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An Exact Algorithm For Solving Most Relevant Explanation in Bayesian Networks
An Exact Algorithm For Solving Most Relevant Explanation in Bayesian Networks
3649
Y in Gm if and only if there is an edge between them in G or Many local search methods have been applied to solve
if they are parents of the same node in G. In an undirected both MAP/MPE (Park and Darwiche 2001) and MRE (Yuan,
graph, Z separates X and Y, if Z intercepts all paths be- Lim, and Littman 2011), such as tabu search (Glover 1990).
tween X and Y. Moral graph is a powerful construction to Tabu search starts at an empty solution set. At each step, it
explain d-separation. Lemma 1 (Lauritzen et al. 1990) links generates the neighbors of the current solution by adding,
d-separation in DAG to separation in undirected graphs. changing, or deleting one target variable. Then tabu search
Lemma 1. Let X, Y, and Z be disjoint subsets of nodes in a selects the best neighbor which has the highest GBF score
DAG G. Then Z d-separates X from Y if and only if Z sepa- and has not been visited before. In tabu search, the best
rates X from Y in (GAn(X∪Y∪Z) )m , where (GAn(X∪Y∪Z) )m neighbor can be worse than the current solution. To stop tabu
is the moral graph of the subgraph of G with node set search properly, upper bounds are set on both the total num-
An(X ∪ Y ∪ Z). ber of search steps M and the number of search steps since
the last improvement L as the stopping criteria. Local search
In an inference problem in a Bayesian network, the nodes methods can only provide approximate solutions which are
are often classified into three categories: target, evidence, not guaranteed to be optimal. Furthermore, the accuracy and
and auxiliary. The target set M represents variables of in- efficiency of these methods are typically highly sensitive to
ference interest. The evidence set E represents observed in- tunable parameters.
formation. The auxiliary set represents the variables that are Branch-and-bound algorithms have been developed for
not of interest in the inference. MRE (Yuan, Lim, and Lu solving MAP and MPE by using upper bounds derived based
2011) finds a partial instantiation of M as an explanation on different relaxations. A mini-bucket upper bound is pro-
for given evidence e in a Bayesian network. Here, expla- posed in (Dechter and Rish 2003) and applied to And/Or tree
nation refers to the explanation of evidence, whose goal is search for solving MPE (Marinescu and Dechter 2009). The
to explain why some observed variables are in their particu- work in (Choi, Chavira, and Darwiche 2007) showed that
lar states using the target variables in the domain. The search the mini-bucket upper bound can be derived from a node
space of MRE is large and the complexity of MRE is conjec- splitting scheme. To solve MAP exactly, an upper bound is
tured to be N P P P complete (Yuan, Lim, and Littman 2011). proposed in (Park and Darwiche 2003) by commuting the
Formally, the MRE problem is formulated as follows: order of max and sum operations in the MAP calculation.
Definition 1. Let M be a set of targets, and e be the given In (Huang, Chavira, and Darwiche 2006), an exact algorithm
evidence in a Bayesian network. Most Relevant Explanation is proposed for solving MAP by computing upper bounds on
is the problem of finding a partial instantiation x of M an arithmetic circuit compiled from a Bayesian network. No
that has the maximum generalized Bayes factor score upper bound or exact algorithm has been proposed for solv-
GBF (x; e) as the explanation for e, i.e., ing MRE, however.
MRE (M; e) = argmax GBF (x; e), (1) An Exact MRE Algorithm Based on A Novel
x,∅⊂X⊆M
Upper Bound
where GBF is defined as It is difficult to solve MRE problems exactly because of
p(e|x) both an exponential search space and the need for proba-
GBF (x; e) = . (2) bilistic inference at each search step. A naive brute-force
p(e|x̄)
search method can scale to Bayesian networks with at most
15 targets. In this work, we propose a breadth-first branch-
Here, x is the instantiation of X, and x̄ represents all of and-bound algorithm that uses a new upper bound based on
the alternative explanations of x. Markov blanket decomposition to prune the search space.
Different from MPE and MAP which maximize a joint The algorithm makes it possible to solve MRE problems
posterior probability function, MRE maximizes the rational with more targets exactly.
function of probabilities in Equation 2. This makes it possi-
ble for MRE to compare explanations with different cardi- Search space formulation
nalities in a principled way.
