Bis Sci - I

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY – I OMTEX CLASSES S.S.
OMTEX CLASSES
SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
PART ONE
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CLASSES : - OMTEX CLASSES

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INDEX
LESSON NAME
1. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
2. ELECTROLYSIS
3. STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS
4. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
ELECTRICITY
5. EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC
ELECTRIC CURRENT
6. ENERGY SOURCES
7. TYPES OF ENERGY
8. POWER
9. SOUND
10. HEAT
11. LIGHT
12. MODERN PHYSICS

I GIVE SCIENTIFIC REASONS.

1. VALENCY OF ELEMENTS OF 1ST GROUP IS ONE.
1. Position of an element in the periodic table is related to the electronic configuration.
2. Elements in a particular group have the same number of valence electrons.
3. Number of valence electrons is equal to the group number.
4. Thus all the elements of 1st group have 1 valence electron.
5. They lose this 1 valence electron during chemical reaction.
6. Hence, valency of elements of 1st group is one.
2. THE FAMILY OF NOBLE GASES IS NAMED AS ZERO GROUPS.

1. In the atoms of noble gases, all the electronic shells including the outermost shell are completely filled.
2. They have stable electronic configuration with complete duplet (in the case of He) or complete
octet (in the case of Ne, Ars, etc.).
3. Therefore, these elements do not lose, gain or share electrons.
4. Hence these elements do not take part in chemical reaction and their valency is zero.
5. Hence, the family of noble gases is named as a zero group.
3. INERT GASES EXIST IN THE FORM OF FREE ATOM.

1. Electronic configuration of an atom of an element reveals its ability to form a molecule.
2. In the atoms of inert gases, all the electronic shells including the outermost shell are
completely filled.
3. They have stable electronic configuration with complete duplet (in the case of He) or complete
octet (in the case of Ne, Ar, etc.).
4. Therefore, these elements do not lose, gain or share electrons. Hence these elements do not
take part in the chemical reactions.
5. Hence, inert gases exist in the form of free atom.
4. VALENCY VARIES GRADUALLY ALONG A PERIOD.

1. In modern periodic table, the elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic
numbers(Z)
2. Atomic number of an element is directly related to its electronic configuration.
3. As we move from left to right along a period the atomic number goes on increasing and
therefore the number of electrons in the valence shell (valency) also goes on increasing.
4. The first element in a period has one electron in the outermost shell while the last element in a
period has complete duplet or octet.
5. Hence, valency varies gradually along a period.
5. MOLECULAR FORMULAE OF CHLORIDES OF SODIUM AND POTASSIUM ARE SIMILAR WHILE

THAT OF SODIUM AND MAGNESIUM IS DIFFERENT.
1. Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) belong to 1st group of modern periodic table. These elements
have one electron in the valence shell and thereby they are monovalent.
2. In a chemical reaction with chlorine(Cl), they lose their 1 valence electron and this electron is
gained by a chlorine atom forming a molecule of a compound such as
a. Sodium chloride (NaCl) and b. Potassium Chloride (KCl).
3. Magnesium belongs to 2nd group of modern periodic table. It has two electrons in the valence
shell and thereby it is divalent.
4. In chemical reaction with chlorine (Cl) magnesium (Mg) loses its two valence electrons which
are gained by two chlorine atoms forming molecule of a compound magnesium chloride
(MgCl2).
5. Hence, molecular formulae of chlorides of sodium and potassium are similar while those of
sodium and magnesium are different.

6. SOLUTION OF AN ELECTROLYTE CAN CONDUCT ELECTRICITY BETWEEN TWO ELECTRODES. Ch 2

1. Most of the electrolytes are electrovalent compounds made up of positive ions and negative ions.
2. In the aqueous solution, these ions get separated (dissociation) from each other and move freely.
3. When an electric potential is applied across the electrodes in contact with the electrolyte the
positively charged ions (cations) move towards the cathode and negatively charged ions
(anions) move towards the anode.
4. These movements of cations and anions of an electrolyte are responsible for conduction
electricity through the electrolyte. Hence solution of electrolyte can conduct electricity between two
electrodes.
7. COPPER IS FOUND TO GET DEPOSITED AT THE CATHODE WHEN CURRENT IS PASSED THROUGH
AQUEOUS COPPER CHLORIDE.
1. Decomposition of an electrolyte by passage of electric current through it, is called electrolysis.
2. During electrolysis of aqueous copper chloride the positively charged copper ions (Cu2+) move
towards the cathode and accept electrons from the cathode to form copper atoms.
3. This can be represented by cathode reaction
4. These copper atoms get deposited on cathode turning it reddish in colour. Hence, copper is found
to get deposited at the cathode when current is passed through aqueous copper chloride.
8. DURING THE ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS COPPER CHLORIDE USING CARBON ELECTRODES THE
COLOUR OF THE ELECTROLYTE GETS FADED.
1. Decomposition of an electrolyte by passage of electric current through it is called electrolysis.
2. During electrolysis of aqueous copper chloride the positively charged copper ions (Cu2+) move
towards the cathode and accept electrons from cathode to form copper atoms.
3. This can be represented by cathode reaction
4. These copper atoms get deposited on cathode turning it reddish in colour thus the concentration
of the solution goes on decreasing, fading the blue colour of the solution.
5. Hence, during the electrolysis of aqueous copper chloride using carbon electrodes the colour of
the electrolyte gets faded.
9. WHEN A BRASS ARTICLE IS SILVER PLATED, IT IS USED AS CATHODE.

1. Electroplating is a process in which an object made up of a conducting material is coated with a
less actual metal using electrolysis technique.
2. The article to be electroplated is used as cathode, the rod of metal to be coated is used as anode
and the electrolyte is a solution having cations of the metal to be coated.
3. In the cathode reaction of the process, the metal ions move towards the cathode and accept
electrons from cathode to form metal atoms which get deposited on the object.
4. Hence, when a brass article is silver plated, it is used as cathode.
10. WHEN ALUMINIUM ARTICLE IS ANODISED ITS SURFACE GETS BLACKENED.

1. Anodising is a process used to make the aluminium surface resistant to corrosion and abrasion.
2. Electrolyte used is dilute sulphuric acid and the aluminium article to be anodised is used as anode.
3. The anode reaction results in formation of a black coloured thin film of aluminium oxide on the
surface of aluminium anode.

4. Hence, when aluminium article is anodised its surface gets blackened.
11 KITCHENWARE MATERIALS IS COATED WITH COPPER.

1. Kitchenware materials are generally made of stainless steel.
2. They are coated with a thin layer of copper in order to protect them from rusting (corrosion) and
also to improve their appearance.
12. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OF SOURCE OF CURRENT (I.E. CELL) IS LESS THAN E.M.F. OR
THE P.D. IS ALWAYS LESS THAN THE E.M.F. OF THE CELL.
1. In e.m.f. the cell has to spend energy to overcome its external resistance as well as the internal
resistance.
2. In potential difference, the cell has to spend energy to overcome only its external resistance.
3. As energy cell has some internal resistance, potential different of a source of current (i.e. cell) is
less than e.m.f.
3. THE PLATES OF HEATING DEVICES SUCH AS A TOASTER, AN ELECTRIC IRON ETC. ARE MADE OF AN
ALLOY RATHER THAN A PURE METAL.
1. A pure metal like copper has low resistance due to which it produces less heat.
2. But alloys like nichrome have a very high resistance, thus the heat produced by it is more.
3. Hence, in heating devices like a toaster, an electric iron etc., alloys are used instead of pure
metals.
14. A PARALLEL COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES DECREASES EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF THE CIRCUIT.

OR A PARALLEL COMBINATION IS USED TO DECREASE THE RESISTANCE OF A CIRCUIT.
1. In a parallel combination, the equivalent resistance is smaller than each of the individual
resistances.
2. Therefore, a parallel combination is used to decrease the resistance of a circuit.
15. METALS ARE GOOD CONDUCTORS. OR METALS ARE GOOD CONDUCTORS OF ELECTRICITY. OR
AN ELECTRIC CURRENT CAN FLOW THROUGH SILVER WIRE.
1. A metal contains large number of free electrons.
2. When a metallic wire is connected between the two terminals (electrodes) of a cell, the
negatively charged free electrons flow from a point at a lower potential to a point at a higher
potential.
3. This motion of electrons in one direction constitutes an electric current.
4. Hence, metals are good conductors of electricity.

16. MOST OF THE ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES NEED EARTHING.

1. Connecting one end of a conducting wire to the metal body of the appliance and burying its
other end in the earth is called “earthing”.
2. If an electrical appliance is faulty, the live wire comes in contact with the metal body of the
appliance and the current flows in the body of that appliance.
3. If the appliance is properly earthed, the current flowing through the metal body passes to the earth.
4. Hence, there is no danger to the person handling that appliance.
17. FILAMENT OF INCANDESCENT LAMP IS MADE OF TUNGSTEN.

1. Tungsten has a very high resistance. Thus, when an electric current passes through a filament of
Tungsten, it becomes extremely hot and emits light.
2. Also Tungsten has a very high melting point due to which it can withstand the extreme heat and
does not melt.
3. Hence, due to its high resistance and high melting point, Tungsten filament is used in
incandescent lamp.
18. FUSE IS MADE OF A MATERIAL HAVING LOW MELTING POINT.

1. A fuse is a wire that is used as a safety device to protect electrical appliances from damages
caused due to excessive flow of current.
2. It is made of an alloy of lead and tin has a low melting point.
3. Thus, if the current exceeds a certain value, the fuse melts due to its low melting point and the
circuit is broken immediately.
4. Thus in turn protects the appliances against any damages by limiting the current passing through it.
19. IN RAINY SEASON, WE SHOULD NOT TOUCH THE WALL OF A BUILDING.

1. In the rainy season, the walls of the buildings become wet due to rain or leakage of water.
2. If a bare wire comes in contact with such a wet wall, the electric current begins to flow through
the wall since water is a good conductor of electricity.
3. Hence, in the rainy season, we should not touch the wall of a building.
20. WHEN A COMPASS NEEDLE IS KEPT NEAR A WIRE CONDUCTING CURRENT, IT IS DEFLECTED.
1. When an electric current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced around it.
Hence, if a compass needle is kept near such a conducting wire, it gets deflected
21. USE OF FOSSIL FUELS CREATED ENERGY CRISIS.

1. Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gasses have been formed millions of years ago
under special circumstance.
2. Since these conditions are not prevailing now, hence these fossils and fuels are rare.
3. These energy sources are extensively used to meet our ever growing demands.
4. If we continue to use these non-renewable energy sources at present rate, their known reserve
would deplete at very fast.
5. Hence, use of fossil fuels creates energy crisis.

22. MINI HYDROELECTRIC POSER STATIONS ARE PREFERRED. (14, MARCH 2008)
1. Hydroelectric power plants can be constructed only at a limited number of places. Whenever a
dam is constructed, large land area gets submerged which causes long term problem of
rehabilitation.
2. Besides being free from the problem of pollution, mini – hydroelectric power plants are also free
from issues and controversies that are associated with bigger dams.
3. Mini – hydroelectric power stations can be constructed on rivers in the hilly regions.
4. Hence, mini hydroelectric power stations are preferred.
23. WIND MILL REQUIRES SPECIFIC LOCATIONS.

1. Wind energy is used to generate electricity by using wind mill. Electricity generated by a single
wind mill is quite small.
2. To generate electricity on a commercial scale a large number of wind mills are erected over a
large area. This area is called as wind energy farm.
3. Hence, wind mill requires a specific locations.
24. FARMERS WINNOW THE GRAINS.

1. Wheat harvest contains husk.
2. Winnowing helps in separation of the husk from the grains by using wind energy.
3. Hence, farmers winnow the grains.
25. WE HAVE TO SEARCH FOR NEW RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES.

1. Due to excessive industrialisation energy sources such as oil, coal and natural gas are undergoing fast
depletion.
2. The growth in pollution, increase in energy demand and limited nature of conventional energy resources
has resulted in the energy crisis.
3. Renewable energy resources are practically inexhaustible, non – polluting and are available in distributed
manner
4. To overcome these energy crises we have to search for new renewable energy resources.
26. The work done on an object by a conservative force is zero if it has come back to the same
point from where it started.
1. Works is associated with displacement since W = F x S
2. If an object comes back to the same point from where it started, then its displacement is zero.
I.e. S = 0. Thus W = F x S = F x 0 = 0.
3. Hence, if an object comes back to its original starting position, then the work done on the object is zero.
27. Potential energy of our body will be minimum when we lie down on the ground.
1. The gravitational potential energy is conventionally taken to be zero at the ground level.
2. Thus if we lie down on the ground, the potential energy of our body will be minimum.
28. Water stored in dams is used to generate electricity.

1. Water stored in the reservoir of dam possesses gravitational potential energy since the reservoir is at a
height above ground level.
2. As the water falls, it rotates the blades of turbines and work is done due to this potential energy.
3. These turbines are connected to generators that generate electricity.
4. Hence, water stored in dams is used to generate electricity.
29. Electric fan blades rotate when we put the switch ‘ON’.
1. In the working of an electrical fan, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.
2. When the switch is put ‘ON’, electricity reaches to the fan. This electrical energy is used to rotate the
blades of the electric fan and the fan is set into motion.
3. Hence, the electric fan blades rotate when we put the switch ‘ON’.
30. We use a pulley to draw water from the well.

1. A pulley is a device that simplifies the task of lifting heavy loads, pulley are used in cranes,
building lifts, wells etc.
2. When we use a pulley for removing water from a well, we pull one end of the rope in the
downward direction, i.e. in the direction of gravity.
3. This act of pulling the rope in the downward direction easily raises the bucket which is full of water.
4. Hence, a pulley is used to draw water from a well.
31. Power is a scalar quantity.
1. Power is defined as the work done per unit time.
2. Since work and time both are scalar quantities hence power also is a scalar quantity.
32. Vehicles having high, power can attain high speed.

1. Power can also be expressed as the product of force and velocity (speed). Hence P = F x V.
Hence, if the power of a vehicle is more, then the velocity (speed) of that vehicle will also be more
33. BATS CAN TRACE OUT PATH, EVEN IN THE DARK NIGHTS. OR BATS CAN FLY DURING NIGHT
AVOIDING OBSTACLES
1. Bats are able to emit as well as hear ultrasonic sound (sound waves having frequency more than 20 kHz).
2. While flying, bats emit ultrasonic sound. This sound is not audible to human beings.
3. An ultrasonic sound gets reflected from the obstacles in their path.
4. Bats hear the resulting echo enabling them to detect the obstacles, avoid collision and
change its path accordingly.
5. Thus bats can trace out path even in the dark nights.
34. CURVED BOARDS ARE PLACED BEHIND A SPEAKER IN AN AUDITORIUM.

1. Curved boards are placed behind a speaker in an auditorium to forward the sound waves that
otherwise spread in various directions and get lost.
2. Thus the boards prevent spreading out the sound waves in various directions.
3. The board also sends the sound waves from a speaker at focus directly towards the audience
making a speech audible even at a distance.
4. Hence, to make the sound more audible even at a great distance curved boards are placed
behind the speaker in an auditorium.
35. WE SEE THE FLASH OF LIGHTENING BEFORE A THUNDER IS HEARD.

1. Velocity of light in air (3 x 108 m/s) is much greater then the velocity of sound in air (340
m/s) at room temperature.
2. Due to this the flash of lightening is seen almost immediately after the occurrence of lightening.
3. While sound takes certain time to reach the observer.
4. Thus, we can see the flash of lightening before the thunder is heard.
36. THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IS AFFECTED BY WIND VELOCITY.

1. When sound travels in the direction of the wind, the observed velocity of sound is greater.
This is because the velocity of sound is equal to sum of the actual velocity of sound and
velocity of the wind.
2. On the other hand, when sound travels in a direction opposite to that of the wind, the
observed velocity of sound will be lower because effective velocity of the sound will be the
difference of velocity of sound and velocity of the wind.
3. If the wind is blowing in a direction inclined to the direction of the sound, the effective
velocity of the sound is affected by components of the wind velocity in the direction of
velocity of the sound.
4. Thus, the velocity of sound is affected by wind velocity.

37. WHISTLE OF A PASSING TRAIN IS CLEARLY HEARD ON A QUIET MISTY NIGHT.

1. The velocity of sound in moist air is greater than the velocity of sound in dry air.
2. Therefore an increase in humidity increases the velocity of the sound in air.
3. At night when humidity tends to rise, the sound travels faster and can be heard more clearly
on a quiet misty night.
4. Thus, whistle of passing trains is clearly heard on a quiet misty night.
38. If a piece of ice is dropped into a glass of water, it floats on the surface of the water.
1. Ice is the solid form of water but its density is much less than that of water.
2. We know as water – cools below 40 C its volume increases.
3. As a result density of ice is less that that of water and so it floats on the surface of the water.
39. In winter the pipeline carrying, water burst in cold countries.

1. In cold countries during winter, the temperature of the atmosphere falls below 00 C.
2. When the temperature of water falls below 40 C, it expands.
3. Hence, the water in pipes freezes and expands. As there is no room for expansion, water exerts
a large pressure on the pipes.
Hence, the pipes sometimes burst.
40. When a water bottle is kept in the freezer (deepfreeze) compartment of a refrigerator, it burst.
1. The temperature of air in the freezer (deepfreeze) compartment of a refrigerator is less than 00C.
2. When a water bottle is kept in this compartment, the temperature of water falls below 40C and
the water expands. It exerts pressure on the sides of the bottle since there is no room for
expansion the bottle bursts.
41. A white trails may be seen behind high flying aircraft.

1. When an aircraft is flying at a very high altitude, the water vapour from its engine condenses to form fog.
2. This fog appears in the form of a white trail behind the high flying air craft.
3. Hence, a white trail is visible behind high flying aircrafts.
42. during cold nights, sometimes dew is formed. (March 2008)

3. On a cold clear night, the energy escapes from the surface of the earth and the temperature of
the ground reduces considerably.
4. The cold ground cools the air in contact with it and the temperature of air falls below the dew
point leading to dew formation.
5. Hence, during cold nights, sometimes dew is formed.
43. A stick dipped in water obliquely appears bent at the surface of water. .
Answer.
a. When a straight stick is partly immersed in water and held in a slanting position, the rays of light coming
from the immersed part of the stick emerge from water (denser medium) and enter air (rarer medium).
During this propagation, they bend away from the normal on refraction.
b. As a result, the immersed part of the stick does not appear straight with respect to the part outside the water,
but appears to be raised.
Hence, a stick dipped obliquely in water appears bent at the surface of water.
44. α – particles show less deflection as compared to β – particles

1. α – particles are heavy mass particles as compared to β – particles.
2. Hence α – particles show less deflection as compared to β – particles.
45. y- radiations are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.

1. y- Radiations are electromagnetic waves of short wave length.
2. They do not have any charge.
3. Hence, they are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.
46. Radioactive transformation does not take place when an atom emits y – rays.
1. y – rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wave length.
2. They do not have charge or mass.
3. Therefore, when y – ray is emitted by a radioactive atoms, there is not change is its mass
number or atomic number.
4. Hence, radioactive transformation does not take place when an atom emits y – rays.
47. X – rays are invisible

1. X – Rays are electromagnetic waves having very short wavelength of 5 x 10-8m to 5 x 10-15 m.
2. Wavelength of 4 x 10-7 m to 7 x 10-7 m is visible.
3. Hence, x rays are invisible.
48. X – rays can penetrate through skin but not through bones.
1. Bones are made up of calcium phosphate.
2. X – rays can penetrate through materials like skin and flesh but can not penetrate through
dense materials like calcium.
3. Hence, X – rays can penetrate through skin but not through bones.
49. Exposure of X –rays for a long time should be avoided.

3. X – rays are used to kill dangerous cells and tumours in the body.
4. At the same time cal also kill the healthy cells and tissues causing harm to the body.
5. Hence, exposure of x – rays for a long time should be avoided.
50. X – rays are used to detect fracture of bones.

1. X – Rays can penetrate through skin and flesh but cannot penetrate through dense materials like bones.
2. Due to this property X – rays can provide a clear image of the bone and hence they are used to
detect fracture of bones.
51. X – rays are used in industries.

1. The penetrating power of X – rays is very high.
2. Therefore X – rays are used to detect flaws of defects in metal castings and welding.
3. Hence, X – rays are used in industries.
52. X – rays are used to detect smuggled of gold or silver.

1. X – Rays cannot penetrate through dense materials like gold and silver.
2. Due to this property X – rays can reveal the presence of hidden gold or silver.
3. Hence, they are used to detect smuggled of gold and silver.
53. It is difficult to achieve controlled fusion reaction in the laboratory.

1. Fusion reactions take place only at a very high temperature of the order of 109 0C.
2. Such a high temperature exists only in the interior of the sun and other stars.
So it is difficult to achieve controlled fusion reaction in the laboratory.

TRANSITION AND INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS.

TRANSITION ELEMENTS INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
1. In the atoms of transition elements the last 1. 1In the atoms of these elements the last three
two shells are incompletely filled. shells are incompletely filled.
2. These elements are placed in ‘B’ groups 2. These elements are placed in two additional
of modern periodic table. rows called series, placed separately at the
bottom of the modern periodic table.
(lanthanides and actinides)
3. They are included in d-block of modern 3. They are included in f – block of modern
periodic table. periodic table.
2. S – BLOCK ELEMENTS AND P – BLOCK ELEMENTS.

S-BLOCK ELEMENTS P-BLOCK ELEMENTS
1. In modern periodic table the group IA and 1. In modern periodic table the group IIIA to
group IIA together with hydrogen form group VII A and the zero groups form the p –
the s – block elements. block elements.
2. These include Alkali metals and Alkaline 2. These include metals, non – metals and
earth metals. metalloids.
3. They have 1 or 2 electrons in the last shell. 3. They have 3 to e electrons in the last shell.
3. ELECTROLYTE AND NON – ELECTROLYTE.

ELECTROLYTE NON – ELECTROLYTE
1. A substance whose aqueous solution can 1. A substance whose aqueous solution cannot
conduct electric current is called conduct electric current is called non –
electrolyte. electrolyte.
2. Electrolytes are electrovalent compounds. 2. Non – electrolytes are covalent compounds.
3. All the acids, bases and salts are 3. Organic compounds such as glucose, urea,
electrolytes. cane sugar and alcohol are non – electrolytes.
4. CATHODE AND ANODE

CATHODE ANODE
1. The electrode connected to the negative 1. The electrode connected to the positive
terminal of a battery is called cathode. terminal of a battery is called anode.
2. During electrolysis cations move towards 2. During electrolysis anions move towards
cathode. anode.
3. Cathode is that electrode at which electrons 3. Anode is that electrode at which electrons
enter the electrolyte. leave the electrolyte.
5. ELECTRIC CURRENT THROUGH METALS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT THROUGH ELECTROLYTE.

ELECTRIC CURRENT THROUGH METALS ELECTRIC CURRENT THROUGH ELECTROLYTE
1. The conduction of electric current through 1. The conduction of electric current through
metals is due to flow of free electrons. electrolytes conductors is due to
movements of ions (cations and anions)
2. In metals free electrons flow from point of 2. In electrolytes, the electrons enter the
lower potential to point of higher potential. electrolyte through cathode and leave the
electrolyte through anode.
3. Conduction of electric current through 3. Conduction of electric current through
metals is possible for unlimited time electrolyte is possible only for limited time
period. period.
4. e.g. electric bulbs, electric motor, electrical 4. E.g. dry cells, car batteries, techniques such
devices etc. as electrolysis, electroplating and anodizing.
6. CATHODE REACTION AND ANODE REACTION

CATHODE REACTION ANODE REACTION
1. During electrolysis, the chemical changes 1. During electrolysis, the chemical changes
occurring at cathode are represented by occurring at anode are represented by anode
cathode reaction. reaction.
2. In cathode reaction cations accept electrons 2. In anode reaction, anions lose electrons to
available at cathode. the anode.
3. Electroplating of an article is the result of 3. Anodising of an article is the result of
cathode reaction. anode reaction.
7. ELECTROPLATING AND ANODISING

ELECTROPLATING ANODISING
1. Electroplating is a process in which an object 1. Anodising is a process used to make the
made up a conducting material, is coated with aluminium surface resistant to corrosion and
a less active metal using electrolysis abrasion using electrolysis technique.
technique.
2. Electroplating can be done on metals and 2. Anodising can be done only on aluminium.
alloys such as iron, steel, brass, silver etc.
3. The article to be electroplated is used as a 3. The article to be anodised is used as an anode.
cathode.
4. Electroplating of an article is the result of 4. Anodising of an article is the result of anode
cathode reaction. reaction.
5. Electrolyte used is a solution having cations of 5. Electrolyte used is dilute sulphuric acid.
the metal which is to be plated.
8. ACID AND BASE

ACID BASE
1. The substance which gives hydrogen ions 1. The substance which gives hydroxyl ions
(H+) when dissolved in water is called an (OH-) when dissolved in water is called a
acid. base.
2. Number of replaceable hydrogen present in 2. Number of replaceable hydroxyl group
acid is called basicity of acid. present in based is called acidity of base.
3. The relation between Normality and 3. The relation between Normality and
Molarity of an acid is given by the formula Molarity of a base is given by the formula
Normality = Basicity x molarity Normality = Acidity x Molarity
9. NORMALITY AND MOLARITY

NORMALITY MOLARITY
1. Normality of a solution is based on the 1. Molarity of a solution is based on the
equivalent weight of the solute. molecular weight of the solute.
2. The Normality of the solution is the 2. The Molarity of a solution is the number of
number of gram equivalent weight of moles of solute dissolved per litre of
solute present per litre of its solution. solution.
10. VOLTMETER AND AMMETER

VOLTMETER AMMETER
1. It is a device used to measure the potential 1. It is a device used to measure the current
difference between two points. flowing through the circuit.
2. It is connected in parallel with the cell. 2. It is connected in series with the cell.
3. It has a very high resistance. 3. It has a very low resistance.

11. RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL COMBINATION.

RESISTANCE IN SERIES RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
1. 1. If a number of resistances are connected 1. If a number of resistances are connected
in such a way that the same current flows between two common points such that the
through each resistance, then the potential difference across each is the same,
arrangement is called ‘Resistances in Series’. then that arrangement is called ‘Resistances
in Parallel’.
2. The voltage across each resistance is 2. The current across each resistance is
different. different.
3. This combination is used to increase the 3. This combination is used to decrease the
resultant resistance of the circuit. resistance of the circuit.
4. This combination decreases the current in 4. This combination increases the current in the
the circuit. circuit.
12. E.M.F. AND P.D.

E.M.F. P.D.
1. It is the work done by the source (cell) in 1. It is the energy spent by a cell to send a unit
raising a unit positive charge from its low positive charge across the external circuit.
potential and end to its high potential unit.
2. It is greater than the P.D. of the cell. 2. It is less than the E.M.F. of the cell.
13. RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES AND NON – RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES.

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES NON – RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
1. The resources which have inherent capacity to 1. Those resources which once used are lost for
reappear or replenish themselves within a ever and can’t be replenished are called as non –
reasonable time are called as renewable energy renewable as non – renewable energy resources.
resources.
2. These resources are generally environmental 2. These resources cause pollution.
friendly and don’t pollute environment.
3. E.g. Energy obtained from biomass, biogas, bio 3. E.g. Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum.
fuels etc.
14. FOSSIL FUEL ENERGY AND SOLAR ENERGY.

FOSSIL FUEL ENERGY SOLAR ENERGY
1. Fossil fuels are not available abundantly all 1. Solar energy is freely available on a large
over the world. scale all over the world.
2. The use of fossil fuels leads to pollutions and 2. The use of solar energy does not lead to any
other environmental problems. pollution and other environmental problems.
3. Fossil fuels are available in limited 3. Solar energy will be available for millions of
quantities and hence they are available for years.
limited time.
15. BIOMASS - BIOGAS

BIOMASS BIOGAS
1. Biomass is the material contained in the 1. Biogas is a fuel produced by microbial
bodies of plants and animals. decomposition of organic matter in absence
of oxygen.
2. Burning of biomass produces smoke. 2. Burning of biogas does not produce any
smoke.

16. KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY.

KINETIC ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY
1. It is the energy possessed by a body due to 1. It is the energy possessed by a body due to
its motion. its position or configuration.
2. It occurs only in one form and does not have 2. It occurs in various forms but to perform
to be converted into any other form in order work, it has to be converted into kinetic
to perform work. energy.
3. Kinetic energy is given by formula, 3. Potential energy is given by formula,
KE=1/2mv2. PE=mgh.
4. E.g. Bullet fired from a gun, Flowing water 4. E.g. compressed spring, Water stored in a
etc. reservoir.
17. ENERGY AND POWER

ENERGY POWER
1. Energy is defined as the stored ability of a 1. Power is defined as the work done per unit
body to do work. time.
2. S.I. unit of energy is joule. 2. S.I. unit of powers is J/s (Watt).
18. SOUND AND NOISE

SOUND NOISE
1. Sound propagates in air in the form of 1. Noise has an irregular wave form.
longitudinal waves.
2. It does not produce a disturbing and 2. Noise produces a disturbing and annoying
annoying effect on our ear. effect on the ear.
19. ABSOLUTE HUMIDITYV/S RELATIVE HUMIDITY
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY RELATIVE HUMIDITY

1. The mass of water vapour per unit volume of 1. Relative humidity is the ratio of actual mass
air is called absolute humidity. of water vapour present in a given volume of
air to the mass of water vapour required to
saturate the same volume at the same
2. It is expressed in g/m3. temperature.
2. It is expressed as a percentage.
3. It conveys the amount of water vapour present 3. It conveys how close the amount of water
in the air. vapour in the air is to the saturation level of
air at that temperature.
20. CONVEX LENS AND CONCAVE LENS

CONVEX LENS CONCAVE LENS
1. A convex lens is thicker at the centre than at 1. Concave lens is thinner at the centre than at
the edges. the edges.
2. It is a converging lens. 2. It is diverging lens.
3. Image formed by convex lens is usually real, 3. Image formed by a concave lens is always
inverted and magnified, except when the virtual, erect and diminished.
object is within the focal length of the lens.

21. SHORT SIGHT (MYOPIA) AND LONG SIGHT (HYPERMETROPIA)

SHORT SIGHT (MYOPIA) LONG SIGHT (HYPERMETROPIA)
1. Myopia arises due to slight elongation of the 1. Hypermetropia arises due to slight flattening
eyeball or due to the eye lens so that the of the eyeball so that the distance between the
distance between the eye lens and retina is eye lens and retina is less than that in the case
more than that in the case of a normal eye. of a normal eye.
2. Distant object are not seen clearly. 2. Nearer objects are not seen clearly.
3. The lens becomes more curved or eyeball is 3. The lens becomes less curved or eyeball is
elongated. flattened.
4. The distance between lens and retina is more 4. Distance between lens and retina is less than
than normal. normal.
5. Rays of light from distant object meet in front 5. Rays of light from nearer objects meet behind
of the retina. the retina.
6. It can be corrected by concave lens. 6. It can be corrected by convex lens.
22. HYPERMETROPIA AND PRESBYOPIA.

HYPERMETROPIA PRESBYOPIA
1. Hypermetropia arises due to slight flattening 1. In Presbyopia, there is no defect in the shape
of the eyeball. of the eyeball.
2. In this case, there is no weakening of the 2. This defect arises due to weakening of the
ciliary muscles. ciliary muscles.
23. MYOPIA AND PRESBYOPIA

MYOPIA PRESBYOPIA
1. Myopia arises due to slight elongation of the 1. In Presbyopia, there is no defect in the shape
eyeball or due to the eye lens so that the of the eyeball.
distance between the eye lens and retina is
more than that in the case of a normal eye.
2. In this case, there is no weakening of the 2. This defect arises due to weakening of the
ciliary muscles. ciliary muscles
3. This defect is corrected using spectacles of 3. This defect is corrected using spectacles of
concave lenses convex lenses.
24. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE AND REFRACTING TELESCOPE

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE(Astronomical REFRACTING TELESCOPE(Astronomical
telescope) refracting telescope)
1. The focal length of objective is less than 1. The focal length of objective is more than
eyepiece. eyepiece.
2. The object is very far beyond 2F of the object
2. The object is kept just beyond F of the object lens.
lens 3. It is used to produce a near image of a distant
object.
3. It is used to magnify the image of given object 4. It is used by astronomers to observe stars,
planets, satellites, nebulae, etc.
4. It is used by pathologist to observe blood
cells, plants and animal cells.

25. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE AND SIMPLE MICROSCOPE (MAGNIFYING LENS)

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
(MAGNIFYING LENS)
1. In a compound microscope, two convex 1. In a simple microscope, only one convex lens
lenses are used. is used.
2. The object is placed beyond the focal length 2. In this case, the object is placed within the
of the objective focal length of the convex lens.
3. Its magnifying power is much greater than 3. Its magnifying power is much less than that of
that of a simple microscope. a compound microscope.
4. It is used to observe blood corpuscles, plant 4. It is used to observe minute parts of a watch,
and animal cells, etc. to read words in small print, etc.
26. SIMPLE MICROSCOPE AND ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE

SIMPLE MICROSCOPE ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
1. In a simple microscope, only one convex lens 1. In an astronomical telescope, two convex
is used. lenses are used.
2. In this case, the object is placed within the 2. In this case, the object is far away from the
focal length of the convex lens. objective.
3. In this case, the image is erect. 3. In this case, the image is inverted.
4. It is used to observe minute parts of a watch, 4. It is used to observe satellites, planets, stars,
to read words in small prints, etc. etc.
27. Α – PARTICLES AND Β – PARTICLES.

Α – PARTICLES Β – PARTICLES
1. α – particles are positively charged helium 1. β – Particles are negatively charged
nuclei. electrons.
2. They carry a charge of 3.2 x 10-19C. 2. They carry a charge of -1.6 x 10-19C.
3. α – particles have velocity ranging from 106 3. β – Particles have velocity equal to 99 % of
m/s to 107 m/s. the velocity of light.
4. The penetrating power of α – particles is 4. The penetrating power of β - particles is
small i.e. 1/10000 times of y –rays. 1/100 times of y – rays.
5. When an atom of a radioactive element 5. When an atom of a radioactive element emits
emits a α – particles the mass number a β – a particle, its mass number remains the
decreases by 4 and atomic number decreases same and its atomic number increases by 1.
by 2.
28. Α – PARTICLES AND Y – RAYS.

Α – PARTICLES Y – RAYS
1. α – particles are positively charged helium 1. y – Rays are electro magnetic waves.
nuclei.
2. The penetrating power of α – particles is 2. The penetrating power of y – rays is
small i.e. 1/10000 times of y rays. maximum.
3. Ionising power of α – particles is very high 3. Ionizing power of y – rays is very small as
i.e. 10000 times of y – rays. compared with α – particles.
4. When an atom of a radioactive element 4. When an atom of a radioactive element emits
emits a α – particles its mass number y – rays its mass number and atomic number
decreases by 4 and atomic number decreases do not change.
by 2.

29. Β – PARTICLES AND Y – RAYS.

Β – PARTICLES Y – RAYS
1. β – Particles are negatively charged. 1. y – Rays are electro – magnetic waves.
2. The penetrating power of β – particles is less 2. The penetrating power of y – rays is greater
than y – rays. than β – particles.
3. β – Particles are deflected in electric and 3. y – Rays are not deflected in electric and
magnetic field. magnetic field.
4. When an atom of a radioactive substance 4. When an atom of a radioactive element emits
emits β – particle its mass number remains the y – rays its mass number and atomic number
same and its atomic number increases by 1. do not change.
30. CATHODE RAYS AND X – RAYS.

CATHODE RAYS X – RAYS
1. Cathode rays are made up of negatively 1. x – Rays are electromagnetic waves of short
charged particles. wavelength.
2. Cathode rays deflect in electric and magnetic 2. X – Rays do not deflect in electric and
field. magnetic field.
3. Cathode rays can pass through thin foils of 3. X – Rays can pass through thin sheet of
metals. metals.
31. NUCLEAR FUSION AND NUCLEAR FISSION

NUCLEAR FUSION NUCLEAR FISSION
1. Production of energy when two lighter 1. Splitting up of a heavy nucleus into lighter
nuclei fuse or combine together to form a nuclei with release of large amount of energy
heavy and stable nucleus is called nuclear is called as nuclear fission.
fusion.
2. The energy liberated during a single nuclear 2. The energy liberated during a single nuclear
fusion is less as compared to the energy fission is very large.
liberated during a single nuclear fission.
3. Nuclear fusion takes place at a very high 3. Nuclear can take place at a normal
temperature i.e. (109) 0C. temperature.
4. Controlled nuclear fusion is very difficult to
be achieved at the surface of the earth. 4. Controlled nuclear fission forms basis of
atomic reactor.
32. CONTROLLED CHAIN REACTION AND UNCONTROLLED CHAIN REACTION.

CONTROLLED CHAIN REACTION UNCONTROLLED CHAIN REACTION
1. The nuclear chain reaction in which most of 1. The self accelerating chain reaction which
the neutrons liberated in the chain reaction takes place on its own accord is called a
are absorbed is called as controlled chain uncontrolled chain reaction.
reaction.
2. In this reaction most of neutrons are 2. In this reaction neutrons are not absorbed.
absorbed using boron steel or cadmium rods.
3. In this reaction, the rate of disintegration of 3. The rate of disintegration of atom is not
atom is controlled. controlled.
4. This reaction is used for constructive 4. This reaction is used for destructive purposes
purposes like generating electricity. like atom bomb.

33. PERIODS AND GROUPS

PERIODS GROUPS
1. The horizontal rows of elements in the 1. The vertical columns of elements in the
modern periodic table are called as periods. modern periodic table are called as groups.
2. There are seven periods in the modern 2. There are eighteen groups in the modern
periodic table. periodic table.
3. The period number indicates the number of 3. The group number indicates the number of
electronic shell present in an atom. electrons in the outermost shell of an atom.
4. Elements show gradual variation in chemical 4. Elements belonging to a particular group
properties along a period. show strong resemblance (similarity) in their
chemical properties.
34. MENDELEYEV PERIODIC TABLE AND MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
1. Mendeleev’s periodic table is based on the 1. Modern periodic table is based on the atomic
atomic weight of the elements. number of the elements.
2. In Mendeleev’s periodic table, elements were 2. In Modern periodic table, elements are arranged
arranged in an increasing order of atomic in an increasing order of atomic numbers.
weights.
3. In Mendeleev’s periodic table, there are 8 3. In modern periodic table, there are 18 groups.
groups. 4. Apart from the seven periods, there are two
4. In Mendeleev’s periodic table, there are 7 additional rows called series placed separately at
periods. the bottom of Modern periodic table.
5. Mendeleev’s periodic table is not divided into 5. Modern periodic table is divided into four
any blocks. blocks, names as s-block, p-block, d-block and f-
block.
35. INERT GAS ELEMENTS AND NORMAL ELEMENTS.

INERT GAS ELEMENTS NORMAL ELEMENTS
1. In the atoms of these elements all the shells are 1. In the atoms of these elements only the
completely filled including the outermost shell. outermost shell is incompletely filled.
2. These elements are placed in zero group of 2. These elements are placed in ‘A’ groups. i.e. IA
modern periodic table. to VIIA of modern periodic table.
3. These elements have stable electronic 3. These elements do not have stable electronic
configuration and hence they are chemically configuration and hence they are chemically
inactive. active.
4. Their valency is zero. 4. They normally show one type of valency.
5. They are included only in p-block of modern 5. They are included in s-block and p-block of
periodic table. modern periodic table.
37. NORMAL ELEMENTS AND TRANSITION ELEMENTS

NORMAL ELEMENTS TRANSITION ELEMENTS
1. In the atoms of these elements only the 1. In the atoms of these elements the last two
outermost shell is incompletely filled. shells are incompletely filled.
2. These elements are placed in ‘A’ group. i.e. 2. These elements are placed in ‘B’ groups. i.e.
IA to VIIA of modern periodic table. IIIB to IIB along with VIII group (Groups
8,9,10) of modern periodic table.
3. They normally show one type of valency. 3. They show variable valency.
4. They are included in s-block and p-block of 4. They are included in d – block of modern
modern periodic table. periodic table.
5. The compounds of these elements are 5. The compounds of these elements are
generally colourless. generally coloured.

38. INERT GAS ELEMENTS AND TRANSITION ELEMENTS.

INERT GAS ELEMENTS TRANSITION ELEMENTS
1. In the atoms of these elements all the shells are 1. In the atoms of these elements the last two shells
completely filled including the outermost shell. are incompletely filled.
2. These elements are placed in zero group of 2. These elements are placed in ‘B’ groups. i.e. IIIB
modern periodic table. to IIB along with VIII group (Groups 8,9,10) of
modern periodic table.
3. These elements have stable electronic 3. These elements do not have stable electronic
configuration and hence they are chemically configuration and hence they are chemically
inactive. active.
4. Their valency is zero. 4. They show variable valency.
5. They are included in p – block of modern 5. They are included in d – block of modern periodic
periodic table. table.
39. ALKALI METALS AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS.
ALKALI METALS ALKALINE EARTH METALS
1. In the modern periodic table, the elements in 1. In the modern periodic table, the elements in
group IA excluding hydrogen, are called as group IIA are called as Alkaline earth
Alkali metals. metals.
2. Atoms of these elements have one electron 2. Atoms of these elements have two electrons
in the valence shell. in the valence shell.
3. They are monovalent. They are divalent.
4. e.g. Li, Na, K etc. 3. e.g. Be, Mg, Ca etc.
40. D – BLOCK ELEMENTS AND F – BLOCK ELEMENTS.

D - BLOCK ELEMENTS F –BLOCK ELEMENTS
1. In modern periodic table, the group III B to 1. In modern periodic table the two additional
group II B along with group VIII (group rows placed separately at the bottom of the
8,9and 10) form, the d – block elements. table are called series and together the
elements of these series form the f – block
2. These include transition elements. elements.
2. These include inner transition elements
lanthanides and actinides.
3. They have their last two shells incompletely 3. They have their last three shells incompletely
filled. filled.
4. e.g. Sc, Ru, Rh etc. 4. e.g. La, Lu, Lr etc.
41. ANODE AND CATHODE

ANODE CATHODE
1. The positively charged electrode in an 1. The negatively charged electrode in an
electrolytic cell is known as anode. electrolytic cell is known as cathode.
2. Negative ions (anions) are attracted to it. 2. Positive ions (cations) are attracted to it.
42. OHMIC CONDUCTORS AND NON – OHMIC CONDUCTORS.

OHMIC CONDUCTORS NON – OHMIC CONDUCTORS
1. Materials that obey Ohm’s Law are called 1. Materials that do not obey Ohm’s Law are
‘Ohmic Conductors’. called ‘Non – Ohmic Conductors.
2. For e.g. Copper 2. For. e.g. Diodes
3. It has a ‘Linear’ current voltage relationship 3. It has a non – linear current voltage
. relationship.
4. The value of the resistance (R) is constant. 4. The value of the resistance is variable.

43. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND ELECTRIC CURRENT.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (P.D.) ELECTRIC CURRENT
1. The difference between the electric levels of 1. The flow of electric charge is called
the terminals of a conductor is known as electric current.
potential difference.
2. Its S.I. unit is ‘Volt’. 2. Its S.I. unit is ‘Ampere’.
44. EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE IN

PARALLEL.
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE IN SERIES EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE IN
PARALLEL
1. The equivalent resistance of a series 1. The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance
combination is equal to the sum of the in parallel is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances. reciprocals of the individual resistances.
2. The equivalent resistance in series is greater 2. The equivalent resistance in parallel is
than the individual resistances. smaller than the individual resistances.
45. FLOW OF ELECTRIC CURRENT THROUGH A METAL AND FLOW OF ELECTRIC

CURRENT THROUGH AN ELECTROLYTE.
FLOW OF CURRENT THROUGH A FLOW OF CURRENT THROUGH AN
METAL ELECTROLYTE
1. The electric current flows due to the motion 1. The electric current flows due to the motion
of free electrons. of ions.
2. The flow of chare is unidirectional. 2. The flow of charge is bi – directional.
3. No chemical change occurs in the substance 3. Chemical change occurs in the substance
carrying the current. carrying the current.

DIAGRAM
1. ELECTROPLATING ASSEMBLY.
2. ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER CHLORIDE USING CARBON ELECTRODES.

3. TESTING ELECTRIC CONDUCTION OF SOLUTIONS
4. ANODISING TECHNIQUE
5. ATOMS OF HYDROGEN AND LITHIUM.
6. SIMPLE VOLTAIC CELL.

7. VERIFICATION OF OHM’S LAW.
8. CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF THREE RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
9. GRAPH OF CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE AND THERMISTORS.

10. CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF THREE RESISTANCES IN SERIES.
11. CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF THREE RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL.
12. LINES OF MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT.

13. LINES OF MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND SOLENOID CARRYING CURRENT.
14. HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT VERIFICATION OF JOULE’S LAW.
15. ORESTED’S EXPERIMENT FOR MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT.

16. TELEPHONE EAR PIECE.
17. WORKING OF ELECTRIC BELL.
18. BIO GAS PLANT

19. THE INNER SURFACE OF SOLAR COOKER BOX IS PAINTED BLACK.
20. THE STORAGE TANK IN A SOLAR WATER HEATER IS KEPT AT HIGHER LEVEL.
21. EXPLAIN HOPE’S APPARATUS WITH THE HELP OF NEAT AND LABELLED DIAGRAM.

22. Describe an experiment to show that the quantity of heat given out by the bodies, having the same
mass but made of different substances, when thy cool through the same temperature range is
different in each case.
23. WRITE A NOTE ON HUMAN EYE.

Answer.
24. SIMPLE MICROSCOPE

25. Describe construction of compound microscope and draw a ray diagram showing the format
of an image by a compound microscope.
Ans.
26. Experiment with diagram to show that radioactive substances emit three kinds of radiation.
27. Explain CHAIN REACTION with an example.

Ans.

28. PRODUCTION OF CATHODE RAYS. (pg. no. 204)
29. WIND MILL

ANSWER IN BRIEF
1. MOSELEY’S CONTRIBUTION AND THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE.
MOSELEY’S CONTRIBUTION.
1. In 1913, Henry Moseley, an English physicist, found that it was the atomic number (Z) and not
the atomic mass, which was the fundamental property of an element, useful for an arrangement in
the periodic table.
2. At that time, the atomic number of an element signified only the ordinal number of that element
as it appeared in the periodic table.
3. Moseley recognized that the ordinal number of an element in periodic table is same as its nuclear
charge which is its atomic number.
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

1. The modern periodic table is also called the long form of periodic table.
2. In modern periodic table the elements are arranged in increasing order of atomic number (Z).
3. The modern periodic table contains seven horizontal rows called periods.
4. There are eighteen vertical columns called groups.
5. Apart from the seven rows, there are two additional rows called series, placed separately at the bottom of the table.
6. The entire table is divided into four blocks, named as s – block, p-block, d – block and f – block.
7. On the basis of electronic configuration, the elements are classified into four type’s viz. normal
elements, inert elements, transition elements and inner – transition elements.
2. HALOGEN GROUP ELEMENTS.
1. The VII A group in the periodic table is a family of halogens.

2. The members of this group from top to bottom are as given in the table.
Group VII A Symbol Atomic Electronic Valency Physical state
elements Number (Z) configuration
Fluorine F 9 2,7 1 Gas
Chlorine Cl 17 2,8,7 1 Gas
Bromine Br 35 2,8,18,7 1 Liquid
Iodine I 53 2,8,18,18,7 1 Solid
Astatine At 85 2,8,18,32,18,7 1 Solid
3. The valence shell halogen contains seven electrons.
4. This makes the valency of halogen one (monovalent).
5. The compounds of halogens with hydrogen are HF, HCl, HBr, etc.
6. In ordinary conditions Fluorine and Chlorine are gases, Bromine is a liquid while Iodine and
Astatine are solids.
3. ZIG – ZAG LINE IN MODERN PERIODIC TABLE.
1. On the basis of electronic configuration of elements, the periodic table is divided into four blocks, viz, s-
block, p-block, d-block and f –block.
2. The elements of s-block (except hydrogen) d-block and f-block are all metals.
3. In the p-block all the three types of elements i.e. metals, non – metals and metalloids, are present and these
elements are separated by a zig – zag line.
4. In the p-block of a modern periodic table, a zig – zag line separates the metals on the left side from the
non – metals on the right side.
5. The bordering elements along the zig – zag line are the metalloids. These are Boron (B), Silicon (Si),
Germanium 9Ge), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te) and Polonium (Po) and astatine (At).

4. DESCRIBE THE FOUR BLOCKS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE BASED ON THE ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS. (14, MARCH 2008)
.
1. The distribution of electrons in the various shells around the nucleus of an atom of an
element is called as its electronic configuration.
2. Based on this electronic configuration of elements, the modern periodic table is divided into
four blocks viz. s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block.
a. S-block: - The group IA and group IIA together with hydrogen form the s-block elements.
They have 1 or 2 electrons in the last shell. The elements of s-block (except hydrogen) are all
metals.
b. P-block: - The group III A to group VII A and the zero groups together constitute the p-
block elements. They have 3 to 8 electrons in the outermost shell. In the p-block all the three
types of elements such as metals, non – metals and metalloids are present.
c. d-block: - The group III B to II B along with VIII group (group8, 9 and10) together are
called d – block elements. They have their last two shells incompletely filled. They are called
‘transition elements’. They are all metals.
d. f-block: - The two series at the bottom of the periodic table (the lanthanides and the
actinides) together form the f-block elements. They have their last three shells incompletely
filled. They are called as ‘inner transition elements’. They are all metals.
5. STATE ANY FOUR MAIN FEATURES OF THE LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE.
FEATURES OF THE LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE.

1. The basis of modern periodic table is the atomic number (Z).
2. The position of an element in the modern periodic table is based on its electronic configuration.
3. The modern periodic table contains seven horizontal rows called periods and eighteen vertical
columns called groups.
4. Apart from the seven rows, there are two additional rows called series, placed separately at the
bottom of the table.
5. On the basis of electronic configuration, the elements are classified into four types viz. normal
elements, inert elements, transition elements and inner transition elements.
6. On the basis of electronic configuration of elements, the periodic table is divided into four
blocks viz. s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block.
6. ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER CHLORIDE

Construct an electrolytic cell using 150 ml aqueous solution of 2g copper chloride as electrolyte and
two carbon rods as electrodes. Connect a 6 volt battery, a switch and a bulb in the electric circuit
properly. Switch on the current in the circuit. The bulb starts glowing indicating that the beaker
contains an electrolyte. Pass the current through the solution for some more time (about 15 min) and
observe the changes. Two important observations can be noted in this demonstration.
1. CHANGES AT THE ELECTRODES: - The portion of the cathode dipped in the electrolyte becomes
reddish. Bubbles of some gas are formed at the anode.
2. COLOUR OF THE ELECTROLYTE: - The blue colour of the copper chloride solution in the cell
appears to fade out over a period of about 15 minutes. The reddish colour acquired by the cathode
is typical copper red colour. Chemical test confirm that it is metallic copper. This tells us that
metallic copper is deposited at the cathode. Smell and chemical tests of the gas collected at the
anode indicate that it is chlorine gas.
Fading of the blue colour of copper chloride solution is indicative of decreasing concentration
of the solution with the passage of electric current through it. It means that copper is formed at
the cathode and chlorine is formed at anode by decomposition of copper chloride.
Thus, electrolysis of aqueous copper chloride using carbon electrodes results in deposition of copper at
the cathode and evolution of chlorine at the anode.
7. ELECTROPLATING
Electroplating is a process in which an object made up of a conducting material, is coated with less
active metal using electrolysis technique.

