', Proceedings, 12th Annual Offshore
Technology Conference, Houston, 1980, paper OTC
3783, 393-40l.
2. Stephens, H.G. and Rawlins, C.E. 'Axial movement of
warm buried pipelines', Proceedings, Interpipe 1980,
Houston, 146-161.
a: CLAMP
w
(j)
a:
-.8
fx
•
x
y z x
...J (13) (9)
W
z
:;;:
0:
I-
Cf) -
I-
y z x
m
::2
b.Sd]
ill
o>
::2
y z
DISTANCE FROM PLATFORM
Fig. 2 - STRESS, STRAIN AND MOVEMENT AT THE END OF A PIPELINE
Solid lines represent condition after a reduction in temperature
and pressure, dashed lines condition before; numbers refer to
equations in text.
.- --
a: ·\e~
a::
?r eSsure_
0
::) w
C/)
120 a..
C/) 10 :2:
w • w
a::
a...
100
El
• I-
100 •
I-
Z 200
w
:2:
w
> 300
0
:2: mm
Fig. 4 - MOVEMENTS DURING A SHUTDOWN
Solid symbols represent measured values, open symbols calculated values.
0.6
m OBSERVED _
I-
z
w 0.4
~
w CALCULATED
>
0 0.2
:2:
10 20 30 40 50 kN/m
LIMITING LONGITUD INAL RESISTANCE
IN BURIED SECTION
dx
-
coating I
-
c oncrete
b ottom