Assuming there are n targets, and each target has d states,
Belief update ratio is a useful concept. The belief update
the search space of MRE contains (d+1)n −1 possible joint
ratio of X given e is defined as follows:
states (or solutions). Each state contains values of a subset
p(X|e) of the targets. We organize the search space as a search tree
r(X; e) = . (3) by instantiating the targets according to a total order π of the
p(X)
targets. The search tree has the empty state as the root. For a
GBF can be calculated from the belief update ratio as fol- state y in the tree, Y is defined as the expanded set of targets,
lows: and X = {X|X ∈ M; ∀Yi ∈ Y, Yi <π X} is the unex-
panded set. That is, the unexpanded set only contains targets
p(x|e)(1 − p(x)) r(x; e) − p(x|e)
GBF (x; e) = = that trail all of the expanded targets in π. Each child state of
p(x)(1 − p(x|e)) 1 − p(x|e) y instantiates one more unexpanded target. Figure 1 shows
r(x; e) − 1 an example with two targets A = {a, ā} and B = {b, b̄} in
= 1+ . (4) this particular order. Assuming the current state is {b}, {B}
1 − p(x|e)
3650
Q
is the expanded set of target(s), and {} is the unexpanded where C = i p(ei ) p(e).
set. So {b} has no child state. As a result, different branches From Equation 7, we have the following upper bound on
of the search tree may have different numbers of layers, but r(m; e),
all of the states with the same cardinality appear in the same !
layer. Y
max r(m; e) ≤ max r(x; ei ) · C. (8)
It is possible to use dynamic ordering to expand the tar- m x,X=MB(Ei )
i
gets that can most improve the GBF score first. However, it
was shown in (Yuan and Hansen 2009) that a static ordering For any ∅ ⊂ X ⊂ M, M = X∪X̄, let Si = MB (Ei )∩X,
can actually make computing upper bounds and ultimately Ti = MB (Ei ) ∩ X̄, U = {i : Ti 6= ∅}, and V = {i : Ti =
the search more efficient. We therefore simply ordered the ∅}, we have:
targets according to their indices in this work. X
p(e|X) = p(e|M)p(X̄|X)
An upper bound based on Markov blanket X̄
decomposition X Y
!
For MRE inference, an upper bound of a state x should be = p(ei |MB (Ei )) p(X̄|X) ·
greater than the GBF score of not only x but also all descen- X̄ i∈U
dant states of x. We can prune the whole subtree if the upper Y
bound is less than the GBF of the current best solution. p(ei |MB (Ei ))
i∈V
We introduce the following novel upper bound for MRE !
inference. We first partition the evidences into a set of ex- Y
clusive and exhaustive subsets, i.e., E = ∪i Ei , such that ≤ max p(ei |Si ∪ z) ·
z,Z=Ti
MB (Ei ) ⊆ M, by using a depth first search discussed later. i∈U
!
These evidence subsets naturally decompose the whole net- Y
work into overlapping subnetworks, each of which contains p(ei |MB (Ei )) . (9)
an evidence subset Ei and its Markov blanket MB (Ei ). An i∈V
upper bound on GBF is derived by multiplying the upper
bounds on the belief update ratios calculated on the subnet- Since p(e|X) = r(X; e)p(e), we have the following up-
works. per bound on r(x; e):
We first derive an upper bound on the belief update ratio Y
!
in Theorem 1. max r(x; e) ≤ max max r(z ∪ si ; ei ) ·
x si z,Z=Ti
Theorem 1. Let M = {X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn } be a set of tar- i∈U
!
gets, e be the evidence, and MB (Ei ) ⊆ M be the Markov Y
blanket of the ith subset of evidences Ei . Then, for any sub- max r(x; ei ) · C. (10)
x,X=MB(Ei )
set ∅ ⊂ X ⊆ M, the belief update ratio r(x; e) is upper i∈V
bounded as follows.
Thus, for any ∅ ⊂ X ⊆ M, we obtain the final upper
bound by combining Equations 8 and 10:
!
Y
max r(x; e) ≤ max r(x; ei ) · C, (5) !
x,∅⊂X⊆M x,X=MB(Ei )
i
Y
max r(x; e) ≤ max r(x; ei ) · C.