THE PROCESS: - Surface of the article to be electroplated is cleaned. An electrolytic cell is constructed as follows.
1. The article to be electroplated is used as cathode.
2. A rod or a plate of the less active metal to be coated on the article is used as anode.
3. These electrodes are immersed in a solution of an electrolyte having cations of the same metal
which is used as anode.
4. An electric current is passed through the electrolyte for a designated (chosen) period of time.
5. The article used as cathode, gets coated with metal used as anode.
USES: - Electroplating is done for two purposes.

1. To protect objects of reactive metals from corrosion. E.g. iron or steel articles are electroplated with
chromium or nickel to prevent rusting.
2. To improve the look of the object. E.g. Brass article are electroplated with silver to make them more
attractive. Electroplating of silver ornaments with gold (gliding) elevates their rich appearance.
8. ANODISING TECHNIQUE
Anodising technique is one of the applications of electrolysis.
1. This technique is used to make the aluminium surface resistant to corrosion and abrasion.
2. In this technique aluminium article is used as an anode. Electrolyte used is dilute sulphuric acid.
3. The anode reaction results in formation of a black coloured thin film of aluminium oxide on the
surface of aluminium anode.
4. Kitchen articles like anodised pressure cooker, anodised pan are applications of anodising
technique, anodised name plates are another very popular application.
5. By putting appropriate dyes in the electrolytic bath coloured surface with decorative finish can be
achieved. This finds applications in gift articles, home appliances and architectural decoration.
9. ELECTROLYTIC CELL
Decomposition of an electrolyte, by passage of electric current through it, is called electrolysis. The process of
electrolysis takes place in an electrolytic cell.
An arrangement in which cathode and anode are in contact with an electrolyte (placed in a vessel) so as to pass
electric current through it is called an electrolytic cell.
In the above diagram, the beaker holding an electrolyte and two electrodes is an electrolytic cell.
An electrolyte is a substance whose aqueous solution can conduct electric current. The points at which electric
current enters or leaves an electrolyte are called electrodes.
Electrodes are connected to the terminals of a source of electric power (like a battery). The electrode connected
to the positive terminal of a battery is called anode, while that connected to the negative terminal is called
cathode. Cathode is that electrode at which electrons enter the electrolyte while anode is that electrode at which
electrons leave the electrolyte. Metal plates, metal rods and carbon rods are some examples of commonly used
electrodes.
10. EXPLAIN NEUTRALISATION REACTION

NEUTRALISATION REACTION: - Acids and bases in their aqueous solutions react with each other and
produce salt and water. The resulting solution is neither acidic nor basic but is neutral. This reaction
is known as neutralisation reaction. For example
11. STATE THE TYPES OF SOLUTIONS AND GIVE ONE EXAMPLE OF EACH.
There are give types of solutions, they are as follows.
i. SOLID IN LIQUID: - In this type, solute is solid and solvent is liquid. Solution exists in liquid
state. Example: Salt of sugar in water, Copper in mercury, sea water etc.
ii. GAS IN LIQUID: - In this type, solute is gas and solvent is liquid, solution exists in liquid state.
Example: Carbon dioxide gas dissolved in water i.e. soda water.
iii. GAS IN GAS: - In this type, the solute and solvent both are gases. Solution exists in gaseous state. Ex:
Air.
iv. LIQUID IN LIQUID: - In this type, the solute and solvent both are liquids. Solution exists in liquid
state. Example: Alcohol and water.
v. SOLID IN SOLID: - In this type, the solute and solvent both are solids. Solution exists in solid
state. Example Alloy of copper, iron etc.
12. OBTAIN AN EXPRESSION FOR EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF THREE RESISTANCES

CONNECTED IN SERIES COMBINATION.
If the number of resistance are connected one after another in such a way that the same current
flows through each resistance, then the arrangement is called resistance in series.
1. LetR1, R2 and R3 be three resistances connected in a series combination and let R be their
equivalent resistance.
Let V1, V2 and V3 be the P.D. across resistances R1, R2 and R3 respectively.
Let ‘V’ be the P.D. of the cell.
Let ‘I’ be the current flow through each resistance.

2. ACCORDING TO OHM’S LAW,
Conclusion Therefore, equivalent resistance in series is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
13. OBTAIN AN EXPRESSION FOR EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF THREE RESISTANCES CONNECTED IN

PARALLEL COMBINATION.
If the numbers of resistance are connected between two common points, such that the potential
difference across each resistance is the same, then the arrangement is called resistance in parallel.
Three resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel between the points A and B. Let R be
the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination.
A Cell E, Key K and the ammeters A are also connected with resistances.
Let the current passing through R1 be I1, R2 be I2, and R3 be I3 and that of R be I.
Thus, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistance.
14. STATE OHM’S LAW AND GIVES ITS LIMITATIONS.

Ohm’s Law: - The current (I) in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V)
between its ends, provided the physical state of the conductor remains the same.
15. WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF EARTH WIRE? WHY IT IS NECESSARY TO EARTH METALLIC APPLIANCES?
1. Most of the electric appliances are provided with three wires connected to a three pin plug.
2. One of the wires is connected to live wire in the mains, the other to the neutral wire and the third
one to the earthing wire.
3. The earth wire is a wire that carries away the current from the metal body of an appliance into
the earth.
4. The end of earth wire is connected to a metallic body deep inside earth.
5. When plug of appliances is inserted in socket and current is switched on, the live wire and
neutral wire come in contact with two wires of the appliance while the earth wire comes in
contact with the metal body of the appliance.
6. If an electrical appliance is faulty, the live wire comes in contact with the metal body of the
appliance and the current flows in the body of that appliance. Thus, if a person touches such an
appliance, he will get a shock.
7. By earthing metal appliances, the current flows from the metal body into the earth and there is
no danger to the person handling that appliance.
16. MENTION ANY FOUR APPLICATIONS OF HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT.

The four applications of heating effect of electric current are
1. Electric heater
2. Geyser
3. Electric iron
4. Electric oven
17. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL THE WORKING OF ELECTRIC BELL. DRAW DIAGRAM FROM DIAGRAM
SECTION
a. The electric bell consists of an electromagnet, gong, armature (i.e.) soft iron rod, contact screw
and spring.
b. When current is passed through the circuit, the Electromagnet acquires magnetism and attracts the
iron rod as a result of which the gong is struck by the hammer and the bell rings.
c. At the same time the contact between the contact screw and iron rod is lost and circuit is broken.
d. When the current stops the electromagnet losses its magnetisms and the soft iron rod goes to its
original position.
As the iron rod touches the contact screw, the circuit is complete the procedure is repeated and the
gong is struck again. The bell goes on ringing as long as the switch is closed.
18. WRITE ANY TWO PRECAUTIONS_
1. WHILE USING ELECTRICAL APPLIANCE: - The two precautions to be taken while using electrical appliances are
1. All electrical appliances must be handled only with dry hands.
2. Always switch off the current and remove the plug from the socket before cleaning electric
appliances like refrigerator.
2. AGAINST BAD INSULATIONS: - The two precautions to be taken against bad insulation are
1. The live wire must always be insulated.
2. The live wire – even if it is insulated – must be replaced periodically i.e. every 3-4 years. But if
it has become exposed, then it must be replaced immediately.
3. AGAINST IMPROPER EARTHING: -The two precautions to be taken against improper earthing are
1. A three pin plug must always be used for all metal appliances.
2. The earth wire in a 3 pin – plug protects a person from the danger of electric shock.
19. STATE GENERAL PRECAUTION FOR SAFETY WITH RESPECT TO ELECTRICITY.
The following are the general safety precautions that need to be observed while handling
electrical appliances.
1. Electric boards and sockets should be fixed at a height beyond the reach of children.
2. The current must be switched off and the plug must be removed from the socket before
cleaning electric appliances.
3. Electrical appliances must be only handled with dry hands.
4. Rubber soled footwear must be worn while using electrical appliances.
5. Do not touch with bare hands, a person who is stuck to a liver wire. Use a wooden object like
a stick of a chair in order to save him.
20. DESCRIBE ORESTED’S EXPERIMENT WITH THE HELP OF DIAGRAMS TO PROVE THAT ELECTRIC
CURRENT PRODUCES A MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND IT.
Answer.
1. Take a wire AB and stretch it above a compass needle in a direction parallel to the needle, so that the wire is along the
north - south direction. The wire should be held in this position by supporting it on the non - conducting stands.
Connect the wire in series with cell E and tap key K.
2. Press the tap key so that electric current through the wire form A to B. You will notice that the needle is deflected.
Release the tap key to cut off the current. You will notice that s soon as the current stops, the needle returns to its
original position.
3. Interchange the connections of the terminals of the cell. Press the tap key. Now the direction of the current in the wire
is reversed and the current flows from B to A. You will notice that in this case, the needle is deflected in the opposite
direction. Release the key to stop the current. You will notice that the needle returns to the original direction.
CONCLUSION: - From the above experiment we conclude that a current carrying conductor produces a
magnetic field around it.

21. MENTION ANY FOUR APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT.

The four applications of magnetic effects of electric current are:
1. Electric generators.
2. Radio
3. Galvanometer
4. Ammeter
5. Voltmeter
6. Electromagnet.
22. EXPLAIN WITH DIAGRAM THE WORKING OF A BIOGAS PLANT.

CONSTRUCTION
1. Biogas plant consists of a well like structure called as ‘Digester’ which contains slurry of
animal waster and water.
2. The digester is usually constructed well below the ground level.
3. There are two pipes joined to the bottom. One is for feeding animal waste, slurry and other for
taking out the used slurry called as sludge which comes out after fermentation.
4. A dome shaped structure called ‘Dome’ with a valve floats over the slurry in the digester and
serves as an outlet for biogas.
WORKING:
1. In a digester the action of an anaerobic micro organism breaks down or decomposes the
complex compound of biomass in the slurry, in the presence of water.
2. This process takes place within few days and gases like methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
and hydrogen sulphide are produced.
3. This mixture of gases is supplied to consumer.
4. As biogas contains 80% of methane it is excellent fuel and burns without producing smoke.
5. The slurry which has lost biogas is called sludge. It is rich in nitrogenous and phosphatic
compounds and can be used as an excellent fertilizer.
23. How energy can be obtained from flowing water? Discuss the problems associated with it.
1. Energy of flowing water is utilized to produce electricity at hydroelectric power station. Dams
are constructed to store the water by obstructing flow of water of a river.
2. In this process, kinetic energy is converted into potential energy. The water from the top of the
dam is allowed to fall through pipes over the turbine blades at the bottom of dam.
3. When water falls on the turbine, potential energy is converted into kinetic energy and turbines
rotate with greater speed.
4. Moving turbines rotate the armature of the electric generator to produce electricity. Energy
obtained from flowing water is known as hydroelectric energy.
Problems associated with energy production from flowing water.

1. Hydroelectric power plants can be constructed only at a limited number of places.
2. When dams are constructed a large land area gets submerged which may cause long term
pollution of rehabilitation.
24. Explain the calorific value of fuels? Why hydrogen and alcohol could be best source of energy in future?
Answer. The heat liberated in joule on complete burning of one gram of fuel is expressed as it’s calorific
value.
1. Calorific value of hydrogen is the highest among the fuels (150kj/kg). Still it is not commonly used as a
fuel due to its highly explosive nature.
2. Safer and cheaper methods to use hydrogen as a fuel are being developed by the scientists.
3. Ethanol (alcohol) is a bio fuel produced from baggage and other starch material by fermentation. Its
calorific value is 30J/kg. At present ethanol is mixed with petrol and used as auto fuel. Technology is
being developed to use ethanol as a main fuel.
4. Hence, hydrogen and alcohol could be the best conventional sources of energy in future to cope up with
the energy crisis.
25. CLASSIFY THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES INTO POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KINETIC ENERGY.
1. A book kept on a table. 10. A stretched catapult.

2. A running train 11. Water stored in a dam
3. Wind 12. The explosive mixture in a bomb.
4. A bullet fired from a gun 13. A stretched bow
5. An arrow released from a stretched bow 14. A compressed spring
6. Waterfall 15. Rotating hands of a clock
7. A raised hammer 16. Running water
8. Sea waves 17. A rotating top
9. A wound spring in a watch. 18. A running boy
•Many appliances is daily use are based on inter – changeability of different forms of
energy explain.
1. According to the law of conservation of energy, energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
But it can be transformed from one form to another.
2. Many appliances/devices work on this principle. Some examples of inter-changeability of
energy from one form to another are as follows.
No. Example From (Energy) To (Energy)
1. Charging of battery Electrical Chemical
2. Using a battery Chemical Electrical
3. Broadcasting stations Sound Electrical
4. Radio Electrical Sound
5. Electric fan Electrical Mechanical
6. Electric iron Electrical Heat
7. Hydro – electric power station. Mechanical Electrical
27. State and explain law of conservation of energy using an example.
1. The law of conservation of energy states that “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It may be
converted from one form to another. The total amount of energy in the universe always remains constant.”
2. According to this law, the sum of various energies in the universe remains constant. Hence, if energy is
lost in one form, then an exactly equal amount of energy will be obtained in another form.
3. Foe instance, KE and PE together make up the total mechanical energy of an object. The sum of
KE and PE does not change with time. i.e. the total energy of an isolated system is constant.
Hence any decrease in the P.E. of an object will result in an equal increase in the KE of the object
and vice versa.
4. For example if a stone is kept at a height, all its energy is PE while it has no KE. When this stone
falls towards the ground under gravity, then at the instance when it touches the ground, all its
energy is KE. The magnitude of this KE is equal to the magnitude of the PE of the stone at the height.

28. Give two examples of inter changeability of different forms of energy.

Answer. Energy in one form can be converted into another form. During such transformation,
1.whenever energy in one form disappears, and exactly equal amount of energy reappears in
another form. The examples of energy transformation are given below.
While charging a battery, electrical energy is converted into chemical energy, which is stored in
the battery. When the battery is connected into an electric circuit the chemical energy is converted
into electrical energy.
2. The explosive mixture in a bomb possesses chemical energy. When the bomb explodes, this
chemical energy is converted into various forms such as kinetic energy, heat, light, sound, etc.
In thermal poser station, heat energy is converted into electrical energy.
In hydro electric power station, potential energy is converted into electrical energy.
In nuclear power station, nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy.
The electrical energy can be converted into different forms such as
a. Kinetic energy for e.g. electric trains, electric fans etc.
b. Potential energy for e.g. water stored by electric pump at a height.
c. Heat energy for e.g. water heater, electric iron, etc.
d. Light energy for e.g. electric bulbs, fluorescent tubes etc.
e. Sound energy for e.g. electric bell, radio, etc.
f. Chemical energy for e.g. electrolysis, electroplating.
29. CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION.

Ans. Noise is caused by various sources. These sources are classified as internal and external sources.
a. Internal sources: -
1. Playing of transistor, record player and TV in full volume.

2. High sound generated by band and rock music.
3. Barking of a dog.
4. Noise in factory, machines, rotors, compressed air, mining machines, looms, saw mills,
domestic water pumps etc.
b. External sources: -
1. Rattling of cars, motorcycles and trucks.

2. Sound generated by loud – speakers.
3. Whistle of train and siren.
4. Roaring of jet planes.
30. WHAT IS NOISE POLLUTION? DESCRIBE MEASURES TO CONTROL NOISE POLLUTION.
Ans. Noise pollution is unwanted sound dumped into the atmosphere which is usually a mixture of
many tones combines together in a non – musical manner.
MEASURES TO CONTROL NOISE POLLUTION: -
1. Reduction of noise at the source: The noise can be controlled by reducing the amplitude of
source, charging the operating system and replacing old parts or machines.
2. Control of transmission path: In this technique the energy transmitted to the receiver is
controlled. This is achieved by increasing the distance between the source and the receiver,
careful designing and layout of building and using sound absorbers.
3. By using ear – plug and protective caps (or ear muffs) to block the outer ear passage.
4. By controlling the exposure to sound.

31. WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION? (ANY 6 POINTS)

Ans. Noise pollution has the following adverse effect.
1. There is a partial loss of hearing (deafness) and interference with understanding, displacement
of bones in the middle ear and in organ of corti.
2. Effect on digestive system and the digestive glands in the stomach. It may develop ulcer.
3. If affects reproductive system.
4. Effect on pregnancy – a pregnant woman may suffer adverse effect and foetus may develop defects.
5. Psychological effects – There is impaired alertness and feeling of stress.
6. It causes high B.P. and cardio vascular system is affected with acceleration of heart rate.
7. There is interference with a sleep and lack of a sleep causes irritation and appetite loss.
8. It also affects brain, nervous system and loss of pain sensation.
9. Noise affects human performance in tasks requiring communication skill and thinking.
10. Other physiological effects like feeling of vibration in head or headache.
32. What is reflection of sound? Give any three practical applications of the phenomenon.
Ans. When one shouts into a well or inside an empty hall one hears his own sound after sometime.
This is known as reflection of sound. Practical applications of reflection of sound.
a) Megaphone:
1. A megaphone is used in fairs or at tourist spots to contact a large group of people.
2. A megaphone is a horn shaped tube. In such a tube, sound waves are prevented from spreading
out by multiple reflections.
3. The sound waves are confined to the air inside the tube.
b) Reflection of sound from curved surface:
1. Sound energy when reflected from the curved surface is more readily audible at a distance.
2. This arrangement is used in auditorium. Curved board placed behind the speaker in an
auditorium throw forward the sound waves that otherwise would get lost.
3. The boards also send sound waves from a speaker directly towards the audience making the
speech more audible at a distance.
c) Ultrasound:
1. Ultrasound is commonly used in medical diagnosis and therapy.
2. Ultrasound can be reflected from boundaries between the material of different densities.
3. Such waves are now used in place of X-rays to take picture of the interior of a body.
4. The ultrasound scanning helps to examine the defects in a foetus.
5. It is useful for detecting motion of heart valve and also to locate position of tumour in body.
33. Give any four applications of reflections of sound.

1. Megaphone: - Megaphone is used in fairs or at tourist spots to contact large group of people.
2. SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging System): - It is used in a ship to detect underwater
obstacles and also to measure the depth of a sea.
3. Ultrasound: - It is used in medical diagnosis and therapy.
4. Bats use the principle of echo to detect their path in the dark. The ultrasonic waves which are
reflected by obstacle enable the bats to detect the obstacle and avoid collision.
34. What is ‘Anomalous behaviour of water’? (OR)

Describe its role in the survival of the aquatic plants and animals in cold countries.
1. If water at room temperature is cooled continuously, it goes on contracting till its temperature falls
to 40C. Generally, liquids expand on heating and contract on cooling. Water, however shows an
exceptional behaviours below 40C.
2. If water at room temperature is cooled continuously, it goes on contracting till its temperature falls to 40C.
3. But as its temperature falls below 40C, it starts expanding instead of contracting.
4. Similarly, if water is heated form 00 C to 40C, it contracts instead of expanding.
5. This exceptional behaviour of water is known as the anomalous behaviours of water.
6. In cold countries, during winter, the temperature of the atmosphere falls well below 00 C.
7. As the temperature decreases, the water at the surfaces of lakes and ponds starts contracting.
8. Hence, its density increases and it sinks to the bottom. This process continues till the temperature of all the
water in the lake falls to 40 C.
9. As the water at the surface cools further, its temperature falls below 40 C, it starts expanding instead of
contracting.
10. Therefore, its density decreases and it remains at the surface. The temperature of the water at the surface
continues to fall to 00 C.
11. Finally, the water at the surface is converted into ice, but the water below the layer of ice is at 40 C.
12. Ice is a bad conductor of heat. Hence, the layer of the ice at the surface does not allow transfer of heat from
the water to the atmosphere.
13. As the water below the layer of ice remains at 40 C, fish and other aquatic animals and plants can survive in
it.
35. A mountaineer climbing on the Everest experienced the following facts. Explain each fact with the scientific reason;
1. He found fished alive below the ice
2. Time required for cooking was more as he went higher
3. He saw many times cliffs falling suddenly
4. He saw broken tubes carrying water.
1. Water expands as its temperature decreases from 40C to 00C. Water is converted into ice at 00C. The density
of water is more than that of ice. Fishes can remain alive in the water (at 40C) below the ice.
2. At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is low and hence water boils at a temperature lower than its normal
boiling point. Therefore, the time required for cooking food is more at higher altitudes.
3. Water expands while freezing. Hence, the water present in the crevices of the rocks
Exerts a tremendous pressure on the rocks, while freezing. Therefore, the cliffs fall.
4. Water expands while freezing. Hence, the water in the tube exerts a large pressure on the tube, while
freezing. Therefore, the tube carrying water breaks.
36. While climbing on an icy mountain, a mountaineer did the following acts.
1. He had to heat the ice to get water.
2. He dug the ice and caught the live fish.
3. He had to be very careful while walking on the ice.
4. He had to use shoes with nails on the lower side.
Give reason for his behaviour.
1. Water expands as its temperature decreases from 40C to 00C. Water is converted into ice at 00C. The density
of water is more than that of ice. Fishes can remain alive in the water (at 40C) below the ice.
[Note it is not the proper answer for 1 and 2, however students are required to modify the answer suitable to the
question had asked]
3 & 4. There is very little friction while walking on ice and hence one may slip. Therefore, one has to be very
careful while walking on ice and use shoes with nails on the lower side.
37. Explain myopia (short sightedness) with the help of neat and labelled diagram. How is
myopia corrected?
MYOPIA (SHORT - SIGHTEDNESS): -
1. This defect of vision arises due to slight elongation of the eyeball or due to the eye lens.
2. In this case, the distance between the eye lens and retina is more than that in the case of a
normal eye.
3. A person suffering from this defect can see nearby objects clearly as the image of a nearby
object is formed on the retina, but cannot see distant object clearly because the image of a
distant object is formed a little in from of the retina instead of on the retina. (For reference see
the picture given below)
REMEDY
3. Myopia is corrected using spectacles having concave lenses of suitable focal length.
4. The concave lens diverges the rays of light passing through it.
5. Hence, the parallel rays of light coming from a distant object are diverged to some
extent before they are incident on the eye lens.
Therefore, the image of a distant object is formed on the retina of the eye and hence the distant object
can be seen clearly. (For reference see the picture given below).
38. Explain hypermetropia (long - sightedness) with the help of a neat diagram. (OR)
What is hypermetropia? How can it be corrected?
HYPERMETROPIA (LONG - SIGHTEDNESS): -
1. This defect arises due to slight flattening of the eyeball.
2. In this case, the distance between the eye lens and retina is less than that in the case of a
normal eye.
3. A person suffering from this defect can see distant objects clearly as the image of a distant
object is formed on the retina, but cannot see nearby objects clearly because the image of a
nearby object would be formed behind the retina instead of on the retina. (For reference see the
picture given below)

REMEDY:-
1. This defect can be corrected using spectacles having convex lenses of suitable focal length.
2. The convex lens converges the rays of light passing through it.
3. Hence, the rays of light coming from a nearby object are converged to some extent before they
are incident on the eye lens.
Therefore, the image of a nearby object is formed on the retina of the eye and hence the nearby object
can be seen clearly. (For reference see the picture given below)
38. WRITE A NOTE ON HUMAN EYE.

Answer.
1. Cornea: - It is a transparent spherical structure at the exposed surface of eyeball. Cornea reflects light on
the eye lens.
2. Iris: - iris is the opaque muscular diaphragm behind the cornea. The aperture at the centre of the iris is
called pupil. When the light is very bright, the muscles of the iris stretch over the pupil to reduce the size.
When the light is dim, the muscles of iris relax to increase the size of the pupil. Thus, the iris controls the
size of the pupil and there by regulates the intensity of light incident on the eye lens.
3. Retina: - The light sensitive screen in the eye is called ' Retina'. Eye lens focuses light on retina. Retina
consists of very large numbers of sensitive cells called rod cells and cone cells. These cells generate
electrical signals when light rays coming from an object are incident on them. These electrical
signals pass through the nerve to the brain. The brain interprets these signals and then we see the
object.
39. What is power of accommodation of lens?

Answer. The eye lens is held in its position by ciliary muscles. When we look at a nearby object, the
ciliary muscles compress the eye lens, hence the focal length of eye lens decreases and the lens
produces a sharp image on the nearby object on the retina. When we look at a distant object, the ciliary
muscles relax so that the eye lens becomes thin. Hence, focal length of eye lens increases and the lens
produces a sharp image of the distant object on the retina.
The property of eye lens to self adjust its focal length so as to produce a sharp and clear image
of objects situated at different distances is called the power of accommodation.
40. Write a note on colour blindness.

Answer.
1. The retina of human eye contains large number of sensitive cells.
2. These cells are of two types – Rod shaped cells and Cone shaped cells.
3. The rod shaped cells respond to the intensity of light and communicate the degree of brightness or
darkness to the brain.
4. Cone shaped cells respond to colours and communicates the presence of colour in the image to the
brain.
5. The brain interprets the information received and we are able to see the true picture of an object.
The perception of colour is possible by the cone shaped cell.
6. Some person does not have cone shaped calls. This defect is hereditary and it is due to genetic
disorders.
7. The persons, lacking of cone shaped cells, responding to certain specific colour are said to be
colour blind and the defect is said to be colour blindness.
These persons are unable to distinguish between different colours. These persons other wise are
having normal sight.
41. State two uses of a concave lens AND convex lens

Two uses of a concave lens
1. A concave lens is used to correct myopia.
2. In optical instruments like a spectrometer, a combination of a concave lens and a convex lens is used.
Two uses of a convex lens.
1. A convex lens is used to read words in small print.
2. A convex lens is used to correct hypermetropia.
42. Anil's friend cannot see the black board writing, but can see nearby objects.
What is the eye defect he is suffering from?
Why is it caused?
How is it corrected?
• Anil's friend cannot see the blackboard writing, but he can see nearby objects.
• This defect is called myopia (short – sightedness)
• It arises due to slight elongation of the eyeball or due to the eye lens.
• It is corrected using spectacle having concave lenses of suitable focal length.
43. Anil's Grandfather cannot see nearby objects clearly.