Q x,∅⊂X⊆M x,X=MB(Ei )
where C = i p(ei ) p(e). i
Proof. From the formulation of r(M; e), we have
In MRE inference, the evidence e is given, thus C is a
r(M; e) = p(M|e) p(M) = p(e|M) p(e)
Y constant. Theorem 1 assumes that the expanded target set
= p(ei |MB (Ei ))/p(e) Y = ∅, which is true at the beginning of search. During
i the search when Y 6= ∅, we have the following corollary to
Y p(MB (Ei )|ei )p(ei ) derive the upper bound on the belief update ratio:
= /p(e) Corollary 2. Let M = {X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn } be a set of tar-
p(MB (Ei ))
i
! gets, e be the evidence, MB (Ei ) ⊆ M be the Markov blan-
Y ket of the ith subset of evidences Ei . Let X and Y be the un-
= r(MB (Ei ); ei )p(ei ) /p(e). (6) expanded and expanded target sets. Let Ti = MB (Ei ) ∩ Y,
i and MB (Ei ) = Ti ∪ T̄i . Then, for any subset ∅ ⊂ Z ⊆ X,
The third equality is based on the property of Markov blan- the belief update ratio r(z ∪ y; e) is upper bounded as fol-
lows.
kets. !
Thus, we have: Y
max r(z ∪ y; e) ≤ max r(z ∪ ti ; ei ) · C, (11)
! z,∅⊂Z⊆X z,Z=T̄i
Y i
r(M; e) = r(MB (Ei ); ei ) · C, (7) Q
i
where C = i p(ei ) p(e).
3651
Directed subgraph Moral graph
Ø
G A B G A B
a a b b
I E2 E1 C I E2 E1 C
ab ab ab ab H F D H F D
Figure 1: The search tree of an MRE Figure 2: An example of compiling Markov blankets. E1 and E2 are evidence
problem with two targets, i.e., A and B. nodes. Gray nodes are targets. Others are auxiliary nodes. MB (E1 ) and MB (E2 )
share targets A and F .
Based on Corollary 2, we can derive the upper bound on targets M to find the best solution. However, to calculate an
GBF in Theorem 3: upper bound (right), we only need to search a fixed target set
Theorem 3. Let M = {X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn } be a set of tar- MB (Ei ) of each subnetwork, which usually has a small size
gets, e be the evidence, MB (Ei ) ⊆ M is the Markov blanket and is easy to handle.
of the ith subset of evidences Ei . Let X and Y be the unex-
panded and expanded target sets. Let Ti = MB (Ei ) ∩ Y,
and MB (Ei ) = Ti ∪ T̄i . Then, for any subset ∅ ⊂ Z ⊆ X, Compiling Markov blankets
the general Bayesian factor score GBF (z ∪ y; e) is upper
bounded as follows. The above theorems are based on factorizing the conditional
joint distribution p(e|M) into the product of a set of condi-
max GBF (z ∪ y; e) Q
tional distributions i p(ei |MB (Ei )). Thus partitioning the
z,∅⊂Z⊆X
! whole evidence set E into the subsets ∪i Ei and compiling
Y their Markov blankets is a key part of the proposed method.
max r(z ∪ ti ; ei ) ·C −1
z,Z=T̄i The Markov blanket of a single node includes its parents,
i
≤ 1+ , (12) children, and children’s other parents. In MRE problems,
1 − p(y|e) some of these nodes may be auxiliary nodes. To derive the
Q
where C = i p(ei ) p(e). upper bound, however, we need to find the Markov blan-
Proof. First, we formulate GBF using the belief update ra- kets containing only targets. Thus the standard definition of
tio as in Equation 4. Markov blanket cannot be directly used in our problem.
In the proposed method, we first generate the smallest
r(m; e) − 1
GBF (m; e) = 1 + . ancestral set containing the target set M and the evidence
1 − p(m|e) set E, i.e., An(M ∪ E). Then we compile a moral graph
For any subset ∅ ⊂ Z ⊆ X, p(z ∪ y|e) = p(z|y, e) · (GAn(M∪E) )m . Figure 2 illustrates an example moral graph
p(y|e) ≤ p(y|e). Thus we have: with two evidence nodes. Using Lemma 1, for each evidence
subset Ei , we need to find a set of targets which separates
max GBF (z ∪ y; e) Ei from other evidence nodes and targets in (GAn(M∪E) )m .
z,∅⊂Z⊆X
This is achieved by doing a depth first graph traversal start-
max r(z ∪ y; e) − 1 ing from each evidence node if it has not been visited before.
z,∅⊂Z⊆X
≤ 1+ . (13) There are three scenarios when a node is being visited.
1 − p(y|e)
Case 1: When an evidence node is visited, we add the ev-
Then using Corollary 2, we obtain the following upper idence to the current evidence subset Ei , mark it as visited,
bound on GBF. and continue to visit its unmarked neighbors.
max GBF (z ∪ y; e) Case 2: When a target is visited, we add the target to
z,∅⊂Z⊆X
! MB (Ei ) and mark it as visited.
Y Case 3: When an auxiliary node is visited, we mark it as
max r(z ∪ ti ; ei ) ·C −1
z,Z=T̄i visited and continue to visit its unmarked neighbors.
i
≤ 1+ , When restarting the search on a new evidence node, we
1 − p(y|e)
Q unmark all targets and auxiliary nodes, because the same
where C = i p(ei ) p(e). targets may occur in different Markov blankets as shown in
Figure 2. The algorithm stops when all evidence nodes have
Using Equation 12, we can bound all the descendant so- been visited. The depth first search algorithm automatically
lutions of the current state y. Equation 12 shows that in an partitions the whole evidence set into subsets ∪i Ei and finds
MRE problem (left), we need to search all of the subsets of the Markov blanket MB (Ei ) of each subset.
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Merging Markov blankets Networks Nodes Leaves States Arcs
Alarm 37 11 2.84 46
When computing the upper bound, we maximize each belief Carpo 61 43 2.23 74
update ratio r(MB (Ei ); ei ) according to MB (Ei ), indepen- Hepar 70 41 2.31 123
dently. Thus the common targets of two different Markov Insurance 27 6 3.30 52
blankets MB (Ei ) and MB (Ej ) may be set to inconsistent
values based on the maximization. Too much inconsistency Emdec6h 168 117 2.00 261
may result in a loose bound. We can tighten the upper bound Tcc4g 105 69 2.00 193
by merging Markov blankets that share targets. On the other
hand, if the number of targets in an individual Markov blan- Table 1: Benchmark diagnostic Bayesian networks used to
ket is too large, it will make calculating the upper bound evaluate the proposed algorithm.
inefficient. We propose to merge Markov blankets to reduce
the number of duplicates of a target under the constraint that tio. We then calculate the upper bound of S using Theo-
the number of targets in a Markov blanket cannot exceed K. rem 3. We prune S if the upper bound is less than the current
We can use an undirected graph to represent the problem best GBF.
of merging Markov blankets. The nodes in the graph denote
Markov blankets. If two Markov blankets share targets, there Experiments
is an edge between the two corresponding nodes. The weight
of edge is the number of targets shared by the two Markov We tested the proposed algorithm on six benchmark diag-
blankets. This formulation translates the problem of merg- nostic Bayesian networks listed in Table 1, i.e., Alarm (Ala),
ing Markov blankets into a graph partition problem. More Carpo (Car), Hepar (Hep), Insurance (Ins), Emdec6h (Emd),
specifically, the merging problem can be addressed by recur- and Tcc4g (Tcc) (Beinlich et al. 1989; Binder et al. 1997;
sively solving the minimum bisection problem (Feige and Onisko 2003). Among them, Alarm, Carpo, Hepar, and In-
Krauthgamer 2002), which partitions the vertices into two surance are small networks with fewer than 100 nodes.
equal halves so as to minimize the sum of weights of the Emdec6h and Tcc4g are larger networks with more than 100
edges between the two partitions, on the undirected graph. nodes. We also listed the number of leaf nodes (Leaves), the
average number of node states (States), and the number of
Minimum bisection problem is an NP-hard problem, how-
arcs (Arcs) of the Bayesian networks in Table 1. The exper-
ever. We cannot afford to spend too much on computing the
iments were performed on a 2.67GHz Intel Xeon CPU E7
upper bound. We therefore use a hierarchical clustering-like
with 512G RAM running a 3.7.10 Linux kernel.