What is the eye defect he is suffering from?
Why is it caused?
How is it corrected?
Anil's grandfather cannot see nearby objects clearly.
This defect is called Presbyopia.
It arises due to weakening of the ciliary muscles resulting in the reduction in the power of
Accommodation.
It is corrected using spectacles having convex lenses of suitable focal length.
44. Describe construction of compound microscope and draw a ray diagram showing the
format of an image by a compound microscope.
Ans.
1. A compound microscope is used to see very minute objects like blood corpuscles, plant and animal
cells, micro – organisms like bacterial.
2. A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses called as the objective and eyepiece.
3. Both lenses are placed inside a tube in such a way that they have a common axis. The distance between
the two lenses can be adjusted.
4. Magnification of the image of the object is produced in two stages. The image formed by one lens
(objective) serves as an object for the second lens (eyepiece).
5. Thus larger magnification is obtained by compounding effect of the two lenses.
6. The magnification (m) of the compound microscope is the product of two magnifications, the lateral
magnification produced by the objective and angular magnification produced by the eyepiece and is
given as:
Where,
D = Least distance of distinct vision
L = Distance between objective and eyepiece
= The focal lengths of objective and eyepiece respectively.
45. α – particles.
1. α – particles are positively charged helium nuclei.
2. They carry a charge of 3.2 x 10-19C twice of electronic charge.
3. The mass of α – particles is 6.62 10-27 Kg.
4. α – particles are emitted with velocity ranging from 106 m/s to 107 m/s.
5. They affect photographic plate.
6. Ionisation power is very high i.e. 10000 times than that of γ – rays.
7. Penetrating power is very small. i.e. 1/10000 times than that of γ – rays.
46. β – particles
1. β – particles are negatively charged particles called electrons.
2. They carry a charge of -1.6 x 10-19C.
3. The mass of a β – particles is 9.1 x 10-31Kg.
4. They are emitted with velocities equal to 99% of the velocity of light.
6. Ionising power of β – particles is 100 times that of γ – rays.
7. Penetrating power is 1/100 times than that of the γ – rays.
8. They are deflected by electric and magnetic field.
9. They produce fluorescence in fluorescent materials.
47. γ – rays.
1. γ – rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength.
2. They do not have charge or mass.
3. Their velocity is same as the velocity of light (3 x 108 m/s)
5. Ionisation power is very small as compared with α and β particles.
6. Penetrating power is very strong.
7. They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
9. Whey γ – rays are emitted there is no change in the mass number and the atomic number.
48. Cathode rays.

1. Cathode rays travel in straight lines.
2. Cathode rays are deflected by electric and magnetic field.
3. Cathode rays ionise the gas through which they pass.
4. Cathode rays produce fluorescence.
5. Cathode rays affect photographic plates.
6. Cathode rays can pass through thin foils of metals.
7. Cathode rays can produce X – rays.
49. X – Rays
1. X – rays are electromagnetic waves having short wavelength.
2. X – rays possess all the properties of visible light i.e. rectilinear propagation, reflection,
refraction, diffraction etc.
3. They travel with the speed of light.
4. They are not deflected by electric and magnetic field.
5. They affect photographic plates.
6. They ionise the gas through which they pass.
8. X – rays have high penetrating power.
50. Write the uses of cathode rays?

Ans.
1. Cathode rays produce fluorescence in many substances. This property is used in Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope (CRO) and compute monitor.
2. C.R.O. is used to measure A.C. and D.C. voltage, frequency, phase etc.
3. The picture tube of television is a cathode ray tube in which a beam of cathode rays incident on
the screen produces a picture on the screen.
4. Cathode rays are used to produce x – rays which are widely used in medical field.
51. Explain how sis Prof. W.C. Roentgen discovers X – rays.

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923)

First X – ray photograph of Mrs. Roentgen’s fingers with metal ring.
1. X – rays was discovered by Prof. W.C. Roentgen when he was studying in the properties of
cathode rays in a discharge tube.
2. Using a high voltage across the evacuated tube covered with black paper, he noticed that some
crystals placed near the bench glowed. Fluorescence was observed as long as discharge tube
was in operation.
3. He then placed a thick wooden block sheet between the discharge tube and fluorescent
substance, and found out that so long as cathode rays were being emitted in discharge tube, the
fluorescent substance was glowing.
4. Roentgen therefore, concluded that, the fluorescent effect must be due to some kind of
invisible, unknown and highly penetrating radiations emerging from the discharge tube.
5. Since the exact nature of these radiations was not known, hence the radiations were called X –
rays or Roentgen rays.
52. How X – rays are produced? What are the uses of X – rays?
1. Figure below represents a X – rays tube. In this tube electrons are produced by filament (F).
2. These electrons are accelerated through large potential difference between anode (A) and
Cathode (K).
3. These high speed electrons with high energy collide with the target (T), which is made up of
tungsten.
4. Most of the energy is released in the form of heat and a small fraction of energy is converted into X – rays.
5. Since the amount of heat produced is quite large and thus a cooling arrangement is done around
anode (A) to prevent it from melting.
Uses of X – rays
1. X – rays are widely used in medical field for diagnosis, treatment and follow up of patients.
2. X – rays photographs are used to detect fracture of bones or presence of solid materials in a human body.
3. They are used to detect diseases of teeth, lung, kidney etc.
5. X – ray imaging of brain from numerous angles gives images of brain tissue. This technique is
called X – ray computer Tomography.
6. X – rays are used in detecting flaws or cracks in the metal castings.
7. X – rays are used to distinguish between artificial diamonds and the real diamonds by observing
their characteristics under X – rays.
9. X – ray diffraction technique is used to study the structure of crystals.

53. Explain discharge of electricity through gases.

Ans.
1. At ordinary pressure gases are a very poor conductor of electricity.
2. In such situations there are very few ions present to take part in the conduction.
3. Gas conducts electricity at very low pressure when sufficient high voltage is applied across it.
4. During such conduction, the gas emits light and the colour of emitted light is different for
different gases.
5. The conduction of electricity through gases is known as discharge of electricity through gases.
6. E.g. the flash of lightning is an example of conduction of electricity through air at normal
pressure.
54. Explain chain reaction with an example.

Ans.
1. The continuous, self generating fission reaction due to multiplication of neutrons is called chain reaction.
2. In fission of uranium ( ) on an average three neutrons are generated per fission.

3. These three neutrons can trigger another three Uranium atoms. The nine neutrons which are
emitted in turn can bring about the fission to another nine nuclei.
4. Due to multiplication of neutrons in this manner, continues self generating fission reaction
called chain reaction occurs.
5. Tremendous amount of energy is realized in such chain reactions.
55. What is nuclear fission? Explain how fission can be a source of energy?
1. The splitting of heavy nucleus like uranium into two lighter nuclei with release of large amount
of energy is called as ‘nuclear fission’.
2. When uranium was bombarded with thermal neutrons, it was split up into two separated
fragments known as Barium and krypton , with the ejection of three neutrons
and a large amount of energy in the form of heat is released.

The reaction is represented as:
3. It is found that the energy released per nuclear fission of uranium nuclear fission of uranium
nucleus is about 200 MeV (1 MeV = 106eV)
4. Thus, the amount of energy available from fission process is extremely large as compared to
the energy generated from other conventional energy sources.
5. The energy released is used to heat water to prepare steam, which is used to rotate turbines
that generate electricity.
Thus nuclear fission is considered as sources of energy.
56. What are radioisotopes? Give uses of radioisotopes.

Ans. Radioactive isotopes (or radio nuclides) are the isotopes (atoms or nuclei with atomic number
but different mass number) which are radioactive i.e., they attain stability by emitting energetic radiations.
USES OF RADIOISOTOPES.
1. In medicine: -
i. Radioisotopes are used for scanning of organs like bone, liver, kidney, brain etc.
ii. Radioisotopes are used in immunological study i.e. in measurement of antibodies and antigen.
2. In agriculture: -
i. The radioisotopes are used to study functions of fertilizers for different plants.
ii. They have also been used for developing new species of plant causing genetic mutation.
3. In industry: -
i. Radioisotopes are used to study wear and tear of pistons and gears of engines.
ii. They are also used for study of suitable lubricants that prevent wear and tear of engines.
4. for food preservations: -

i. By exposing the vegetables and other food stuffs to radiation by radioisotopes they can be preserved
for long time.
5. Carbon dating: -
Carbon – 14 (14C) has been used for dating the cultural history or for estimating the age of geological
specimens.
57. What is carbon dating? How this process is used in determination of age of archaeological
artefacts?
Ans.
1. The length of time for which a specimen has been dead may be determined by activity of carbon
– 14 (14C) which is remained in it. This method is known as ‘carbon dating’.
2. There are small numbers of radioisotopes of low atomic number which occur naturally e.g.
carbon – 14. It is produced when a nitrogen atom is bombarded by neutrons. This reaction is
represented as_
3. Carbon – 14 (14C) has half life of about 5600 years i.e. in this time half of the nuclei of carbon –
14 completely disintegrated.
4. Carbon – 14 combines with hydrogen and oxygen and finds its way into the organic matter.
When animals or plants take food or breath they take 14C and 12C. The ratio of 14C to 12C is
constant for living animals or plants.

5. When the animals or plants die, the intake of carbon stops and from that moment the decay of 14C
starts. Carbon – 14 decays with emission of a β – particle and reverses to nitrogen.
6. Since 12C is not radioactive the ratio of 14C to 12C Changes continuously for dead bodies or
plants. e.g. Old bones contains less 14C than new bones and old wood contains less 14C to 12C
than new wood.
7. By comparing the ratio of 14C to 12C in the remnants of dead organisms with the ratio of 14C and
12
C in living organisms ceased to exist.
8. Carbon dating has therefore become an important tool in archaeology and anthropology as it
provides information about age of archaeological artefacts, manuscripts etc.
58. Describe and experiment with diagram to show that radioactive substances emit three kinds
of radiation.
Ans.
1. Radioactive substance is kept inside a narrow cavity drilled in a thick lead block.
2. The lead block absorbs all the radiations emitted by the radioactive substance except those
which emerge through the cavity in upward direction.
3. These radiations pass through a strong electric field applied between metal plates P1 and P2 and
are then incident on a photographic plate ‘P’.
4. The whole apparatus is enclosed in an evacuated chamber kept in a dark room.
5. On developing the photographic plate three distinct spots were obtained. This shows that
applied electric fields splits the radiation in three different parts.
6. The radiation deflected towards the negative plate is called as α – radiation. The radiation
deflected towards the positive plate is called as β – radiation. The radiation which is not
deflected by electric field is called as γ-radiation.
7. As alpha (α) radiation is deflected slightly towards negatively charged electrode, it consists of
positively charged heavy particles.
8. As Beta (β) radiation is deflected sharply towards the positively charged electrode it consists of
negatively charged light particles.
9. As Gamma (γ) radiation is undeflected it has no mass and no charge.
10. Later it was proved that alpha (α) particles are similar to helium nuclei, beta (β) particles are
similar to electrons and gamma (γ) rays are electro – magnetic radiations.

STATE THE LAWS

I. COULOMB’S LAW
The electric force (F) between two charged particles varies directly as the product of the two
charges q1 q2 and inversely as the square of the distance (r) between them.
II. OHM’S LAW

The current (I) in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V) between its
ends, provided that physical state of a conductor remains the same.
III. JOULE’S LAW OF HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT: -

JOULE’S LAW: - The heat generated in a conductor is directly proportional to
• The square of the current (I) flowing through it.
• The resistance (R) of the conductor
• The time (t) for which current flows
IV. RIGHT HAND RULE

Answer. Imagine that you are holding a current carrying conductor in your
right hand with the fingers curled around it and then thumb stretched along
its length. If the thumb points in the direction of the current, then the curled
fingers denote the direction of the magnetic field.

1. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Q1. REWRITE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS BY SELECTING THE CORRECT OPTION:
1. The modern periodic table is based on ________________________________.

(The principle of octaves, the atomic number of elements, the atomic mass of elements,
The presence of triads of elements)
2. The number of periods present in the modern periodic table is ________________.(7, 8, 16, 18)
3. The ______________ period is the longest period in the modern periodic table. (1st, 5th,6th,7th)
4. The group ____________ in the modern periodic table contains alkaline earth metals.
(IA,IIA,IIB,IB)
5. Halogens belong to ______________ group in the modern periodic table.(15,16,17,18)
Q2. REWRITE THE SECOND COLUMN SO AS TO MATCH THE FIRST COLUMN
Column1 Column2
i. Chlorine a. IA group
ii. Sodium b. IIA group
iii. Argon c. VIIA group
iv. Magnesium d. Zero group
Answer. (i – C), (ii – a), (3 – d), (4 – b)
Q3. COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING TABLE:
Element Symbol Group Molecular formula of compound Valency

with chlorine
Sodium NA IA NaCl 1
Lithium Li IA LiCl 1
Fluorine F VIIA ClF 1
Barium Ba IIA BaCl2 2
Calcium Ca IIA CaCl2 2
Q4. IDENTIFY THE ODD ONE OUT:

1. Lithium, Beryllium, Boron, Chlorine
Chlorine – Chlorine is in third period in the periodic table while the rest are in second period.
2. Hydrogen, Helium, Neon, Xenon

Hydrogen – Hydrogen is not inert elements remaining all are inert elements.
3. Lithium, Sodium, Magnesium, Potassium

Magnesium – It is not alkali metals remaining all are alkali metals.
4. Barium, Radium, Calcium, Francium

Francium – Francium is an alkali metals remaining all are alkaline earth metals.
5. Boron, Silicon, Potassium, Polonium

Potassium – It is a metal remaining all are metalloids.

Q5. GIVE TWO NAMES OF:

1. Members of 2nd period. Answer. Carbon, Nitrogen
2. Alkali metals. Answer. Lithium, Sodium
3. Elements of zero group Answer. Argon, Neon
4. Metalloids. Answer. Silicon, Antimony
5. Subatomic particles with charge + e. Answer. Proton, Positron.
6. Subatomic particles with charge – e Answer. Electron, Antiproton
7. Member of 1st period. Answer. Hydrogen, Helium
8. Alkaline earth metals. Answer. Magnesium, Calcium
9. Elements of halogen family Answer. Fluorine, Chlorine
GIVE SCIENTIFIC REASONS

1. Elements in a particular group have similar chemical properties.
2. Elements in a particular group have the same number of valence electrons, therefore their valency is
same.
3. The valency of an element is an important factor influencing its chemical properties.
4. Hence, elements in a particular group have similar chemical properties.
2. The alkali metals are monovalent. OR Alkali metals have valency 1.

4. Alkali metals are placed in 1st group of modern periodic table and thus have 1 valence electron.
5. They lose these valence electrons during chemical reaction. Hence, the alkali metals are monovalent.
3. Alkaline earth metals are divalent. OR Alkaline earth metals have valency 2.
4. Alkaline earth metals are placed in 2nd group of modern periodic table and thus have 2 valence electrons.
5. They lose these valence electrons during chemical reaction. Hence, their valency is 2 or they are divalent.
4. The atoms of inert gases form neither ionic nor covalent bonds with other atoms.
1. Electronic configuration of an atom of an element reveals its ability to form a molecule.
2. In the atoms of inert gases, all the electronic shells including the outermost shells are completely filled.
3. They have stable electronic configuration with complete duplet (in case of He) or complete octet (in case
of Ne, Ar, etc).
4. Therefore, these elements do not lose, gain or share electrons. Hence these elements do not take part in
the chemical reactions.
5. Hence, the atoms of inert gases form neither ionic nor covalent bonds with other atoms.
5. Chlorine is placed in VII A group in modern periodic table. OR Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine
And Iodine are placed in VII A group of the periodic table.
1. Atomic number of chlorine is 17. Its electronic configuration is (2, 8, and 7).
2. Number of electrons in the outermost shell is equal to the group number.
3. Chlorine has seven electrons in the outermost shell.
4. All other shells except the valence shell are complete. Thus, it is a normal element of group ‘A’.
5. Hence, chlorine is placed in VIIA group in modern periodic table.
6. Aluminium is placed in third period in modern periodic table.

1. Atomic number of Aluminium is 13. Its electronic configuration is (2, 8, and 3).
2. Number of electrons in the outermost shell is equal to the group number.
3. Aluminium has three electrons in the outermost shell.
4. All other shells except the valence shell are complete. Thus, it is a normal element of group ‘A’.
5. Hence, Aluminium is placed in III A group in modern periodic table.
2. ELECTROLYSIS
Q1. REWRITE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS BY SELECTING THE CORRECT OPTION:
1. When conduction of electricity occurs by movement of ions it is called __________ conduction.

(Gaseous, Non – metallic, Electrolytic, Electronic.)
2. Aqueous solution of _________ cannot conduct electricity.

(Common salt, Sugar, Sulphuric acid, Sodium hydroxide)
3. Anode is ___________________
(Any terminal of a battery, the negative terminal of a battery, the electrode connected to positive
terminal, the electrode connected to negative terminal)
4. An electrolytic cell does not include __________________

(An electrode, an electrolyte, a vessel, a battery)
5. at the cathode in an electrolytic cell __________________

(The electrolyte accepts electrons, the electrolyte loss electrons, the metal dissolves
None of the above)
Q2. REWRITE THE SECOND COLUMN SO AS TO MATCH THE FIRST COLUMN
Column I Column II
Electronic conductor i. Protection from corrosion
Non – electrolyte ii. Electrodes and electrolyte
Nerve signal iii. Electrons as charge carrier
Electrolytic cell iv. Urea
Electroplating v. Iron transport across cell membrane.
( 1 – c ), ( 2 – d ), ( 3 – e ), ( 4 – b ), ( 5 – a )
Q3. STATE WHETHER THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS ARE TRUE OR FALSE.
b. Dilute hydrochloric acid is an electrolyte. True

c. Anode is the electrode at which electrons leave the electrolyte. True
d. The cathode dissolves during electroplating. False: - The anode dissolved during electroplating.
e. An electrolyte contains only covalent bonds. False: - A non – electrolyte contains only covalent bonds.
f. Ions play important role in life processes. True.
Q4. FILL IN THE BLANKS:
1. Copper wire is an example of metallic conductor.

2. On testing the electrical conduction of aqueous solution it is learnt that sodium chloride is an
electrolyte.
3. During electrolysis of NaCl solution in electrolytic cell sodium ions will move towards cathode.
4. In the process of electroplating metal with which the article is to be plated is used as Cathode.
5. During the electrolysis of aqueous copper chloride, copper ions are converted into metallic
copper at the cathode.

Q5. DEFINE THE FOLLOWING
1. ELECTROLYTE: - A substance whose aqueous solution can conduct electric current is called
electrolyte.
2. ELECTROLYSIS: - Decomposition of an electrolyte, by passage of electric current through it is
called electrolysis.
3. ANODE: - Anode is that electrode at which electrons leave the electrolyte. Anode is connected to
the positive terminal of a battery.
4. CATHODE: - Cathode is that electrode at which electrons enter the electrolyte. Cathode is
connected to the negative terminal of a battery.
NON – TEXTUAL QUESTIONS GIVE SCIENTIFIC REASONS

1. PURE LIQUID HYDROGEN CHLORIDE IS A BAD CONDUCTOR OF ELECTRICITY, BUT WHEN
DISSOLVED IN WATER IT CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY.
1. An electric current flows through a solution due to the motion of oppositely charged ions.
2. Pure liquid hydrogen chloride is covalent compound, being covalent compound it does not contain ions.
3. When dissolved in water, hydrogen chloride undergoes ionization to form H+ Cl- ions. The
movement of these ions under the influence of electric potential conducts electricity through the solution.
4. Hence, pure liquid hydrogen chloride is a bad conductor of electricity, but when dissolved in
water it conducts electricity.
2. AN ELECTRIC CURRENT CANNOT BE PASSED THROUGH A SUGAR SOLUTION OR A UREA SOLUTION

IN WATER.
2. Sugar and urea are covalent compounds.
3. They do not form ions in their aqueous solution.
4. Since they cannot form ions in their aqueous solution, an electric current cannot be passed
through a sugar solution or a urea solution in water.
3. A SOLUTION OF HCL IN BENZENE IS A NON – ELECTROLYTE.

2. Pure HCl is a covalent compound, being covalent compound it does not contains ions.
3. In water it undergoes ionization to form H+ and Cl- ions and thus conduct electric current.
4. But it does not undergo ionization in benzene.
5. Hence, a solution of HCl in benzene is a non – electrolyte.
4. A FEW DROPS OF SULPHURIC ACID ARE ADDED TO WATER DURING THE ELECTROLYSIS OF
DISTILLED WATER.
1. Distilled water is purely a covalent compound and does not undergo dissociation. Thus it is a
bad conductor of electricity.
2. In order to make it a good conductor of electricity a few drops of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) are
added does it
3. Sulphuric acid dissociates in water to form H+ and SO24- ions, which carry the electric current.
4. Hence, a few drops of sulphuric acid are added to water during the electrolysis of distilled water.
5. Iron tools and instruments are often plated with nickel or chromium.
1. Electroplating is a process in which an object made up of conducting material, is coated with
less active metal using electrolysis technique.
2. It is done to protect objects of reactive metals.
3. Iron is very reactive metal, therefore iron tools and instruments rust when exposed to air.
4. An electroplating of nickel or chromium protects it against rusting.
5. Hence ions tools and instruments are plated with nickel and chromium.
6. KITCHEN ARTICLES LIKE PRESSURE COOKER, PAN ETC ARE ANODISED.

1. Anodising technique is used to make the aluminium surface of the article resistant to corrosion
and abrasion.
2. In this process the anode reaction results in formation of a black coloured thin film of
aluminium oxide on the surface of article.
3. Kitchen articles like pressure cooker, pan etc. are constantly subjected to heat pressure and
water causing corrosion and abrasion.
4. To avoid this, kitchen articles like pressure cooker, pan etc are anodised.
7. ELECTRIC CURRENT CAN FLOW THROUGH A COMMON SALT SOLUTION (NACL).

1. When common salt (NaCl) is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form Na+ ions and Cl- ions.
2. When the electrodes are connected a cell, the Cl- ions move towards the anode (positive
terminal) while the Na+ ions move towards the cathode (negative terminal).
3. This motion of the ions towards the respective electrodes constitutes and electric current.
DEFINE
i. Non electrolyte: - A substance whose aqueous solution cannot conduct electric current is
called non – electrolyte.
ii. Electrodes: - The points at which electric current enters or leaves and electrolyte are called
electrodes.
iii. Electroplating: - Electroplating is a process in which an object made up of a conducting
material is coated with a less active metal using electrolysis technique.
iv. Anodising: - Anodising is a process which is used to make the aluminium surface resistant to
corrosion and abrasion by electrolysis technique.
DIAGRAM
1. TESTING ELECTRIC CONDUCTION OF SOLUTIONS.
1. ELECTROLYSIS:
Answer. A substance whose aqueous solution can conduct electric current is called electrolyte. All the acids, bases and
salts are electrolytes. Decomposition of an electrolyte, by passage of electric current through it, is called electrolysis. The
process of electrolysis takes place in an electrolytic cell.
An arrangement in which cathode and anode are in contact with electrolyte (placed in a vessel) so as to pass electric current
through it is called an electrolytic cell.
In this process of electrolysis, when an electric potential is applied across the electrodes in contact with an electrolyte, the
positively charged ions (cations) move towards the cathode and the negatively charged ions (anions) move towards the
anode where they are picked up from the electrolyte.
These movements of cations and anions of an electrolyte in opposite directions under the influence of electric potential are
responsible for conduction of electricity through the electrolyte. During electrolysis chemical changes occur at the
electrodes, this changes are called as electrode reactions and are represented as cathode reaction and anode reaction.
There are many industrial applications of electrolysis. The two important applications are electroplating and anodising.

2. ‘IONS ARE CHARGE CARRIERS IN LIVING SYSTEM’ EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLES.

Answer. In metallic conductors the charge carriers are electrons while in electrolytic conductors, it is
the ions which carry the charge. The phenomena which are similar to the movement of ions in an
electrolyte within an electrolytic cell are also found in living systems.
A living cell contains about seventy percent by weight of water and about one percent by weight of
inorganic ions. Water in a cell is in the form of cell – sap. Simply speaking cell – sap plays the role of
aqueous solvent and the inorganic ions the role of electrolytes. The source of inorganic ions is the
mineral component of diet of organisms. For example, calcium, iron, phosphorus are taken up by
organisms mainly in the form of cations and anions when minerals are absorbed by living cells, the
ions are transported across the cell membrane.
Proper functioning of living cell requires high concentration K+ and very low concentration of Na+
inside the cell. A healthy heart requires proper balance in the body. Many phenomena in living
organisms are controlled by ion transport across cell membrane. Some examples initiated by transport
of certain ions across the cell membrane are:
1. A leaf closing response in mimosa plant.
2. Muscle contraction and transmittance of nerve signal in animals.
3. The passage of high electric current through the body of living organism causes damage to it,
as in the case of a bat hanging itself on a pair of overhead electrical wires leading to its death.

Q4. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING.
1. WHAT ARE THE THREE TYPES OF CONDUCTORS?

The three main types of electric conductors are
• Gaseous conductors
• Metallic or electronic conductors
• Electrolytic conductors.
2. Classify the following substances into electrolyte and non – electrolyte.

Benzene, Copper chloride, Sulphuric acid, Sugar solution, Ethyl alcohol, Acetic acid, Blue vitriol
solution and sodium hydroxide solution.
Electrolytes: - Copper chloride, sulphuric acid, Blue vitriol solution, sodium hydroxide
solution, Acetic acid.
Non – Electrolytes: - Benzene, Sugar Solution, Ethyl alcohol.

3. STATE THE ANODE REACTION AND CATHODE REACTION TAKE PLACE IN ELECTROPLATING OF
(TEXT BOOK PG. NO. 18)
1. NICKEL PLATING
2. CHROMIUM PLATING
3. SILVER PLATING
4. GOLD PLATING
TYPES OF ELECTROPLATING ANODE REACTION CATHODE REACTION

NICKEL PLATING
CHROMIUM PLATING
SILVER PLATING
GOLD PLATING

3. STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS
Q1. REWRITE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS BY SELECTING THE CORRECT OPTIONS.
1. H2SO4 is a ________________________ acid.

(Monobasic, Dibasic, Tribasic, Weak)
2. Relation between normality and molarity for NaOH is _________________

(Normality = Molarity, Normality = 2(Molarity), Normality = Basicity, Normality = Acidity)
3. The solution of common salt in water is ____________________

(Homogeneous, Heterogeneous, Acidic, Basic)
4. Basicity of acid depends on ______________________

(Number of H+ ions it produces, Number of OH- ions it produces, Both, H+ and OH- it produces.
Its solubility in water)
5. Brass is an example of _____________________ type of solution.

(Solid in liquid, gas in liquid, gas in gas, solid in solid)
Q2. REWRITE THE COLUMNS II AND III SO AS TO MATCH COLUMN I
1. Column I Column II Column III

Solution Solute Solvent
2. Copper in mercury Copper Mercury
3. Sea water Different salts Water
4. NaOH solution NaOH Water
5. Copper in gold Copper Gold
6. Soda water CO2 gas Water
Q5. DEFINE THE FOLLOWING:

1. MOLARITY: - The molarity of a solution is the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre of
solution.
2. EQUIVALENT WEIGHT: - Equivalent weight is that weight of a substance which combines with
or displaces 1.008 parts by weight of hydrogen or 8 parts by weight of oxygen or 35.5 parts by
weight of chlorine.
3. BASICITY: - Number of replaceable hydrogen present in acid is called basicity of acid. For
example: NaOH, KOH are called Mono acidic base, H2SO4 is called dibasic acid.
H3PO4 is called tribasic acid.
4. ACID: - The substance which gives hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water is called an
acid for example.
5. NORMALITY: - The normality of the solution is the number of gram equivalent weight of the
solute present per litre of the solution.

NON – TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

1. Solution: - A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more non – reacting substances.
2. Aqueous solution: - A solution in which water is used as a solvent is called aqueous solution.
3. Non – Aqueous solution: - A solution in which solvent other than water is used is called non –
aqueous solution.
4. Gram mole: - The quantity of the substance expressed in grams numerically equal to the
molecular mass is termed as ‘gram mole’.
5. Molecular mass (molecular weight): - Molecular mass is the relative mass of a molecule with
reference to 12C which is assigned mass of 12u.
6. Equivalent weight of an acid: - The weight of an acid which contains one part by weight of
replaceable hydrogen is called its equivalent weight.
7. Equivalent weight of a base: - The weight of a base which contains one part by weight of
replaceable hydroxyl group is called its equivalent weight.
8. Acidity: - Number of replaceable hydroxyl groups present in base is called acidity of base. For
example: NaOH, KOH are Mono acidic base.
9. Ca(OH)2 Diacidic base
10. Al(OH)3 Triacidic base
11. Standard solution: - The solution whose concentration is accurately known is called standard solution.
-
12. Base: - The substance which gives hydroxyl ions (OH) when dissolved in water is called base. For example
Q2. GIVE SCIENTIFIC REASONS

1. FORMATION OF SOLUTION IS A PHYSICAL CHANGE.
1. A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more non – reacting substances.
2. The substance which is present in larger proportion is called ‘solvent’ and that which is present
in lesser proportion is called ‘solute’.
3. Solute and solvent do not chemically react with each other, so no new substance is formed
chemically.
4. Sometimes original substances i.e. solute and solvent can be recovered by easy means.
5. Hence, formation of solution is a physical change.
2. THE NATURE OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION MAY BE ACIDIC OR BASIC.

1. Substances when dissolved in water undergo dissociation.
2. According to Arrhenious theory, a substance which gives hydrogen ions(H+) when dissolved in
water is called an acid and a substance which gives hydroxyl ions (OH)- when dissolved in
water is called as base.
3. Thus due to the formation of hydrogen ions (H+) or hydroxyl ion (OH)-, the nature of aqueous
solution may be acidic or basic.
3. CH3COOH is a weak acid.

1. The acids which dissociate to lesser extent and give less number of hydrogen ions in solution
are called weak acids.
2. CH3COOH, when dissolved in water dissociates as
3. It dissociates to lesser extent in water and gives less number of hydrogen ions.
4. Hence, CH3COOH is a weak acid.
4. HCl and H2SO4 are called strong acids.

1. The acids which dissociate to a large extent in water and give large number of hydrogen ions in solution
are called strong acids.
2. HCl and H2SO4 when dissolved in water dissociates as follows
3. They dissociates to a large extend in water and gives large number of hydrogen ions.
4. Hence, HCl and H2SO4 are called strong acids.
5. NaOH and KOH are called strong bases.
1. The bases which dissociate to large extent in water and give large number of hydroxyl ions in solution
are called strong bases.
2. NaOH and KOH, when dissolved in water dissociates as follows.
3. They dissociate to a large extent in water and gives large number of hydroxyl ions.
4. Hence, NaOH and KOH are called strong bases.
6. NH4OH is a weak base.

1. The bases which dissociate to lesser extent and give less number of hydroxyl ions in solution are called
weak base.
2. NH4 OH, when dissolved in water dissociates as
3. It dissociates to lesser extent in water and gives less number of hydroxyl ions.
4. Hence, NH4OH is a weak base.
Q5. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING
1. STATE THE ARRHENIOUS THEORY OF ACID AND BASE

Answer. Arrhenious theory of acid and base are
1. In 1887, Arrhenious proposed the theory of acids and bases.
2. Substances when dissolved in water undergo dissociation and the nature of the aqueous solution may be
acidic or basic.
Arrhenious defined acids and bases as follows:
ACID: - The substance which gives hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water is called an acid for
Example.
BASE: - The substance which gives hydroxyl ions (OH)- when dissolved in water is called base. For
Example

2. WHAT ARE STRONG ACIDS? GIVE EXAMPLES.

Answer. The acids which dissociate to a large extent in water and give large number of hydrogen
ions (H+) in solution are called strong acids.
Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Nitric acid (HNO3)
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
3. WHAT ARE WEAK ACIDS? GIVE EXAMPLES.

Answer. The acids which dissociate to lesser extent and give less number of hydrogen ions(H+) in
solution are called weak acids.
Example: Acetic Acid (CH3COOH)
4. WHAT ARE STRONG BASES? GIVE EXAMPLES.

Answer. The bases which dissociate to a large extent in water give large number of hydroxyl ions
(OH)- in solution are called strong bases.
Examples: - Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)
5. WHAT ARE WEAK BASES? GIVE EXAMPLES

Answer. The bases which dissociate to lesser extent and give less number of hydroxyl ions (OH)- in
solution are called weak bases.
Example: - Ammonium hydroxide [NH4OH].
6. HOW IS NORMALITY AND MOLARITY RELATED?

Answer.
FOR ACIDS: The relation between normality and molarity of an acid depends upon the basicity of that
acid.
Normality = Basicity x Molarity
For monobasic acids such as HCl, HNO3
Normality = 1 x Molarity
i.e. Normality = Molarity.
For dibasic acids such as H2SO4
For Tribasic acids such as H3PO4
Normality = 3 x Molarity.
FOR BASES: The relation between normality and molarity of a base depends upon the acidity of that
base.
Normality = Acidity x Molarity.
For monoacidic base such as NaOH, KOH
I.e. Normality = Molarity
For diacidic base such as Ca (OH) 2
For triacidic base such as Al (OH) 3
Normality = 3 x Molarity.

4. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Q1. REWRITE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS BY CHOOSING THE CORRECT OPTION:-
1. The S.I. unit of potential difference is _____________

(Ampere, Volt, Ohm, Joule)
2. Electric current is measured with the help of a device called ________________

(An ammeter, a voltmeter, a galvanometer, a calorimeter)
3. A substance which does not allow charges to pass through it easily is called as ___________
(Metal, conductor, insulator, semiconductor)
4. If a current of 0.1A is passed through a wire of resistance 20 ohm, the potential difference across
the wire is _____________
(2 ohm, 20 volt, 10 volt, 2 volt)
5. From the following substance __________________ substance is used as insulation.

(Iron, copper, gold, plastic)
Q2. MATCH THE COLUMN (I) AND (II) AND FILL IN THE COLUMN (IV) TO MATCH THE COLUMN (III):
No. Column I Column II Column III Column IV
2. Copper Conductor Rubber Insulator
3. 1 Volt 1 J/ 1s 1 ampere 1 C / 1s
4. Electric charge Coulomb Resistance Ohm
5. -ve terminal Cathode +ve terminal Anode
Q3. FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH PROPER TERMS FROM THE BRACKET:
(Ampere, smaller, greater, Ohms, Coulombs, random, computer)
1. The equivalent resistance of a parallel combination is smaller than each of the individual resistance.
2. Diode does not obey Ohm’s law.
3. S.I. unit of electric current is ampere.
4. In conductors electrons are always in the state of random motion.
5. Superconductors are used in computer.

1. Diode obeys Ohm’s law. False: Diode does not obey ohm’s law.
2. Ohm’s law is a relation between the current and potential difference in circuit. True.
3. Resistance in series arrangement is used to decrease resistance of circuit. False: Resistance in
series arrangement is used to increase resistance of the circuit.
4. A conducting wire offers resistance to flow of electrons. True.
5. In a super conductor as temperature decreases resistance of that material increases. False: In a
super conductor as temperature decreases resistance of that material decreases.
Q5. FIND ODD ONE OUT:
1. Copper, Silver, Mica, Graphite. Mica – It is an insulator while the rest are conductors.
2. Ammeter, Voltmeter, Galvanometer, Thermometer. Thermometer – it is used to measure
temperature of a body while the rest are connected in electric circuit to detect and measure
electric current and potential difference.
3. Germanium, Silicon, Porcelain, Gallium. Porcelain – is an insulator while the rest are
semiconductors.
1. DEFINE THE FOLLOWING.
1. AMPERE: - It is the unit of electric current. If a charge of one coulomb passes across any section of
a conductor in one second, the current in the conductor is said to be one ampere. Therefore 1
ampere = 1 coulomb / 1 second.
2. VOLT: - It is the SI unit of potential difference. The potential difference is one volt, if one joule of
work is done in moving a charge of one coulomb. Therefore 1Volt = 1joule/ 1coulomb.
3. OHM: - It is the unit of resistance. The resistance of the conductor is one ohm, if a potential
difference of one volt applied between its ends causes a current of one ampere to flow through it.
Therefore 1 Ohm = 1 volt / 1 ampere.
4. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE: - The difference between the electric potential of the two terminals of a
wire is called potential difference.
5. E.M. F: - The electromotive force (E.M.F) of a source is the work done by the source in raising a
unit positive charge from its lower potential end to the higher potential end. OR E.M.F of the
source is equal to the work done by the source in circulating unit positive charge round the
complete circuit.
Q2. DRAW SYMBOLS OF THE FOLLOWING COMPONENTS:
1. RESISTANCE
Answer.
2. ELECTRIC CELL.
Answer.
3. VARIABLE RESISTANCE
Answer.
4. VOLTMETER
Answer.
5. CLOSED KEY
Answer.
6. TAP KEY OPEN.
Answer.

ANSWER IN BRIEF
Q.1 DISCUSSES HOW THE ELECTRIC CURRENT IS SET UP WHEN CHARGES ARE IN MOTION.
1. Metals (conductors) contain a large number of free electrons called ‘conduction electrons’.
They are in a state of random motion.
2. When the wire is connected between the two terminals of the cell, the negatively charges free
electrons move from a point at a lower potential to a point at a higher potential.
3. This motion of free electrons in one direction sets up an electric current in the wire.
4. The direction of the conventional current is assumed to be from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal of the cell.
NON – TEXTUAL QUESTIONS.

1. ELECTRIC FORCE AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCE ARE ANALOGOUS (COMPARABLE).
1. The electric force (F) between two charged particles is given by the formula
2. The gravitational force between any two objects in the universe is given by the formula
3. Since both formulae are identical, the electric force and gravitational force are analogous.
2. PLASTIC IS AN INSULATOR.
1. Substances like plastic possess practically no free electrons since the electrons are tightly
bound to the parent nucleus.
2. Due to this the charges cannot pass easily through plastic.
3. Hence, plastic is an insulator.
3. GALLIUM, GERMANIUM AND SILICON ARE SEMICONDUCTORS.

1. Substances like gallium, germanium and silicon are insulators.
2. However under certain specific and particular condition, they behave like conductors.
3. Thus, they are referred as “Semiconductors”.
4. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE PRODUCES A CURRENT IN THE CIRCUIT.

1. The difference between the electric levels of the two electrodes of a cell is called potential difference.
2. The chemical reactions taking place within the cell are responsible for the generation of
potential difference between the electrodes.
3. The potential difference sets the electrons in motion and produces a current in the circuit.
5. DIODE IS USED AS A RECTIFIER.
1. A diode is a non – Ohmic conductor. It behaves like a valve and allows the flow of current
only in one direction (forward bias) but not in the opposite direction (reverse bias).
2. Due to this property, a diode is used as a rectifier.

6. SUPERCONDUCTORS ARE USEFUL IN TRANSFERRING ELECTRICITY FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER.
1. Superconductors are materials that have no resistance and hence current passes through them
without loss of energy.
2. Thus, they are useful for transferring electricity from one place to another.
7. THERMISTORS ARE USED FOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND IN TEMPERATURE CONTROL CIRCUITS.
1. Thermistors are non – Ohmic conductors.
2. Their resistance decreases as temperature increases.
3. Hence, they are used for temperature measurements and in temperature control circuits.
8. A SERIES COMBINATION IS USED TO INCREASE THE RESISTANCE OF A CIRCUIT.

1. In a series combination, the equivalent resistance is greater than each of the individual resistances.
2. Therefore, a series combination is used to increase the resistance of a circuit.
9. A THICK WIRE HAS A LOW RESISTANCE.

1. The motion of free electrons constitutes an electric current in conductors.
2. If the metal wire is thick (bigger cross – sectional area), the number of free electrons increases
and the space available for their flow too increases.
3. Hence, thick wires offer less opposition to the motion of free electrons and consequently have less resistance.
10. THE I.V. GRAPH OF A DIODE IS NOT A STRAIGHT LINE.

1. A diode is a semi conducting device which does not obey Ohm’s Law i.e. it is a non – Ohmic conductor.
2. The resistance of a diode is not constant. It is low when the current flows in one direction but it
is high if the current flows in the opposite direction.
3. Hence, since the value of the resistance keeps on changing, the I.V. graph of a diode is not
linear (straight line)
DEFINE
1. Resistances in Series: - If a number of resistances are connected in such a way that the same current
flows through each resistance, then such an arrangement is called resistances in series.
2. Static Electricity: - The physical phenomena produced by charges at rest are called static
electricity.
3. Current electricity: - The physical effects due to changes in motion are called current electricity.
4. Conductors: - Substances that allow charges to pass freely through them are called conductors.
5. Insulators: - Substances that do not allow charges to pass freely through them are called insulators.
6. Semi - conductors: - Insulators that allow electricity to flow through them under specific conditions
are called semi – conductors.
7. Electrolytes: - Solutions that are good conductors of electricity are called electrolytes.
8. Electrolysis: - The conduction of the electricity through electrolyte is called electrolysis.
9. Coulomb: - It is the SI unit of electric charge. If two like point charges of equal magnitudes are
placed in a vacuum at a distance of 1 metre from each other an if they repel each other with a force
of 9 X 109N, then each charge is called 1 coulomb.
10. Resistance in Parallel: - If a number of resistances are connected between two common points in
such a way that the potential difference across each resistance is the same, then such an arrangement
is called resistances in parallel.
11. Ohmic conductor: - Materials that obey Ohm’s Law are called Ohmic conductors. Their graph of
electric current against voltage is a straight line. The value of the resistance is a constant. E.g.
Copper, Aluminium, silver etc.
12. Non Ohmic conductor: - Materials that do not obey Ohm’s Law are called non – Ohmic
conductors. Their graph of electric current against voltage is a non – linear graph. The value of
resistance is not constant. E.g. Diodes, Thermistors.

DRAW SYMBOLS OF THE FOLLOWING COMPONENTS

1. Ammeter
Answer.
2. Plug Key Open
Answer.
3. Electric Bulb
Answer.
4. Battery of Cells
Answer.
5. Galvanometer
3. EXPLAIN WITH THE HELP OF DIAGRAMS.
1. Explain the construction and working of a simple voltaic cell with the help of a neat and
labelled diagram.
Answer.
Construction: -
A simple voltaic cell consists of two metal plates immersed in a glass vessel containing dilute
sulphuric acid.
One of the plates is of Zinc which serves as the negative terminal while the other plate is of copper
which serves as the positive terminal.
The two plates are connected to a small bulb through a copper wire.

Working: -
1. When the copper and zinc plates are dipped in dilute sulphuric acid, the zinc and copper plates
get negatively and positively charged respectively.
2. This charging of the plates is due to the chemical reaction taking place within the cell. Hence
chemical energy gets converted to electrical energy.
3. The electrons in the wire move from the zinc plate (-ve) to the copper plate (+ve). Thus as the
current flows in the circuit, the bulb begins to glow.
2. EXPLAIN HOW MOTION OF IONS TOWARDS THE RESPECTIVE ELECTRODES KEPT IN A SOLUTION OF
COMMON SALT CONSTITUTES AN ELECTRIC CURRENT.
1. The conduction of electricity through an electrolyte is called ‘electrolysis’.
2. When Sodium chloride (common salt) is dissolved in water, it dissociates into Na+ and Cl- ions.
3. When electrodes are connected to a cell, the Cl- ions move towards the anode (+ve terminal)
while the Na+ ions move towards the cathode(-ve terminal).
4. At the cathode, Cl- loses electrons while at the cathode, Na+ gains electrons.
5. Thus, the motion of the ions towards their respective electrodes constitutes an electric current in a
solution of common salt.
3. WHAT IS MEANT BY ‘RESISTANCE’ OF A CONDUCTOR?

Answer.
1. When a potential difference is applied between the ends of the conductor, the free electrons move
from lower potential end to the higher potential end.
2. The moving electrons collide with the fixed atoms of the conductor. Due to these collisions, the
flow of electrons is slowed down.
3. Thus there is ‘opposition’ to the flow of current. This opposition is called as the resistance of the
conductor. Greater the number of collisions, greater is the resistance of the conductor.
4. STATE AND EXPLAIN THE FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS.
Answer. The resistance of a conductor depends upon the following factors:
1. Material of the conductor: - Conductors of different materials have different resistance.
2. Length (L) of the conductors: - The resistance (R) of a conductor is directly proportional to the
length of the conductor.
3. Area of cross section (A): - The resistance (R) of a conductor is inversely proportional to the area of
cross section (thickness) of the conductor.

Q4. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON
I. SUPER CONDUCTORS
1. Materials which conduct electricity without resistance at very low temperature are called ‘Super
conductors’.
2. The temperature at which the resistance in a super conductor becomes zero is called the ‘Critical
Temperature’.
3. Since super conductors have zero resistance, electric current passes through them without loss of energy.
4. Super conductors are useful for transmission of electricity over long distances, making faster computers,
for frictionless transportation and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (N.M.R.) technique.
5. The Dutch scientist H.K. Onnes was among the first to prepare a super conductors in 1911. He found that
the resistance of mercury becomes zero at a temperature of -2690C (4.2K).
II. FLOW OF CURRENT THROUGH CONDUCTOR.

1. Metals (conductors) contain a large number of free electrons called ‘conduction electrons’. They are in a
state of random motion.
2. When the wire is connected between the two terminals of the cell, the negatively charged free electrons
move from a point at a lower potential to a point at a higher potential.
3. This motion of free electrons in one direction sets up an electric current in the wire.
4. The direction of the conventional current is assumed to be from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal of the cell.
III. CONCEPT OF RESISTANCE.

1. When a potential difference is applied between the ends of the conductors, the free electrons
move from the lower potential end to the higher potential end.
2. The moving electrons collide with the fixed atoms of the conductors. Due to these collisions the
flow of electrons is slowed down.
3. Thus there is ‘opposition’ to the flow of current. This opposition is called as the resistance of the conductor.
4. Greater the number of collisions, greater is the resistance of the conductor.
Q5 ANSWER IN 2 TO 3 SENTENCES.
1. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICITY?

Answer. Electricity is a very important part of our lives and it has many advantages and applications.
1. Domestic applications: - Refrigerator, electric oven, electric geyser, mixer – grinder, computer etc.
2. Industrial uses: - Electric furnaces, motors, special instruments for cutting, etc.
3. Hospitals, banks, offices, private institutions etc. are heavily dependant on electricity.
Electricity can be transmitted over long distances with only a small loss of energy. Also it can be
Converted into various forms of energy.
2. WHAT ARE CONDUCTORS? GIVE EXAMPLES.

1. Conductors are substances that allow the charges (electricity) to pass freely.
2. Metals are good conductors since they contain large number of free electrons.
3. Some common examples of conductors are: copper, silver, gold, graphite etc.
3. WHAT ARE SEMI CONDUCTORS? GIVE EXAMPLES.

1. Semi conductors are certain materials which are insulators.
2. However under certain conditions (like increase in temperature) they become good conductor of electricity.
3. Silicon and Germanium are two commonly used semi conductors.
4. WHAT ARE INSULATORS? GIVE SOME EXAMPLES.

1. Insulators are substances that do not allow the passage of electric charges.
2. They contain negligible free electrons since the electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus.
3. Rubber, plastic, glass etc. are insulators.
5. WHAT IS DIODE? WHAT IS IT USED FOR?

1. A diode is a semi conducting device that does not obey Ohm’s Law.
2. It is like a valve and it allows passage of current only in one direction. Hence it is used as a ‘Rectifier’.
3. Its resistance is low for the current in one direction i.e. current can flow while the resistance is
high for the current in the opposite direction i.e. current cannot flow.
6. WHAT ARE THERMISTORS? WHAT ARE THEIR USES?

1. Thermistors are a device that does not obey Ohm’s Law.
2. Unlike metals, some Thermistors are made so that their resistance falls as the temperature increases.
3. Thermistors are used for measurement of temperature and in temperature control circuits.

5. EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Q1. REWRITE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS BY CHOOSING THE CORRECT OPTION.
2. The quantity of heat generated in a conductor depends on ____________

2
(Square of the current (I2), Resistance of he conductor (R), Time for which the current flows (t), I Rt)
3. A coil of many circular turns of wire wrapped in the space of a cylinder forms _______
(torroid, solenoid, conductor, insulator)
4. Telephone ear piece works on the principle of __________ effect of electric current.
(Magnetic, heating, chemical, optical)
5. The relation between electricity and magnetism was fist established by __________
(Joule, Ohm, Orested, Fleming)
5. The magnetic field produced at the centre of circular wire is directly proportional to the______
(Radius of the loop, magnitude of the current passing through it, resistance of the wire, time
for which the current passes through it)
Q2. FILL IN THE BLANKS BY CHOOSING THE CORRECT OPTION FROM BRACKET.
(Magnetic field, 50 cycles per seconds, Right hand rule, Newton, calorie, area, radius)
1. Heat energy produced is expressed in terms of calorie.

2. Orested proved that when current passes through a conducting wire it produces a magnetic
field around it.
3. The direction of the magnetic field produced by a conductor can be determined by right hand rule.
4. In India, frequency of A.C. is 50 cycles per second.
5. The magnetic field produced at the centre of circular wire depends inversely on the radius of the loop.
1. Like magnetic poles attract each other, unlike magnetic poles repel.
2. The direct current always flows in one direction.
3. Fuse is made of wire having high melting point.
4. If there is fire caused by sparking, the main switch should be switched off immediately.
5. Two magnetic field lines may intersect each other.
Q4. IDENTIFY THE ODD ONE OF THE FOLLOWING GROUP.
1. Geyser, Heater, Electric iron, Refrigerator. Refrigerator: - In refrigerator magnets are used
while in the rest there are no magnets.
2. Magnet, Solenoid, Compass needle, Oven. Oven: - It is based on the heating effect of electric
current while the rest have magnetic properties.
3. Telephone ear piece, Electric bell, Electromagnet, Battery. Battery: - It is based on heating
effect of electric current while the rest are based on magnetic effect of electric current.
4. .
Answer. This does not follow mathematical for of Joule’s law while the rest are mathematical forms of Joule’s
law.

Q13. DEFINE THE FOLLOWING.
1. ELECTRIC POWER: - Electric power is defined as the rate of doing work. OR Electric power is
defined as the rate at which electrical energy is produced.
2. ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C): - The current which varies in magnitude continuously and
changes direction after equal interval of time is called as alternating current. (A.C.)
3. DIRECT CURRENT (D.C):- The current that always flows in one direction and hence is non –
oscillating is known as direct current.