greedy algorithm for merging the Markov blankets. We first
merge any two Markov blankets if one of them covers the Experimental design
other. Then for all the remaining Markov blankets, we each
time merge two Markov blankets that share the most num- Since the proposed method is the first nontrivial exact MRE
ber of targets as long as the number of targets in the resulting algorithm, we had to use a naive Breadth-First Brute-Force
Markov blanket does not exceed K. The algorithm finishes search algorithm (BFBF) as the baseline; basically BFBF is
when no Markov blankets can be merged. BFBnB with the bound set to be infinity. We also included
the results of tabu search to indicate the difficulty of MRE
problems. In BFBnB, we set the maximum number of tar-
Breadth-first branch-and-bound algorithm
gets in a Markov blanket K to be 18. In tabu search, we
In MRE inference, all of the search nodes are potential so- set the number of search steps since the last improvement
lutions except the root node. We can choose from a variety L and the number of search steps M according to different
of search methods to explore the search tree, e.g., depth-first network settings. For the networks with 12 targets, we set
search, best-first search, and breadth-first search. We choose L to be 20 and M to be {400, 800, 1600, 3200, 6400}. For
breadth-first search for two reasons. First, it is convenient to the networks with about 20 targets, we set L to be 80 and
identify the convergence of MRE by monitoring the number M to be {12800, 25600, 51200}. To evaluate search perfor-
of states in the search queue. Usually, the size of the search mance, we compared the solutions of tabu search and BF-
queue first increases and then decreases in the BFBnB al- BnB, and counted the number of test cases on which tabu
gorithm. Second, since MRE prunes away independent and search achieved optimal solutions.
less relevant targets, usually the number of targets in the op- BFBF search can only solve test cases with fewer than 15
timal solution is not large. Thus breadth-first search may targets. To compare to BFBF, we randomly generated five
reach the optimal solutions faster than other search strate- test settings of each network, each setting consisting of all
gies. The breadth-first search costs more memory to store leaf nodes as evidence, 12 of the remaining nodes as targets,
the unexpanded states in a layer, however. and others as auxiliary nodes. Then for each setting, we ran-
Before the breadth-first search, we calculate the belief up- domly generated 20 configurations of evidence (test cases)
date ratios of all configurations of MB (Ei ) and store them by sampling from the prior distributions of the networks.
in a belief table. Then the breadth-first search algorithm ex- We also evaluated BFBnB on test cases with about 20 tar-
plores the search tree layer by layer while keeping track of gets. For each network, we generated five test settings and
the highest-scoring state. For each state S, we search for a 20 test cases for each setting. In the four smaller networks,
configuration of each Markov blanket that is consistent with we set all the leaf nodes as evidence, 80% of the remain-
the expanded targets ti and has the highest belief update ra- ing nodes as targets, and others as auxiliary nodes. In the
3653
sec Ala Car Hep Ins Emd Tcc 7
Ala 0
BFBF 1.7e3 66.1 270 1.6e5 212 162 Car
Hep -1
BFBnB 17.0 3.5 14.6 1.6e3 15.1 5.6 Ins
Emd -2
92 100 93 81 95 100 6
T6400 Tcc
17.3 25.4 44.8 26.3 89.3 67.7
BFBnB (log10ms)
-3
85 100 91 77 95 100
T3200
9.1 13.2 22.6 13.7 45.0 36.1
5
79 100 86 74 95 100
T1600
4.7 6.9 11.5 7.0 23.2 19.2
76 98 81 73 95 100
T800
2.4 3.6 5.9 3.6 11.8 10.2 4
72 98 81 73 95 100
T400
1.2 1.8 3.0 1.8 6.1 5.2
3654
search space (i.e., the number of targets and the number Nielsen, U. H.; Pellet, J.-P.; and Elisseeff, A. 2008. Expla-
of states of each target), but also on the tightness of the nation trees for causal Bayesian networks. In Proceedings
upper bound and the structures of Bayesian networks. For of the 24th Annual Conference on Uncertainty in Artificial
Bayesian networks with a large number of targets, an upper Intelligence (UAI-08), 427–434.
bound can be efficiently generated as long as the the number Onisko, A. 2003. Probabilistic Causal Models in Medicine:
of targets in each Markov blanket is small. For the Markov Application to Diagnosis of Liver Disorders. Ph.D. Disser-
blanket with a large number of targets, we can decompose tation, Institute of Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineer-
it into subnetworks using the methods such as node split- ing, Polish Academy of Science.
ting (Choi, Chavira, and Darwiche 2007). This is also one of
Pacer, M.; Lombrozo, T.; Griffiths, T.; Williams, J.; and
our future research directions.
Chen, X. 2013. Evaluating computational models of expla-
nation using human judgments. In Proceedings of the 29th
Acknowledgements This work was supported by NSF Annual Conference on Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence
grants IIS-0953723, IIS-1219114, and a PSC-CUNY en- (UAI-13), 498–507.
hancement award. Park, J. D., and Darwiche, A. 2001. Approximating map
using local search. In Proceedings of the 17th Annual Con-
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