1. WHAT ARE THE FACTORS ON WHICH THE HEAT PRODUCED DUE TO AN ELECTRIC CURRENT
DEPENDS?
The heat produced due to an electric current depends upon the following factors.
2. The current passing through the wire.
3. The resistance of the wire.
4. The time for which the current is passed.
5. The resistance of the wire.
2. WHAT ARE THE FACTORS ON WHICH THE MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED AT THE CENTRE OF A
CIRCULAR WIRE DEPENDS?
The strength of the magnetic field produced at the centre of a circular wire depends upon the
following factors:
1. It is directly proportional to the magnitude of the current passing through it.
2. It is inversely proportional to the radius of the loop.
3. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT FLOWING IN A

SOLENOID?
The characteristics of the magnetic field due to a current flowing in a solenoid are as follows:
1. One end of the coil acts like a north pole, while the other end acts like a south pole.
2. The magnetic field inside the coil is strong and uniform while outside the coil, the field is weak.
3. The strength (magnitude) of the magnetic field produced by a solenoid depends upon
I. the current passing through it and
ii. The number of turns per unit length.
5. WHAT IS AN ELECTROMAGNET? HOW IS IT MADE?

1. An electromagnet is a device that works on the magnetic effect of electric current.

2. It is made by taking a soft iron rod and winding a large number of turns of an insulated copper
wire around it.
3. When a current passes through the wire, the rod becomes a magnet and attracts small pieces of
iron.
6. WRITE ANY FOUR APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETS.

Answer. Magnets are used in the following applications.
They are used in refrigerator doors in order to close them.
They are used in audio and video tapes.
They are used in the hard disk and floppies of computers.
They are used in children toys.
7. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT FLOWING IN A SOLENOID?
Answer. The characteristics of the magnetic field due to a current flowing in a solenoid are as follows.
1. The magnetic field inside the coil is strong and uniform while outside the coil, the field is weak.
2. One end of the coil acts like a north pole, while the other end acts like a south pole.
3. The strength (magnitude) of the magnetic field produced by a solenoid depends upon
a. the current passing through it and
b. The number of turns per unit length.
8. The temperature of a conducting wire rises when an electric current flows through it. OR
A metal wire becomes hot when a current passes through it.
Answer.
1. When a potential difference is applied between the two ends of a wire, the free electrons move
thorough the conductor from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
2. During their motion, the electrons collide with each other and also with the ions in the
conductor.
3. These collisions slow down the electrons there by resulting in a loss of their kinetic energy.
4. This loss in kinetic energy appears in the form of heat.
5. Hence, the temperature of the conducting wire rises when a current flows through it.
9. A nichrome coil is used in an electric heater.

1. Nichrome is an alloy that has a very high resistance and hence it produces a large amount of
heat.
2. Thus a nichrome coil is used in an electric heater in order to generate excess heat.
10. Short circuit produces sparks.

1. When the exposed parts of the live wire and neutral wire come in contact with each other, then
short circuit occurs.
2. During a short circuit, the resistance of the live wire decreases to a large extent. This leads to an
enormous increase in the current.
3. Due to the increase in the current, the live wire gets heated and sparks are produced at the point
of the short circuit.

11. If there is a circular coil of ‘n’ turns, then the field produced due to current is ‘n’ times the
field produced by a single turn.
1. In a circular coil of ‘n’ turns, the current in each circular turn has the same direction.
2. Due to this the field due to each turn adds up.
3. Hence, if a circular coil has ‘n’ turns, then the field produced is ‘n’ times stronger than the field
produced by a single turn.
12. Alternating current follows a cyclic behaviour.

1. In an alternating current (A.C), the magnitude as well as the direction of the current changes
continuously.
2. It rises from zero to maximum n one direction. It then falls back to zero and attains maximum
value in the reverse direction and goes back to zero. This is known as an AC cycle.
3. Hence, an AC follows a cyclic behaviour.
13. A three pin plug should be used instead of a two pin plug.
1. A two – pin plug consists of a ‘live’ wire and a ‘neutral’ wire. It does not have an earthing wire.
2. So a person using an electrical appliance like a geyser or electric iron may get a shock if live
wire comes in contact with the metal body of the appliance.
3. A three – pin plug has a provision for earthing. The earthing wire carries away the current
flowing through the metal body, into the earth. Thus the user remains safe.
4. Hence, a three – pin plug must be used instead of a two – pin plug.
14. Electric boards and sockets should be kept fixed at a height beyond the reach of children.
Children have a tendency to insert pins and nails into the holes of electrical sockets.
If the switch is ‘on’, the child inserting the pin/nail into the socket may get a severe shock.
Hence, electric boards and sockets should be fixed at a height beyond the reach of children.
15. Our hands should be dry while handling electrical devices.

1. Water is a good conductor of electricity.
2. Wet hands increase the chances of current flowing through the body of the user of the
appliance.
3. Hence, while handling electric devices, our hands must be dry.
16. It is necessary to put on rubber soled foot wear while using electric devices.
While handling electrical devices, there are chances of the current flowing through the body of the
person handling that appliance. Thus the person may get a nasty shock.
Rubber is a bad conductor of electricity and by wearing rubber footwear; a large current is
prevented from passing through the body of the user.
Hence, rubber – soled footwear must be used while handling electrical devices.
17. Artificial respiration is necessary for a person who gets a serve electric shock.
1. If a person gets a serve electric shock, his breathing may stop.
2. In order to revive him quickly, artificial respiration must be given to him immediately.
18. How does short circuit occur? What measures can be taken to avoid it?
1. In house wiring when two wires, live and neutral come in contact with each other short circuit
occurs.
2. This may happen either due to some damage to their insulation or due to a fault in electrical
appliance.
3. In such a situation, resistance of the circuit decreases to a very small value, the current in the
circuit increases enormously and as a result the liver wires are heated.
4. This produces spark at the place of short circuit which may even cause fire in the building.
5. To avoid such incidents:

i. A fuse must be included in the electric circuit.
ii. Insulated wires of the house must be replaced periodically and
iii. Bare or exposed wires should be replaced immediately.

1. HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT.
1. When a P.D. is applied between the two ends of a wire, the free electrons move through the conductor
from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
2. During their motion, the electrons collide with each other and also with the ions in the conductor.
3. These collisions slow down the electrons, thereby resulting in the loss of their kinetic energy.
4. This loss of kinetic energy appears in the form of heat.
5. Appliances like the geyser, heater, electric iron works on the heating effect of electric current.
2. ELECTRIC FUSE.
1. An electric fuse is a safety device that works on the heating effect of electric current.
2. The fuse wire is made up an alloy of lead and tin and it has a low melting point.
3. It allows current upto a certain maximum value to flow through it. If the current exceeds this value, the
wire melts and the circuit is immediately broken.
4. In this way, the fuse protects our electrical appliances against damage, by limiting the current passing
through it.
3. MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT.
1. When an electric current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced around it. The
magnetic field is represented by drawing lines called ‘magnetic field lines’.
2. The strength of the magnetic field at a given point is directly proportional to the current passing through
the wire.
3. The strength of the magnetic field produced by a current in the wire decreases as we move away from
the wire.
4. The direction of the magnetic field around a straight conductor is obtained by the Right Hand Rule.
5. The magnetic effect due to an electric current lasts only as long as the current flows through the
conductor.
6. Galvanometer, ammeter, voltmeter, electric bell are the application of the magnetic effect of electric
current.
4. ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C)\

1. The current which varies in magnitude continuously and changes direction after equal intervals of time is
called as alternating current.
2. The A.C. first rises from zero to a certain maximum value. It then falls back to zero and quickly inverse its
direction. it attains a certain maximum value in the reverse direction and again falls back to zero.
3. The current follows cycle behaviour and it oscillates sinusoidal with time.
4. Alternating current can be transmitted over long distances without loss of energy.
5. DIRECT CURRENT (D.C)

1. A direct current is a non – oscillating current and it flows only in one direction.
2. Direct current is generated from a battery.
3. When D.C. is transmitted over long distances there is a loss of energy due to the resistance of the conductor.
6. ENERGY SOURCES
Q1. REWIRE THE STATEMENT BY SELECTING THE CORRECT OPTION.
1. Energy obtained from ________________ is pollution free.

(a. Petrol b. coal c. nuclear reactor d. solar cell.)
2. The spots are sources of ________________ energy.

(a. wind b. geothermal c.nuclear d. hydroelectric. )
3. In sun ___________ hydrogen atoms combined together to form a helium nucleus.

(a. 2 b. 3 c. 4 d. more than 4)
4. Solar ______________ converts solar energy into electricity.

(a. cooker b. dryer c. heater d. cell)
5. Calorific value of _______________ is height amongst fuels.

(a. hydrogen b. methane c. LPG d. biogas.)
Q2. FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH PROPER TERM FRO THE BRACKET AT THE END OF THE STATEMENT.
1. Renewable energy source is __________________

(Firewood, cowdung, biomass)
2. A device which converts water energy into electrical energy is known as __________
(Solar cell, armature, solar drier)
3. Large in exhaustive source of energy is _______________________
(Coal, wood, sun)
4. To remove moisture from the grapes, we use __________________
(Solar dryer, solar cooker, solar cell)
5. LPG consists of _______________________
(Butane and isobutene, methane and butane, methane and ethane)
Q3. STATE WHETHER THE FOLLOWING STATEMENT ARE TRUE OR FALSE.

If the statement is false correct the statement by changing the under lined phrase.
1. Children use solar energy to fly kites. False
2. Wind mill converts wind energy into electrical energy. True
3. The biogas plant consists of a digester and a cover. False
4. The efficiency of chulha is less than 150.
5. The inner surface of solar cooker box is red. False

1. Tidal energy
1. Everyday movement of water level along the shore is known as tides. Tides are generated by
the gravitational attraction between the earth and the moon. Tides raise the water level by few
meters. The energy possessed by rising and falling water in tides are known as tidal energy.
2. Tidal energy is used to produce electricity.
3. To generate electricity from a tidal energy, a dam is constructed across narrow opening to the
sea.
4. The water moves in and out from these openings during tides.
5. This water flows over the turbines fixed in the dam. The turbine rotates and generates
electricity.
Limitations: -
1. Rise and fall of water during tide is insufficient to generate electricity on large scale.
2. There are few sites which are suitable to build dams along the coast line.
2. Geothermal energy.
Answer.
1. The heat from the interior part of the earth can be used as a source of energy under certain
conditions and this energy is called as geothermal energy.
2. Rocks melt due to heat from the interior part of the earth. These molten rocks are known as
magma.
3. Whenever there are some geological changes in some region, the magma is pushed upwards
which gets collected at some depth below the surface of the earth.
4. These places are called as spots which are the sources of geothermal energy.
5. When underground water comes in contact with spots, water gets converted into steam. This
steam is extracted by sinking pipes through the holes drilled upto spot.
6. This extracted steam can be utilised to turn the turbines of electric generator.
7. Geothermal energy can be obtained from natural Geysers also.
3. Solar cells/ Photo voltaic cells

Answer. The devices which convert solar energy directly into electrical energy are known as solar
cells (or photo voltaic cells)
1. Solar cell consists of number of thin layers of silicon. Silicon is available in abundance and is
environmental friendly.
2. Silicon converts most of the incident solar energy into electrical energy.
3. A typical solar cell is a 2 cm square piece of pure silicon which produces about 0.7 watt
electricity when exposed to sunlight.
4. Hence, large number of solar cells is combined together. An assembly of such solar cells used
to produce electricity is called a solar panel.
Uses: -
1. Solar cells are used as source of energy for radio or wireless transmission at TV relay stations,
traffic lights and stations in the remote areas.
2. They are widely used in calculator and toys.
3. They are also used to pump water for irrigation, for lighting in the rural area and remote
villages.
4. Biodiesel
Answer. Biodiesel is a renewable energy source. It is extracted from seeds of soyabin and corn.
1. Biodiesel is a renewable source of energy. It is produced from Jatropha plants.
2. Biodiesel is considered as clean fuel as it has almost o sulphur, no aromatics and has 10% built

in oxygen which helps it to burn completely.

3. If waste land in India is brought under Jatropha cultivation, it will give 1.5 tons of seeds per
hectare. It is estimated that equivalent amount of Biodiesel will be produced which will fulfil
one tenth requirement of diesel in our country.
Advantages: -
1. It is used as a substitute fuel in place of diesel in diesel engine.
2. It is a non – poisonous and it is biodegradable.
5. Breeder Reactions.
Answer.
1. The reactions in which fertile material is converted into fissible material are known as breeder
reactions. The reactor in which such reactions takes place is known as ‘breeder reactor’.
2. E.g. Uranium – 238 is not a fissible material but it is a fertile material. It can be converted into
fissible material plutonium (239Pu) by neutron bombardment.
3. The neutrons generated in this reaction serve two purposes. First they convert fertile material
into fissible material and secondly they sustain fission reaction.
6. Nuclear fusion
Answer.
1. In nuclear fusion energy is released by joining very light atoms. Now a days fusion reactions
are controlled and fusion reactors are built. These are also ultimate source of energy.
2. Deuteron occurs naturally in the sea water and it is estimated that fusion of all deuteron in just
one cubic meter of sea water would yield 12 x 109 kj (Kilo – joules)
3. Fusion of deuteron is also another ultimate source of energy.
7. Petroleum.
Answer.
1. Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons.
2. Petroleum is extracted from reservoir well in form of a thick – black liquid which is called as
crude oil.
3. Crude oil cannot be used in a natural form as fuel. Therefore it is refined by fractional
distillations.
4. After refining petroleum we get various fuels like petrol, diesel, kerosene, paraffin wax and
lubricant oil. Petrol, diesel, kerosene heat after combustion leaving no residue.
8. Natural gas.
Answer.
1. Natural gas is found in petroleum reservoir well.
2. It mainly contains methane.
3. It burns easily to produce heat and is supplied through pipes for various domestic as well as
industrial purposes.
4. Natural gas is subjected to high pressure to obtain compressed natural gas (CNG) which is in a
liquid form and can be transported at a long distance through tankers.
9. L.P.G. (Liquidified Petroleum Gas)

Answer.
1. L.P.G mainly consists of Liquidified butane and isobutene (C4H10) and is used as a common
fuel.
2. It is obtained from petroleum.
3. It is filled under pressure in metal cylinders and supplied for cooking and industrial use.

10. Solid fuels.

Answer. Wood, coal and coke are solid fuels.
1. Wood: - Wood is a common fuel, having cellulose (C6H10O5) as then chief constituent. It
burns in the presence of oxygen producing CO2, water vapour and heat energy.
2. Coal: - (i) Coal occurs in many forms containing amorphous carbon and carbon compounds.
(ii) The main varieties of coal with increasing percentage of carbon are peat, lignite,
bituminous and anthracite.
(iii) When coal is burnt in absence of air the residue left behind is coke.
3. Coke: - (i) Coke is obtained when coal is heated in absence of air.
(ii) Coke contains 90 – 95 % carbon and burns without producing smile.
Therefore it produces more heat than coal.
11. Coal.
Answer.
1. Coal deposits are formed on the surface of earth as well as below the surface of earth. Main
constituent of coal is carbon.
2. When coal burns, the carbon present in it reacts with oxygen to produce CO2.
3. During this process lot of heat energy is produced.
4. Therefore, coal is used as fuel as the source of heat energy in industries for generating
electricity.
5. Coal is also used as domestic fuel.
12. Gaseous fuels.

Answer. Gaseous fuels are classified into two main types.
i. Natural gases: - It includes methane, butane etc.
ii. Artificial gases: - It includes Coal gas, Oil gas, Petrol gas, Producer gas etc.
a. Coal gas: - It is obtained by fractional distillation of coke.
b. Oil gas: - It is obtained by cracking of kerosene.
c. Petrol gas: - It is obtained by cracking of petrol.
d. Producer gas: - Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide (30%), nitrogen (60%)
and other gases (10%). It is mainly used in the glass furnace and in the preparation of
ammonia in ammonia plants.

1. Wind is a renewable source of energy.

1. Renewable energy sources have an inherent capacity to regenerate and replenish themselves.
2. Wind is the effect of atmospheric pressure difference due to alternate heating and cooling of
the earth.
3. Hence, wind is a renewable source of energy.
2. Sun is the large in exhaustive source of energy.

1. Solar energy is continuously produced in the interior of the sun due to the nuclear fusion of
hydrogen nuclei at a very high temperature (2 x 107)0C.
2. This energy which is produced is radiated in all direction and is received by the earth.
3. The power received by the earth is 1.8 x 1011 mW which is many times more than the present
consumption rate and future energy needs of the earth.
4. Hence solar energy is a large in exhaustive source of energy.
3. It is necessary to store solar energy.

1) Solar energy is not a concentrated source of energy.
2) Solar energy availability varies widely with time. The variation the availability of solar energy
occurs daily because of day and night cycles.
3) Due to earth’s revolution round the sun, seasonal variations are introduced in the available
amount of solar energy.
4) Variations are also caused by local weather conditions such as cloud cover, winds etc.
5) Hence, it becomes necessary to store energy when sun is shinning. This solar energy can be
used during the period when solar energy is not directly available.
4. The inner surface of solar cooker box is painted black.
1) The black surface absorbs 98% of the incident heat radiation. Solar energy from the glass cover
is concentrated inside the box.
2) Inner surface of the cooker absorbs heat and it becomes hot due to which base of the cooking
pot and sides get heated. Thus, food gets cooked.
3) Thus, the inner surface of solar cooker box is painted black.

5. Modern solar cells are made up of silicon.

1) Silicon is easily available in abundance.
2) It is environmental friendly. Also silicon converts most of the incident solar energy into
electrical energy.
3) Hence modern solar cells are made up of silicon.
6. Biomass is a renewable source of energy.

1) The resources that have inherent capacity to reappear or replenish themselves by quick cycling,
reproduction and replacement within a reasonable time are renewable energy sources.
2) Biomass is a material contained in the bodies of plants and animals.
3) Plants and animals being living beings can be reproduced again and again.
4) Hence, biomass is a renewable source of energy.
7. Biogas is used as a convenient fuel for domestic use.

1) Methane is a major constituent of biogas (80%) which is an excellent fuel.
2) So biogas burns without smoke and produces a large quantity of heat.
3) Hence biogas is used as a convenient fuel for domestic use.
8. The storage tank in a solar water heater is kept at higher level.
1) Water in the collector is heated by solar energy. It expands and becomes lighter, it flows to the
top of the water tank.
2) Hot water is lighter and it remains in the upper part of the tank.
3) Its place is taken by the colder water from the bottom of the tank. Hot water from the top of the
tank is available for use.
4) Hence, the storage tank in a solar water heater is kept at higher level.

9. The sludge obtained from the biogas plant is used as an excellent fertilizer.
1) The sludge obtained from biogas plant is rich in nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassium
compounds.
2) These compounds are important nutrients for plants.
3) Thus the sludge obtained from a biogas plant is used as an excellent fertilizer.
10. Bio diesel is considered as a clear fuel.

2) Bio diesel has almost no sulphur, no aromatics.
3) It has 10% built in oxygen which helps it to burn fully.
4) Thus, Bio diesel is considered as a clean fuel.
11. Jatropha plantation has enormous employment generation potential in rural area.
1) If waste land in India is brought under Jatropha cultivation, it will give 1.5 tons of seed per
hectare.
2) It is estimated that equivalent amount of Biodiesel will be produced which will fulfil one tenth
requirement of diesel in our country.
3) Thus, Jatropha plantation has enormous employment generation potential in rural area.
12. Coal is used as fuel as the source of heat energy in industries for generating electricity.
1) The main constituent of coal is carbon.
2) When coal burns, the carbon present in it reacts with oxygen to produce CO2. During this
process lot of heat energy is produced.
3) Therefore, coal is used as fuels as the source of heat energy in industries for generating
electricity.
13. Coke produces more heat than coal.

1. The calorific value of a fuel is proportional to is carbon content.
2. Coke contains about 90 – 95% carbon while coal contains 27 -98% carbon (depending upon its type)
3. Thus, coke produces more heat on combustion than coal.
14. Coke is superior fuel than coal.

1. The calorific value of a fuel is proportional to is carbon content.
2. Coke contains about 90 – 95% carbon while coal contains 27 -98% carbon (depending upon its type)
3. Coke burns without producing smoke whereas coal burns with smoke causing pollution.
4. Hence, coke is superior fuel than coal.
15. The calorific value of ethane is lower than methane.

1. In methane (CH4) a carbon atom is bounded by four hydrogen atoms which upon combining
with oxygen produce a large amount of energy.
2. In ethane (C2H4), each carbon atom is bounded with three hydrogen atom.
3. Hence, the calorific value of ethane is lower than methane.
Q4. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS.
1. Why do we need energy? Explain with examples?

We need energy in every walk of life, example
1. In house, energy is required to cook our food and to light our house, to operate radio and
television.
2. In industry, we need energy to run various machines,.
3. In agriculture – we need energy for irrigation, tractors etc.

2. What are non – renewable energy resources? Give examples

1. Non – renewable energy resources are those which once used are lost forever and cannot be
replenished.
2. E.g. Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas were formed millions of years ago due to
burial of remains of plants and animals.
3. What are renewable energy resources? Give examples.

1. The resources that have inherent capacity to reappear or replenish themselves by quick cycling,
reproduction and replacement within a reasonable time are called as renewable energy
resources.
2. Example: - wind energy, tidal energy, energy from flowing water, energy from sun, energy
from biomass.
4. What are the applications of wind energy?

1. The wind energy is used by farmers for winnowing to remove husk from grass.
2. Wind energy is used in sail boats and wind mills. Wind mills converts wind energy into
electrical energy.
3. Children use wind energy to play a whirling and to fly kits.
5. What is wind energy farm?

1. Wind mills converts wind energy into electrical energy.
2. Electricity generated by a single wind mill is quite small.
3. Therefore, numbers of wind mills are erected over a large area.
4. This area is called wind energy farm.
5. The energy generated by each windmill is coupled to generate electricity on a commercial
scale.
6. Explain the working of wind mill.
1. Wind mills convert wind energy into electrical energy.

2. Wind mill has a structure similar to a large electric fan that is erected at some height on a rigid support.
3. The number of blades, shape of blades and height of the wind mill from ground are decided on
the basis of wind velocity
4. The blades are designed in such a way that it creates a pressure difference. The pressure
difference makes the blades to rotate.
5. This rotatory motion of the wind mill is used to rotate the armature of electric generator which
generates electricity.
7. How is geothermal energy produced?

1. The places where magma collected below the surface of the earth are called spot.
2. The spots are sources of geothermal energy.
3. When underground water comes in contact with spots, water gets converted into steam.
4. The steam thus generated is trapped in rocks and gets compressed under high pressure.
5. This steam is extracted by sinking pipes through holes drilled upto spot.
6. The steam extracted in this way can be utilized to turn turbine of electric generator.
8. Explain the production of solar energy OR

Explain nuclear fusion in the interior of sun.
1. The interior of the sun mainly contains hydrogen nuclei.
2. The temperature of this interior is about (2 x 107)0C. At this extremely high temperature the hydrogen
nuclei undergoes nuclear fusion.
3. In this process four hydrogen nuclei combine to form one helium nucleus.
4. The mass of helium nucleus is slightly less than the total mass of hydrogen nuclei.
5. This mass difference is converted into energy.
6. As large number of helium nuclei are formed per second and extremely large quantity of energy is
continuously liberated by the sun in the form of heat and light.
7. This energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation and is called solar energy.
9. What are the main advantages of solar energy?

1. Solar energy is an extremely large and inexhaustible source of energy.
2. It is a clean source of energy and the use does not effect the environment, while other sources of energy
like fossil fuels and nuclear power leads to pollution and other environmental hazards.
10. What are the disadvantages of solar energy?

The disadvantages of solar energy are
1. Solar energy is a dilute source of energy. Even in the hottest regions on the earth, the solar
radiations incident per second on one square metre of earth’s surface is less than 1000 joules.
2. These values are low from point of technological utilization. In order to collect sufficient
amount of energy, large surface areas are required, which are expensive. This increases cost of
solar devices.
3. Solar energy availability varies widely with time. The variation in the availability occurs daily
because of day and night cycle.
4. Variation in the available solar energy is also caused by local weather conditions such as cloud
cover, wind etc.
5. Hence, it becomes necessary to store solar energy when sun is shinning. The storage
equipments increase the cost of the system to be used.
11. What are the main components of solar water heater?

The two main components of solar water heater are flat plate collector and insulated storage tank.
12. What is solar panel?

A large number of solar cells combined together to produce enough electricity is called a solar panel.
13. Name some solar energy devices and write its uses? OR
What are the applications of solar energy?
The various applications of solar energy are listed as follows.
1. Solar cooker: - It is used to cook food that requires slow cooking. E.g. rice, Dal etc.
2. Solar water heater: - It is used for heating water.
3. Solar cells: - They are used in artificial satellites. They are also used as a source of energy for radio and
wireless transmission at TV relay stations.
4. Solar dryer: - It is used to remove moisture from the grapes.
14. Name the isotopes of uranium

Answer. The natural uranium has three isotopes 234U, 235U and 238U.
15. What is burner reactor?

Answer. Uranium – 235 undergoes spontaneous fission when bombarded by slow neutrons. These
neutrons which are formed as a result of this fission are slowed down by a moderator and made to
bombard new nucleus of 235U, there by setting of a controlled chain reaction. The working of the
reactor in which this reaction takes place is called burner reactor.
16. What is breeder reactor?

Answer.
1. The reactions in which the fertile material gets converted into fissible material are known as
breeder reactions.
2. 238U is a fertile material and can be converted into fissible material plutonium (239Pu) by
neutron bombardment.
3. The reactor in which such breeder reactions take place is known as breeder reactor.
17. What is biomass? Write two disadvantages in direct use of biomass resources as fuels.
The material contained in the bodies of plants and animals is called as biomass. The disadvantages in
the direct use of biomass resources as fuels are as follows: -
2. If the biomass wood is burnt in a traditional manner in chulha, it does not burn completely. This
result in the wastage of precious fuel.
3. Incomplete combustion of wood creates pollution which is hazardous to health.
4. Animal cowdung is rich in nitrogenous and phosphatic compounds which can also serve as best
fertilizers. Combustion of dung cakes causes a loss of vital nutrients of the soil and also leads to
pollution.
18. Explain the indirect use of biomass.

1. Biomass can be used indirectly by converting it into convenient fuel in solid, liquid and gaseous
form.
2. There are two conversion processes. These are biological conversion and thermo chemical
conversion.
3. Biological conversion includes processes like fermentation.
4. Foe thermochemical conversion, a gasifier is needed, have which end product is a mixture of
producer gases like N2, CO, H2, CO2 and CH4.
19. What is biogas? State its components.

1. Biogas is a fuel produced by microbial decomposition of organic matter in absence of oxygen.
2. Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide (CO2), Hydrogen (H2) and hydrogen sulphide
(H2S).
20. State any two uses of biogas.

1. Biogas is used to produce mechanical power in agricultural machinery, water – pumping and to
generate electricity.
2. Biogas is a clean combustion fuel that can be used for cooking, space and water heating and
lighting also.
3. Thus it is used as fuel in industries and at home.
21. What is bio fuel? What does it include?

1. Bio fuels are renewable energy resources obtained from biomass.
2. Bio fuels include ethanol, Biodiesel, bio hydrogen and biogas.
22. What are fuels? How are they classified?

Fuels are the substances, which on combustion produce energy in the form of heat that can be used for
various purposes. There are three main types of fuels such as solid fuels, liquid fuels and gaseous fuels.
1. Solid fuels:- The main solid fuels are wood, coal and coke.
2. Liquid fuels: - The main liquid fuels are petroleum and petro – products namely gasoline.
Kerosene, diesel, fuel – oil etc.
3. Gaseous fuels: - Gaseous fuels are classified into two main types (i) Natural gases (ii)
Artificial gases.
i. Natural gaseous fuels include in methane, ethane, butane etc.
ii. Artificial gaseous fuels include coal gas, oil gas, petrol gas, water gas and
producer gas.
23. How are gaseous fuels classified? Give examples.

1. Gaseous fuels are classified as natural gaseous fuels and artificial gaseous fuels.
2. Artificial gaseous fuel includes coal gas, oil gas, petrol gas, water gas and producer gas.
3. Natural gaseous fuels include Methane, ethane, butane etc.
24. What is calorific value? State the calorific value of coal, LPG, Kerosene and wood.
The heat liberated in joule on complete burning of one unit of duel is expressed as it’s calorific
value.
Name of Fuel Calorific Value KT/g

Coal 25-33
LPG 55
Kerosene 48
Wood 17
Q5. ANSWER BRIEFLY.
2. Explain the working of solar cooker with the help of a neat and labelled diagram.
Answer. A solar cooker is a device that uses solar power to cook food. The first known solar cooker
was built by Horace de Saussure in 1767.

1. Solar cooker are available in many designs of different shapes and sizes.
2. A box type solar cooker is as shown in figure. The box is made up of a non – conducting
material like plastic or fibreglass.
3. The walls of the box are made thick with a linking of non – conducting material to prevent the
loss of heat.
4. The inner surface of the cooker is painted black which absorbs 98% of the incident solar
radiation.
5. It has a glass cover on the top which facilitates retention of heat inside the box.
6. Food to be cooked is kept in shallow vessel which is placed in the inner box. The outer
surfaces of the shallow vessel are also painted black.
7. A plane mirror is hinged on the top of the box which is adjusted in such a way that maximum
radiation is reflected into the enclosure.
8. The temperature inside the solar cooker is about 1000C – 1400C when kept in the sun for two
hours.
3. Explain the working of solar water heater with the help of a neat and labelled diagram.
Answer.
1. A simple type of solar water heater used for domestic purpose mainly consists of two parts
i. An insulated storage tank
ii. A flat plate collector.
2. In flat plate collector, copper pipes with it’s outer surface painted black are fixed in the form of
a coil in a box. Bending of pipes helps to increase the surface area for heating.
3. The insulated storage tank is connected to the flat plate collector by copper pipe. One end of
the pipe is connected to the bottom of the tank while other end is connected to the bottom of
the tank while other end is connected to the middle of the tank.
4. A reservoir or storage tank is kept at a higher level. It is used to store cold water and is
connected to the insulated storage water tank.
Working
1. The water in the flat plate collector continuously circulates through copper pipe absorbing
solar radiation and gets heated up.
2. Once the water gets heated up it expands and it becomes lighter and rises to the top of the
storage tank. Hot water is lighter and remains in the upper part of the tank. The hot water can
be drawn through a tap.
3. Its place is taken by the cold water from the bottom of the reservoir tank.
6. Explain calorific value of fuels? How is calorific value determined?

Answer. The heat liberated in joule on complete burning of one gram of fuel is expressed as its
calorific value.
1. The calorific value is determined by burning a known mass (m) of fuel.
2. All the heat produced is utilised to heat known mass of liquid in a container.
3. Loss of heat is kept to a minimum value.
4. The quantity of heat produced by fuel is calculated by measuring the rise in temperature of
liquid in a container.
5. Let the heat produced by burning fuel of mass m, is completely used to heat water of mass m1
and copper calorimeter of mass m2.
If rise in temperature of water in the container is t, then the heat lost by the fuel is given by;
Q = m1 c1 t + m2 c2 t
Where c1 = Specific heat of water
c2 = specific heat of calorimeter.
Calorific value is expressed in Joule per gram (S.I. unit) and (C.G.S. unit)

7. TYPES OF ENERGY
Q1. A. CHOOSE THE CORRECT ALTERNATIVES AND REWRITE THE CORRECT SENTENCES.
1. Energy ______________
(is the stored ability to do work, can be created or can be destroyed, cannot be converted
from one form into another, exists only in mechanical form)
2. The energy stored in water in the reservoir at a height above the ground is __________ energy.
(Potential energy, kinetic energy, mechanical energy, electrical energy)
3. ____________ possesses kinetic energy.

(Running water, water in the lake at sea level, water in the dam, stone at the foot of a hill)
4. The potential energy of a body at rest on the earth’s surface is equal to _________
(zero J, 100 J, 50 J, 980 J)
5. The potential energy of your body is minimum when _______

(you are sitting in a chair, you are sitting on the ground, you lie down on the floor, you stand
on the floor)
6. When you compress coil, potential energy __________________

(increases, decreases, remains unchanged, becomes zero)
7. In SI system, the unit of work is _________

(potential, kinetic, mechanic, heat)
8. The SI unit of energy is _____________

(erg, Newton, joule, kW – hr)
9. For an object released from some height _________

a. PE is maximum when it reaches the ground.
b. The sum of change in the kinetic energy and change in potential energy, is zero.
c. The kinetic energy goes on decreasing.
d. The mechanical energy goes on increasing till the object reaches the ground.
10. Example of potential energy is ___________

(running water, water in the lake at sea level, water in the dam, Stone at the foot of a hill)
B. FILL IN THE BLANKS.
1. Energy is measured in terms of capacity to do work.

2. Bullet firmed from the gun possesses kinetic energy.
3. Kinetic energy and the potential energy together make up the total mechanical energy of an object.
4. A ball thrown upwards will continue to go up till it has upward velocity.
5. Friction is a resistive force.
6. Electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy in electrical fans.


1. Energy: - Energy is defined as the stored ability of a body to do work.
2. Kinetic energy: - The energy possessed by a body due to its motion is called kinetic energy.
3. Potential energy: - The energy possessed by a body due to its position or configuration is
called potential energy.
4. Mechanical energy: - The energy used to perform mechanical work is called mechanical
energy.
Q3 STATE WHETHER THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS ARE TRUE OR FALSE.
1. Total energy of an isolated system is constant. True.

2. The potential energy of a body at rest on the earth’s surface is zero. True.
3. S.I. unit of energy is erg. False: - S.I. unit of energy is joule.
4. In a telephone at the receiving end electrical signals are converted back into sound. True.
5. Potential energy is always mechanical in nature. False: - Potential energy may be
mechanical or non – mechanical in nature.
4. What is energy? State the S.I. and CGS units of energy.

Energy is defined as the stored ability of a body to do work.
The S.I. and C.G.S. units of energy are Joule and erg respectively
NON TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

1. While playing a child on a slide in a park he reaches the ground with maximum speed.
1. When a child climbs to the top of a slide, he gains potential energy due to height.
2. As he starts sliding down, the height of the child from the ground reduces. Hence his PE
decreases but KE increases.
3. This is because the total energy of a system never changes i.e. PE + KE = constant.
4. Thus as the KE of the child increases, the speed with which he slides too increases.
5. Hence, the child reaches the ground with maximum speed.
2. A stone falling from a height makes a hole in the ground where it falls.
1. A stone at a height possesses potential energy.
2. As it falls towards the ground, its potential energy gets converted into kinetic energy.
3. As it reaches the ground, it uses its kinetic energy to make a hole at the place where it falls.
3. A ball falling from a height bounce on the ground.

1. A ball at a height possesses potential energy.
2. As it falls towards the ground its potential energy gets converted into kinetic energy.
3. Further as the ball is elastic it uses its kinetic energy to bounce back in air.
4. When stone is thrown up, it comes to rest momentarily after reaching certain height.
1. When a stone is thrown upwards it is acted upon acceleration due to gravity in the downward direction.
2. The velocity of the stone decreases and finally become zero at the highest point.
3. Thus, stone comes to rest momentarily after reaching a certain height.
5. For keeping some clocks working it is necessary to wind their springs from time to time.
1. When we wind the spring of a clock we do work on the spring and it gets compressed.
2. This work is stored in the spring in the form of ‘elastic potential energy’.
3. As the spring unwinds, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy which is utilised
for turning the hands of the clock.
4. Hence, in order to keep some clock working, it is necessary to wind their springs from time to time.
6. Kinetic energy is never negative. OR Kinetic energy is always positive.

1. The kinetic energy of a body is the energy possessed by the body on account of its motion. It is
given by the formula
K.E. = 1/2 mv2
Where: - m = mass of the body
v = velocity of the body
2. The mass of the body is always positive. However, the velocity can be negative but its square is
always going to be positive.
Hence, the kinetic energy is never negative.
7. The unit of energy is the same as the unit of work.

1. The energy of body or of a system of bodies is equal to the work they can perform.
2. Thus energy is measured in terms of work done by the body.
3. Hence, energy and work have the same units.
1. What is gravitational potential energy? What are the other forms of potential energy?
Answer.
1. The energy possessed by a body due to its height above the ground level is called
‘Gravitational Potential Energy’. It is denoted by the symbol ‘U’.
2. The other forms of potential energy are:
a. Elastic potential energy (Mechanical form)
b. Electric potential energy (Non – mechanical form).
2. What is mechanical energy? At what condition it remains constant?

Answer.
1. The energy used to perform mechanical work is called mechanical energy.
2. Mechanical energy remains constant if
a. There are no external forces working on the body.
b. The internal forces of the body are conservative.
c. There are no sudden changes in the motion of the body..
3. Give two examples of conversion of chemical energy into mechanical energy.

Answer.
1. The two examples of conversion of chemical energy into mechanical energy are.
a. When a bomb explodes, its chemical energy is converted into mechanical energy
(kinetic energy) of the constituents.
b. In a steam engine, the chemical energy of fossil fuels (coal) is converted into
mechanical energy (kinetic energy).
4. State four examples of conversion of electrical energy into other forms.

1. The four examples of conversion of electrical energy into other forms are:
a. Electrical energy to heat energy. Electric heater.
b. Electrical energy to light energy. Electric bulb.
c. Electrical energy to sound energy. Telephone receiver.
d. Electrical energy to chemical energy. Charging battery.
5. State two applications of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy.

1. The two applications of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy are.
a. Working of electric fan.
b. Raising of water to the overhead tank of a building.
6. Work done is related to the amount of energy transformed from one form to another.
Explain the statement with suitable examples.
1. Energy is the cause of work. When we do the work of lifting or throwing an object, the energy
stored within our body is converted into the “kinetic energy” of the object.
2. For example, when we use a pulley to draw water from a well. We do the work of pulling the
rope. The energy stored in our body is used to raise the bucket full of water through a height.
3. Hence our energy is transformed into the potential energy of the bucket.
7. State the various uses of solar energy.

4. The various uses of solar energy are
a. Heating of land and water.
b. During photosynthesis in plants.
8. Television is common example that uses conversion of energy from one form to another. Explain.
1. In a television, the audio (sound energy) and pictures (light energy) are first converted into
electrical signals. These signals are transmitted by the broadcasting stations.
2. Our television sets receive these electrical signals and once again re-converts them into
audio(sound energy) and pictures(light energy).
Thus television is common example that uses conversion of energy from one form to another.
9. When the potential energy of a body is lost, an exactly equal amount of kinetic energy is
gained by the body – Explain the statements with an example.
1. The total energy of an isolated system at any instance is the sum of its kinetic energy and potential
energy and it is always constant. i.e. K.E + P.E. = E (Where ‘E’ is the constant)
2. When a body of mass ‘m’ is at a height ‘h’, then its P.E. at that height is ‘mgh’. it has no KE
3. When the body falls towards the earth under the force of gravity and reaches the ground, then its KE at
the ground level is . It has no P.E.
4. From eq(2) and eq(3)
Hence, when potential energy is lost, and exactly equal amount of kinetic energy is obtained.
10. Explain how the total energy of the stone is conserved when it is dropped from a height ‘h’ from the
ground. (OR) Explain how potential energy is converted into Kinetic Energy? (OR) Prove that
potential energy of a body is lost are exactly equal to kinetic energy of a body obtained.
A stone at rest on top of a hill possesses potential energy. If it rolls down the hill, its potential energy goes
on decreasing while its kinetic energy goes on increasing. When the stone reaches the bottom of the hill, all
its energy is kinetic. The potential energy of the stone when it is on the top of the hill gets converted into
kinetic energy when it reaches the bottom.

For Eg.
1. When a body (say stone) of mass (m) (say some kg.) is raised to a height (h) from the ground. The work is
done against the gravitational force. This work is stored in the body in the form of potential energy. Hence,
the potential energy of the body at the point A is mgh.
2. If the body is released from the point A its initial potential energy = mgh. Since, the body is initially at rest;
its kinetic energy is zero.
But, we know that,
Total energy of the body = Potential energy + Kinetic energy
3. When the body is released it falls down due to gravitational force. Its velocity goes on increasing. Let V be
the velocity of the body, Now
11. The energy gets converted from usable form to unusable form – Explain the statement with
example.
Answer.
1. When we use fossil fuels like coal or oil or natural gas, chemical energy is converted into heat energy.
2. But only a small portion of this heat energy is used by us drive to our vehicles or to generate electricity
at a thermal power station (usable form).
3. However a major portion of the heat energy is gained by the earth and the atmosphere and it is stored as
the internal energy of the earth.
4. The earth later radiates this energy into space (unusable form).
5. Hence the energy gets converted from usable form to unusable form.
12. “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.” But still we say that fossil fuels will soon be
exhausted. Why?
1. When fossil fuels are burnt, their chemical energy is converted into heat energy. This heat
energy is utilised for driving our vehicles generating electricity etc.
2. This heat energy causes a rise in the temperature of the earth and is stored as the internal
energy of the earth. later, the earth radiates this energy into space and it is lost forever by us.
3. Thus when fossil fuels are burnt, the energy does not get destroyed. Only it is converted from
usable from to unusable form.

13. Explain how electricity is generate and in a hydroelectric power station.

1. In a hydro – electric power station, water is stored in a dam in large reservoirs. These
reservoirs are at a considerable height above sea level.
2. As the water from the dam is allowed to flow under gravity, it rotates the blades of large
turbines.
3. These turbines are connected to electric generators that generate electricity.
4. Hence, in a hydro – electric power station the potential energy of the water stored in a dam is
used to generate electricity.

8. POWER
Q1. (A) CHOOSE THE CORRECT ALTERNATIVES AND REWRITE THE COMPLETE SENTENCES.
1. The SI unit of power is ___________

(HP, Watt, N-M, erg )
2. A truck has more speed than two – wheeler because _________________

(it has more power output, it does more work, it has more energy, the size of the truck is
larger than the two wheeler)
3. 1HP = ______________________
(746 Watt, 36 x 105 J/s, 1000 Watt, 1000 erg/s)
4. Dimensionally, Power = ______________________

(Force x velocity, Force x distance, Work done, Force x acceleration)
B. FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. Power is a scalar quantity.

2. Power is the rate of performing work.
3. When a person climbs the stairs, he does work against the force of gravity.
4. The electrical energy consumed by a 40W electric bulb in 5 hrs is 0.20 kW –hr.
C. STATE WHETHER THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS ARE TRUE OR FALSE.
1. Power is the rate of performing work. True.

2. All persons use the same power to climb equal heights. True.
3. If a machine has more output power than another machine, it will do the work faster. True.
4. Power used in different systems like mechanical, electrical, chemical is equivalent and can be
interrelated. True.
5. Power used depends upon, the directions of displacement in comparison to the applied force.
False – power used do not depends upon the direction of displacement in comparison to the
applied force.
3. Power is related to work yet they are not the same.

1. ‘Work’ represents the amount of mechanical energy used or the amount of force exerted in
order to perform a task. But is does not convey how fast the task if performed.
2. Power is the measure of how fast or slow the work is done. Thus it represents the rate of doing
work.
3. Hence, although power and work are related to each other, yet they are not the same.
4. Commercial unit of power in use is kilowatt.

1. ‘Watt’ is the unit of power in the S.I. system. But t is a very small unit and hence has no
practical usage.
2. hence, Kilowatt (1000W) is more often used for commercial purposes since it is a very large
unit of power.

5. Electricity consumption by us is shown in the bill as kW – hr.

1. Since energy can be transformed from one form to another, hence the work done and the power
consumed or produced by various electrical system is equal i.e. Work done = power consumed by the
appliance is measured in kW.
2. The electrical power consumed by the appliance is measured in kW.
3. Thus the work done or energy consumed is measured in kW-hr, (since W = P x t).
4. Hence, the electrical energy (electricity) consumed by us is shown in the bill as kW – hr.
6. We must learn to consume less electricity.

1. Thousands of tons of coal need to be burnt or millions of cubic metres of water need to be stored at a
great height to produce usable quantity of electricity. This puts a great strain on the resources of our
country.
2. The amount of money paid by the consumer for using this electricity is meagre and can never equal the
loss of natural resources.
3. Hence, we must learn to consume less electricity.
1. What is power? Write its unit in S.I. system.

1. Power is defined as the work done per unit time.
2. In other wards, it is the measure of how fast or slow the work done.
3. The unit of power in the S.I. system is Joule/sec (watt).
2. Which quantity expresses the rate of work? How is it related to work?

1. ‘Power; is the quantity that express the rate of work.
2. ‘Power’ is a measure of how fast or slow the work is done.
3. What is the difference in amount to work to climb up the staircase slowly or run up the stairs?
1. The amount of work done in climbing up a staircase slowly or running up the stairs is the same.
2. This is because the height to which a person climbs is the same in both the case.
3. Hence there is no difference in amount to work to climb up the staircase slowly or run up the stairs.
4. Why is the commercial unit of power different from the S.I. unit?
1. The S.I. unit of power is Watt (W). It is a very small unit and has no practical use.
2. The commercial unit of power is kilowatt (kW). It is a large unit and has practical usage. Thus
the commercial unit of power is different from its S.I. unit.
5. Show that power can be calculated if force and velocity are specified. OR
Derive the formula, Power = Force x Velocity.
6. State the formula to find average power.

Ans. The formula for average power is

9. SOUND
Q1. A. CHOOSE THE CORRECT ALTERNATIVES AND REWRITE THE COMPLETE SENTENCES.
1. Sound waves do not travel through ________________________

(solids, liquids, gases, vacuum)
2. Sound energy is transmitted in the form of ________________________

(longitudinal, electromagnetic, transverse, photoelectric)
3. Velocity of sound is maximum in

(solids, liquids, gases, vacuum)
4. After producing the sound at source and to convert it into echo, the minimum time period
required to hear echo is ____________________
(1sec, 0.5 sec, 0.1sec, 17 sec)
5. The unit of intensity of sound is ___________________

(m/s, watt, decibel, hertz)
Q1. B. FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH APPROPRIATE NUMBER FROM THE COMMON BRACKET.
(0.01, 0.02, 0.4, 0.6, 10, 17, 34, 40, 332, 344)
1. The velocity of sound increases by about ______________ m/s for each degree Celsius rise in
temperature of air.
2. Velocity of sound in dry air at 00C is ___________ m/s.
3. Audible range of human ear is between ______________ kHz to 20 kHz.
4. For hearing distinct echo, the minimum distance of the reflecting surface from the source of
sound must be _____________ m.
5. The level of noise in silence zone should be below ______________ dB.
1. 0.6 m/s 2. 332 m/s 3. 0.02kHz 4. 17m 5. 40

1. Sound is transmitted in the form of transverse waves.
Ans. False: - Sound is transmitted in the form of longitudinal waves.
2. Sound waves are reflected from obstacles. Ans. True.

3. Velocity of sound is different in different media. Ans. True.
4. Velocity of sound is lowest in liquids.
Ans. False – Velocity of sound is lowest in gases.
5. Ultrasound in commonly used in orchestra.

Ans. False – Ultrasound is commonly used in medical diagnosis.
6. Velocity of sound in moist air is lower than the velocity of sound in dry air.
Ans. False -- Velocity of sound in moist air is greater than the velocity of sound in dry air.
7. The intensity of sound created by flying aeroplane is 150 dB,

Ans. True.
“Achieve Success Through OMTEX CLASSES The Home of Text”
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1. Wave: - The pattern of disturbance that travels through medium is known as wave.
2. Echo: - When sound is created it may be reflected by a large surface (like hill or a wall0 and
heard by an observer. This reflection sound is known as echo.
3. Reflection of sound: - When one shouts into a wall or inside a empty hall, one hears his own
sound after sometime which is known as reflection of sound.
4. Noise: - An unnecessary, unpleasant, intolerable and unwanted sound is called as noise.
5. Intensity: - The amount of sound energy received per second from the source of sound is
called intensity of sound.
1. THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IS AFFECTED BY WIND VELOCITY.

• When sound travels in the direction of the wind, the observed velocity of sound is greater. This is
because the velocity of sound is equal to sum of the actual velocity of sound and velocity of the wind.
• On the other hand, when sound travels in a direction opposite to that of the wind, the observed
velocity of sound will be lower because effective velocity of the sound will be the difference of
velocity of sound and velocity of the wind.
• If the wind is blowing in a direction inclined to the direction of the sound, the effective velocity of
the sound is affected by components of the wind velocity in the direction of velocity of the sound.
• Thus, the velocity of sound is affected by wind velocity.
2. WHISTLE OF A PASSING TRAIN IS CLEARLY HEARD ON A QUIET MISTY NIGHT.

1. The velocity of sound in moist air is greater than the velocity of sound in dry air.
2. Therefore an increase in humidity increases the velocity of the sound in air.
3. At night when humidity tends to rise, the sound travels faster and can be heard more clearly
on a quiet misty night.
4. Thus, whistle of passing trains is clearly heard on a quiet misty night.
NON TEXTUAL QUESTION

1. WHEN A GONG OF A BELL IS STRUCK WITH A HAMMER SOUND IS PRODUCED.
1. When a gong is struck with a hammer, the gong is set into vibrations and sound waves are propagated in
the air.
2. When these waves reach the ear, the ear drum is set into vibration.
3. These vibrations are communicated to brain and we get the sensation of hearing.
4. Thus, when a gong of bell is struck with a hammer sound is heard.
2. MEDIUM IS ESSENTIAL FOR PROPAGATION OF SOUND.

1. Minute amount of energy is carried to our ears by sound waves. This energy stimulates the sensation of
sound.
2. Medium transmits the sound waves to the ear.
3. Hence, medium is essential for propagation of sound.
3. SOUND CANNOT BE HEARD ON THE SURFACE OF THE MOON.

1. Sound requires a material medium for its propagation.
2. Since there is no atmosphere on the moon, sound cannot propagate on the moon.
3. Thus, sound cannot be heard on the surface of the moon.
4. WE CANNOT HEAR THE EXPLOSIONS TAKING PLACE ON THE SUN.

1. Sound requires a material medium for its propagation.
2. There is a vacuum between the sun and the earth for a considerable distance.
3. Hence, the sound explosions cannot reach the earth.
4. Therefore, we cannot hear the explosions taking place on the sun.

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5. WE CANNOT HEAR ECHO AT HOME.

1. Echo can be heard only if reflecting surface is at a distance greater than 17 metres.
2. At home, the distance between two walls is less than 17 metres so echo cannot be heard at home.
6. THE PRINCIPLE OF ECHO IS USED IN SONAR.

1. SONAR systems are used in a ship to detect underwater obstacles and also to measure the depth of a sea.
2. SONAR system consists of transmitter and receiver circuits kept in the ship.
3. From the transmitter sharp pulses of sound are emitted. These pulses travel downward in the water and
are reflected back from the sea bed. The reflected sound is detected by the receiver in the ship.
4. The time interval between the production of sound and its reflection is recorded.
5. Knowing the time and the velocity of sound in water, the depth of the sea is calculated.
6. Thus, the principle of echo is used in SONAR.
7. NOISE POLLUTION IS A HEALTH HAZARD.

1. Several evidence revealed that if a man stays continuously for a long period in an area where sound
intensity is 85 dB or more, his hearing power is affected.
2. It is also causes psychological affects.
3. Prolonged exposure to noise affects digestive system, brain, nervous system.
4. It also causes insomnia and high blood pressure. Thus noise pollution is a health hazard.
Q5. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON:
1. SONAR
1. The principle of echo is used in the SONAR (Sound Navigation and ranging system)
2. SONAR system is used by the ships to detect the underwater obstacles and to measure the depth of the sea.
3. It consists of transmitter and receiver circuits. From transmitter sharp pulses of sound are emitted.
These pulses travel downward in the water and get reflected back from the sea bed.
4. The reflected sound is detected by the receiver in the ship.
5. The time interval between the production of sound and its detection is recorded.
6. Knowing the time and the velocity of sound in water the depth of the sea is calculated.
5. Explain with help of a neat labelled diagram an experiment to show that sound cannot travel
through vacuum (Or) sound requires a medium for propagation.
Ans.

102
1. Suspend an electric bell in a bell jar. Place the bell jar on a plat from provided with a side tube
connected to a vacuum pump. Connect the electric bell in series with a battery and key.
2. Pass the current through the circuit. The bell starts ringing and you hear the sound. You can
also see the hammer striking the gong.
3. Now, start the vacuum pump and gradually remove air from inside the bell jar. The sound you
hear will become weaker and weaker until finally no sound will be heard even though you can
see the hammer striking the gong.
4. Now strop the vacuum pump and allow air to enter the bell jar. You will again hear the sound
of the bell clearly.
Conclusion:- This experiment shows that sound cannot travel through vacuum.
6. A closed assembly hall is to be built in your school. Give your suggestions to avoid sound
pollution with reference to the following points while constructing the assembly hall.
a. Dimensions of assembly hall.
b. Inner surface of the wall.
c. Number of speakers.
d. Arrangement of the speakers.
a. The distance between the walls should be less than 17m. Te height of the ceiling should be less
than 17 m and the ceiling should be dome shaped.
b. Inner surface of the wall should be rough and not plane and smooth. If the walls are plane there
will be many reflections of sound within the hall.
c. There should be two speakers.
d. The speaker should be arranged in such a manner that they are not very close to the audience
and sound waves produced by them are not concentrated at a point.
7. ULTRASOUND.
1. Ultrasound is commonly used in medical diagnosis and therapy.
2. Ultrasound can be reflected from boundaries between the material of different densities.
3. Such waves are now used in place of X-rays to take picture of the interior of a body.
5. It is useful for detecting motion of heart valve and also to locate position of tumour in body.
8. ULTRASONIC SOUND.
1. Sound of high frequencies (720 kHz) is known as ultrasonic sound.
2. The ultrasonic sound is not audible to human beings because the audible range of human ear is between
0.02 kHz to 20 kHz.
3. Bats are able to emit as well as hear ultrasonic sound.
4. While flying bat emits ultrasonic sound. these ultrasonic waves are reflected by the obstacles. The
resulting echo enables the bats to detect the obstacle and avoid collision.
1. HOW IS SOUND PRODUCED? HOW DO WE GET THE SENSATION OF HEARING?

1. Sound is produced by a vibrating body. E.g. vibrating string, vibrating tuning fork, vibrating drum
etc.
2. Due to the vibrations produced, sound waves are propagated in the air. When these waves reach the
ear, the ear drum is set into vibrations.
3. These vibrations are communicated to brain and we get sensation of hearing.
2. WHAT IS A WAVE? GIVE TWO EXAMPLES OF WAVE.

1. The pattern of the disturbances which travels through medium is known as a ‘wave’.
2. The waves are termed as ‘elastic waves’ or ‘mechanical waves’.
3. For e.g. waves on water surface, waves produced by stretched strings.

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3. WHAT ARE THE TWO TYPES OF MECHANICAL WAVES? GIVE EXAMPLES OF EACH.
Ans. The two types of mechanical waves are as follows:
1. Transverse waves: - The waves in which the particles of the medium vibrate about their mean
position in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave are called as
transverse waves. E.g. Waves produced in surface of a liquid like water and in stringed musical
instrument.
2. Longitudinal waves: - The waves in which the particles of the medium vibrate about their
mean position in a direction parallel to the direction of propagation of waves. e.g. Sound waves
produced in air.
5. Write a short note of echo. OR What is an echo? Under what condition can echo be heard?
Ans. An Echo is the repetition of sound, caused by its reflection from a distant surface.
1. The effect of any sound lies on human ear for 1/10th of a second. Hence, human ear cannot
distinguish between two sounds if they are herd within an interval of 1/10th of a second.
2. Therefore, echo can be heard only if the time interval between the direct sound and the
reflected sound is greater than 1/10th of a second.
3. Velocity of sound in air at ordinary temperature is 340m/s. therefore, minimum distance covered by the
sound within 1/10th of second will be 340 x 1/10 = 34 m. In other words echo can be heard only if the
reflecting surface is at a distance greater then 17 meters (34/2 = 17 metres).
6. What are the uses of SONAR system?

Ans. The principle of echo is used in SONAR. (Sound Navigation and Ranging System)
1. SONAR system is used to detect underwater obstacles and to measure the depth of sea.
2. The principle of SONAR is used in industry to detect flaws in the metal blocks or sheets
without damaging them.
7. State the used of ultrasound in the medical diagnosis?

Ans. Ultrasound is used in medical diagnosis and therapy.
1. Ultrasound is used in place of X – rays to take picture of the interior of a body.
3. It is also useful for detecting motion of heart valve and also to locate the position of tumour in
body.
8. Explain the effect of temperature and humidity on the speed (velocity) of sound in air.
Ans. Effect of temperature on speed of sound in air.
1. The velocity of sound in air increases with the increase in temperature.
2. The velocity increases by about 0.6m.s for each degree Celsius rise in temperature of air.
Effect of humidity on speed of sound in air.
1. Humidity is the moistness of the air and it depends upon the water vapour present in the air.
2. Moist air contains more water vapour than dry air. As the water vapour contained in the air
increases, its density increases.
3. It is found that the velocity of sound in moist air is much greater then the velocity of sound in
dry air.
4. Therefore, an increase in humidity increases the velocity of sound in air.
9. Explain the effect of wind on the velocity of sound in air.

1. When sound travels in the direction of the wind, the observed velocity of sound is greater. This
is because the velocity of sound is equal to sum of actual velocity of sound and velocity of the
wind.
2. On the other side, when sound travels in a direction opposite to that of the wind, the observed
velocity of sound will be lower because effective velocity of the sound will be difference of
velocity of sound and the velocity of the wind.
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3. If the wind is blowing in a direction inclined to the direction of the sound, the effective
velocity of the sound is affected by component of the wind velocity in the direction of velocity
of the sound.
10. What is intensity of sound? What is the unit of intensity of sound?

1. Intensity of sound is the amount of sound energy received per second from the source of sound.
2. Unit of intensity of sound is decibel (dB).
Q7. ANSWER BRIEFLY.

1. Explain an experiment to demonstrate propagation of sound through air.
Ans. To understand the propagation of sound in air let us consider a tunning fork. A tunning form has
one stem and two prongs.
1. Above figure shows a tunning fork at rest. The air near the fork is shown in the form of equidistant layers.
2. When the prong is set into vibration its prongs bend outward and inward alternately.
3. When the prongs are bending outward, the layers of air adjacent to the fork are pressed together
forming a compression ‘C’ as shown in the figure.
4. When the prongs are bend inward, the layers of air adjacent to the fork, get separated forming a
rarefaction ‘R’ as shown in the figure.
5. By this time, the compression which was formed earner has moved away on account of elasticity of air.
6. As prongs vibrate rapidly alternate compression and rarefactions are produced alternately.
7. They travel through air in the form of longitudinal waves.
8. Thus, sound propagates in air in form of longitudinal waves.
2. Describe an experiment to demonstrate reflection of sound waves.

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1. Take two hollow tubes (T1 and T2) and keep them inclined to surface MN as shown in the figure.
2. Keep a clock near the rear end of one hollow tube (T1). Hold your ear close to the rear end of other
hollow tube (T2).
3. Place a screen in between the two tubes so that sound of the clock coming from one rube does not reach
directly to your ear.
4. Adjust the position of the second tube in such a way that the ticking sound is heard loudly and clearly.
5. Measure the angles between the axis of each tube and normal to the reflecting surface AB. You will
find that the two angles are equal i.e. angle of incidence (i) = angle of reflection (r)
4. Describe with the help of a diagram how SONAR is used to detect the depth of the sea.
Ans.
1. The principle of echo is used in the SONAR (Sound Navigation and ranging system)
2. SONAR system is used by the ships to detect the underwater obstacles and to measure the depth of the sea.
3. It consists of transmitter and receiver circuits. From transmitter sharp pulses of sound are emitted.
These pulses travel downward in the water and get reflected back from the sea bed.
4. The reflected sound is detected by the receiver in the ship.
5. The time interval between the production of sound and its detection is recorded.
6. Knowing the time and the velocity of sound in water the depth of the sea is calculated.
5. Describe an experiment to determine the velocity of sound in air.

Ans.
1. An observer 'A' is stationed with a gun on top of a hill. Another observer 'B' is stationed with a
stopwatch on top of another hill, a few kilometres away.
2. The observer 'A' fires the gun, as soon as the observer 'B' sees the flash, he starts the stopwatch and
when he hears the sound of the gun, he stops the stopwatch.
3. As the velocity of light is very large (i.e. 3, 00,000 km/s) the time taken for light to travel from A to B
is negligible. Therefore, the time recorded by the stopwatch is equal to the time taken for sound to
travel from A to B.
4. Now, dividing the distance between A and B by the time recorded by the stopwatch, we get the velocity
of sound in air.

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10. HEAT
Q1. A. FILL IN THE BLANKS.
1. Aquatic plants and animals survive in the cold region because of an anomalous expansion of water.
2. The temperature at which, air becomes saturated with water vapour is called a dew point.
3. The dampness or moisture of air, due to water vapour it contains is humidity.
4. In CGS system unit of specific heat capacity is cal/kg0g.
5. The specific heat of water is maximum.
6. Density of water is maximum at 40C.
7. The mass of water vapour per unit volume of air is called absolute humidity.
8. At dew point relative humidity is Bu 100% .
9. The substance having specific heat 1 Kcal/kg0C water.
10. The quantity of heat that raises the temperature of a unit mass of substance by 10C is called specific heat.
11. When we rub our hands each other mechanical energy is converted into heat energy.
12. The steam engine drives a train because of conversion of the steam into the mechanical.
13. When liquid is heated it is converted into gas.
14. When water is heated from 00C to 40C is initially its volume contracts upto 40C.
B. STATE WHETHER THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS ARE TRUE OR FALSE.

1. Anomalous behaviour of water can be studies by calorimeter.
False: - Anomalous behaviour of water can be studies by Hope’s apparatus.
2. In the winter pipelines carrying the water burst when the temperature of the atmosphere falls below 00C.
False: - In the winter, sometimes the pipelines carrying the water burst when the temperature of the
atmosphere falls below 40C.
3. The crumbling of the rock is due to an anomalous expansion of the water. True.
4. Specific heat capacity is different for different substances. True.
5. When relative humidity is below 60% we feel that air is moist. False: - When relative humidity is below
60% we feel that air is dry.

1. Kilocalorie: - Kilocalorie is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water through
10C from 14.50C to 15.50C.
2. Specific Heat Capacity: - The specific heat capacity of substance is defined as the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance through 10C.
3. Dew Point: - The temperature at which air becomes saturated with water vapour is called dew point.
4. Absolute humidity: - The mass of water vapour present in one cubic meter of air is called absolute
humidity.
5. Principle of heat exchange: - If the system of two bodies is kept isolated from the surrounding so that no
heat enters or leaves the systems, then
Heat lost by hot body = Heat gained by cold body.
6. Relative humidity: - Relative humidity is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour present in a given
volume of air to the mass of water vapour required to saturate the same volume at the same temperature.
7.
Unit of specific heat capacity: - In M.K.S = K cal / kg 0C, in C.G.S = cal /g 0C.
8. Calorie: - The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 10C from
14.50C to 15.50C is called calorie.

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6. In cold countries during winter even through the lakes are frozen, fish and other aquatic
animals and plants can survive in it.
.
1. In cold countries, during winter, the temperature of the atmosphere falls well below 00 C.
2. As the temperature decreases, the water at the surfaces of lakes and ponds starts contracting.
3. Hence, its density increases and it sinks to the bottom. This process continues till the
temperature of all the water in the lake falls to 40 C.
4. As the water at the surface cools further, its temperature falls below 40 C, it starts expanding
instead of contracting.
5. Therefore, its density decreases and it remains at the surface. The temperature of the water at
the surface continues to fall to 00 C.
6. Finally, the water at the surface is converted into ice, but the water below the layer of ice is at
40 C.
7. Ice is a bad conductor of heat. Hence, the layer of the ice at the surface does not allow transfer
of heat from the water to the atmosphere.
8. As the water below the layer of ice remains at 40 C, fish and other aquatic animals and plants
can survive in it.
7. If a beaker/glass containing ice cubes is placed in a table, its outer surface becomes wet in a little while.
1. When ice cubes are placed in a beaker, ice starts melting. The heat required for melting is
absorbed from the surrounding air and also from the beaker to some extent. Hence, the
temperature of the air and beaker falls.
2. The capacity of air to hold water vapour depends upon the temperature of the air, and this
capacity decreases as the temperature decreases. At a certain low temperature, the surrounding
air becomes saturated with water vapour present in it.
3. As the temperature falls further, the air is unable to hold all the water vapour. Hence, the extra
water vapour starts condensing on the cold outer surface of the beaker in the form of minute drops.
Therefore, the outer surface of beaker becomes wet after some time.
8. The density of water is maximum at 40C

1. In the temperature range between 40C to 00C water expands.
2. Here the volume of a given mass of water is increases and the density of the given mass of
water decreases and it is maximum at 40C.
3. Thus, the density of water is maximum at 40C.
9. The volume of water is minimum at 40C.

1. In the temperature range between 40C to 00C water expands.
2. Here the density of a given mass of water is decreases and the volume of the given mass of
water increases and it is minimum at 40C.
3. Therefore, the volume of water is minimum at 40C
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8. The density of water is minimum at 00C

1. In the temperature range from 00C to 40C water contracts.
2. Here the volume of a given mass of water decreases and the density of given mass of water increases
and it is minimum at 00C.
Hence, the density of water is minimum at 00C.
9. The volume of water is maximum at 00C

1. In the temperature range from 00C to 40C water contracts.
2. Here the density of given mass of water increases and the volume of given mass of water decreases and
it is maximum at 00C.
10. If you cool water below 40C, it begins to expand.

1. Most of the liquids expand on heating and contract on cooling ever a moderate range of the
temperature.
2. But water shows a marked exceptional behaviour below 40C.
3. When water is cooled below 40C, then due to its anomalous behaviour, it expands instead of
contracting.
4. Hence, when water is cooled below 40C, it expands.
13. Spectacles of a person ‘steam up’ after coming from a frosty early morning.
1. The outside temperature of a cold morning air is below the ‘dew point’ of the warm air inside the room.
2. Thus, when a person enters a warm room after walking in the cold air outside, the water vapour on his
spectacles condense into tiny droplets of water.
3. hence, the spectacles of a person ‘steam up’ after coming from a frosty early morning
14. Write the unit of heat in M.K.S and C.G.S system

Answer. Unit of heat in
M.K.S. system is Kilocalorie.
C.G.S system is Calorie.
15. Explain the formation of dew and fog.

Answer. During the day time the quantity of water vapour in air is not sufficient to saturate the air. During
the cold night temperature may fall to dew point. At this temperature air becomes saturated with water
vapour.
As the temperature falls below the dew point, water vapour in air condenses on the surface of cold
bodies and dew is formed. Sometimes condensation of water vapour occurs on the fine dust particles
present in the atmosphere and this gives rise to the formation of fog or moist.
16. Explain Hope’s apparatus with the help of neat and labelled diagram.

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1. Initially, the cylindrical vessel in Hope’s apparatus is filled with water at about 100C and the trough is
filled with a freezing mixture of ice and salt.
2. Initially, both the thermometers show the same temperature. In a short time, the temperature shown by
the lower thermometer starts decreasing, while the temperature shown by the upper thermometer
remains almost unchanged.
3. This process continues till the temperature shown by the lower thermometer shown by the lower
thermometer falls to 40C and remains constant thereafter. This shows that in the temperature range 10
0
C to 40C, the density of the water in the central part of the vessel goes on increasing and hence the
water sinks to the bottom. It means that water contracts as its temperature falls from 100C to 40C.
4. As the temperature of the water in the central part of the vessel becomes less than 40C, the temperature
shown by the upper thermometer begins to fall rapidly to 0 0C. After some time, a thin layer of ice is
formed at the surface of the water in the vessel. But the temperature shown by the lower thermometer
remains constant (i.e. 40C)
5. In the temperature range 40C to 0 0C, the water moves upward. This shows that the density of water
goes on decreasing in this range. It means that water expands as its temperature falls from 40C to 00C.
6. Thus the volume of a given mass of water is minimum at 40C, the density of water is maximum at 40C.
17. A piece of ice is melted by heating it, what will be the effects on its mass, volume, density and
molecular structure.
18. What changes will occur in the (1) volume (2) mass (3) density and (4) state when the
temperature of water is reduced from 40C to 00C?
Answer. When the temperature of water is reduced from 40C to 00C,
1. Its volume will increase
2. Its mass will remain the same
3. Its density will decrease
4. It will freeze at 00C (i.e. it will be converted into ice)
19. Explain principle of heat exchange.

Answer. Principle of heat exchange
1. When a hot body and a cold body are kept together, the temperature of hot body goes on
decreasing while that cold body goes on increasing until both bodies attain the uniform
temperature.
2. In this process the hot body losses heat and the cold body gains heat. If no heat enters or leaves
the system then,
Application: - Principle of heat exchange is used to determine specific heat capacity of any
substance with the help of calorimeter.
11. Describe an experiment to show that different substances have different specific heat
capacities. OR Describe an experiment to show that the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of the bodies, having the same mass but made of different substances, through
the same range is different in each case. OR
Describe an experiment to show that the quantity of heat given out by the bodies, having the
same mass but made of different substances, when thy cool through the same temperature
range is different in each case.

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Procedure: -
1. Take three solid spheres of equal mass made of copper, iron and lead. Heat them together in
water.
2. When the water begins to boil, remove the three spheres and keep them on three thick slabs of
paraffin wax immediately.
Observation: -
1. We find that the three different spheres penetrate to different depths in the slab of wax and the
quantity of wax melted is different for the three spheres.
2. The iron sphere will go the deepest into the wax slab. This shows that iron has absorbed more
heat from the boiling water since its specific heat capacity is maximum.
3. Consequently it will also release more heat to the wax slab. This will result in more melting of
wax. The opposite will be the care for the lead sphere.
4. The copper sphere will penetrate in the wax slab, in between iron and lead sphere.
5. The sphere that radiates more heat melts more wax.
Conclusion:-
1. All the spheres have the same mass. Their initial temperature was the same. Also, their final
temperature (on cooling) is the same. Even then the quantity of wax melted is different in each
case.
2. This shows that the quantity of heat absorbed by each sphere from hot water must be different.
This shows that different substances have different specific heat capacities.
12. Name an experiment in which a calorimeter is used.

Answer. A calorimeter is used in the experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance
by the method of mixture.
13. Why do we use a copper vessel in a calorimeter?

Answer.
1. Copper is a good conductor of heat.
2. Copper has low specific heat capacity.
3. Copper is not highly reactive and is durable.
Hence, a copper vessel is used in a calorimeter.
14. Why is the calorimeter is kept surrounded by a non conducting material.

Answer. A calorimeter is surrounded by a non conducting material so that there is no exchange of heat
between the substance kept in the calorimeter and the surroundings.
15. State the uses of the thermometer and stirrer in a calorimeter.

Answer. A thermometer is used to determine the temperature of the substance kept in the calorimeter.
A stirrer is used to stir the substance kept in the calorimeter so that there is uniformity of temperature.
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17. Explain the determination of specific heat by the method of mixtures.

1. The specific heat capacity of any metal can be found by the ‘Method of mixtures’.
2. The apparatus for this experiment consists of a calorimeter surrounded by wool which is kept
in a wooden box, The calorimeter is filled with water.
3. A hot solid is introduced into the water present in the calorimeter.
4. The heat is transferred from the hot solid to water and the calorimeter.
5. This heat transfer continues till all of them like hot solid, water and calorimeter attain the same
temperature.
6. Then according to the principle of heat exchange.
Thus, Heat lost by hot solid = Heat gained by water + Heat gained by calorimeter
7. Using the above formula, we can determine the specific heat capacity of the metal.
18. How will you determine the specific heat of a metal using the method of mixture?
1. The specific heat of a metal can be determined by the method of mixtures. The apparatus consists of a
calorimeter surrounded by wool (to prevent loss of heat by conduction) is kept in a wooden box.
2. When a hot solid is introduced into the water in a calorimeter, heat is transferred from a hot solid to the
water and the calorimeter.
3. Such transfer of heat continues till the solid, water and calorimeter attain same temperature.
4. Note that calorimeter is surrounded by non – conducting material like wood, thermacol and cotton to avoid
heat transfer due to radiation to surrounding vice versa.
5. Then according to the principle of heat exchange.
Thus, Heat lost by hot solid = Heat gained by water + Heat gained by calorimeter
6. Using the above formula, we can determine the specific heat capacity of the metal.
19. What is a dew point? What information is obtained from the dew point?
1. Dew point is the temperature at which is saturated with the water vapour that it contains.
2. The dew point of the air depends upon the quantity of water vapour in the air.
3. Dew point conveys the information that whether air is saturated or unsaturated with the water
vapour that it contains.
If the temperature of air is equal to the dew point, it means the air is saturated. If the temperature is
below the dew point, it implies that the air is unsaturated.

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11. LIGHT
Q1. FILL IN THE BLANKS.
1. The image formed by a concave lens is always virtual and erect.

2. A convex lens forms a virtual image of an object placed between F1 and the optical centre ‘O’.
3. A ray of light passing through a prism suffers minimum deviation when the angle of incidence
is equal to the angle of emergence.
4. The apparent depth of an object placed in a denser medium and seen through a rarer medium is
less than the real depth.
5. A concave lens always forms the image between the focus and the optical centre, whatever
may be the position of the object.
6. If the image formed of a person is always virtual and erect, no matter how far the person is
from the lens, the lens must be a concave lens.
7. The change in focal length of the eye to view objects at different distances is brought about by
the power of accommodation.
8. The least distance of distinct vision is 25cm.
9. Motion picture technique uses the property of the eye called Persistence of vision.
10. A simple microscope is called a magnifying glass.
Q2. Define the following
1. Angle of incidence: - The angle between the normal and the incident ray is called as the angle
of incidence.
2. Angle of reflection: - The angle between the normal and the reflected ray is called as angle of
reflection.
3. Angle of refraction: - The angle between the normal and the refracted ray is called as angle of
refraction.
4. Angle of emergence: - The angle between the normal and the emergent ray is called as angle
of emergence.
5. Angle of deviation: - In propagation of a ray of light through a prism, the angle between the
directions of the incident ray and the emergent ray is called the angle of deviation.
6. Angle of minimum deviation: - The minimum value of the angle of deviation is called the
angle of minimum deviation.
7. Converging lens:- If the rays of light parallel to the principal axis of a lens, after passing
through the lens, converge to a point on the principal axis, the lens is called converging lens.
8. Diverging lens: - If the rays of light parallel to the principal axis of a lens, after passing
through the lens, appear to diverge from a point on the principal axis, the lens is called a diverging lens.
9. Centres of curvature of a lens: - The centres of the spheres, of which the surface of a lens
form parts, are called the centres of curvature of the lens.
10. Radii of curvature of a lens: - The radii of the spheres, of which the surface form parts, are
called the radii of curvature of the lens.
11. Principal axis of a lens: - A straight line passing through the centre of curvature of a lens is
called the principal axis of the lens.
12. Optical centre of a lens: - The optical centre of a thin lens is a point on the principal axis of
the lens such that a ray directed towards it emerges through the lens without deviation and
lateral displacement.
13. Focal length of a lens: - This optical centre of a thin lens is a point on the principal axis of the
lens such that a ray directed towards it emerges through the lens without deviation and lateral
displacement.
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14. Principal focus of a convex lens: - When rays of light parallel to the principal axis of a
convex lens pass through the lens, the point one the principal axis at which they converge, is
called principal focus of the convex lens.
15. Principal focus of a concave lens: - When rays of light parallel to the principal axis of a
concave lens pass through the lens, the point on the principal axis at which they appear to
diverge, is called the principal focus of the concave lens.
16. Magnification produced by a lens: - The ratio of the size of the image to the size of the
object is called the magnification produced by the lens.
17. Power of lens: - Power of a lens is defined as the degree of convergence or divergence
produced by the lens.
18. Short - sightedness / myopia: - The defect of vision in which a person can see nearby objects
clearly, but cannot see distant objects clearly, is called short - sightedness (Myopia).
19. Long - sightedness / hypermetropia:- The defect of vision in which a person can see distant
objects clearly, but cannot see nearby object clearly, is called long - sightedness
(hypermetropia).
20. Reflection of light: - The change in the direction of propagation of light on being incident on a
polished surface, to its original medium of propagation is called as reflection of light.
21. Refraction of light: - The change in direction of propagation of the ray of light when it enters
obliquely from one transparent medium to another transparent medium, is called refraction of
light.
22. Refractive index: - Refractive index or absolute refractive index of the medium is defined as
the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.
3. WRITE A NOTE ON PRESBYOPIA DEFECT OF THE EYE. AND CAUSES AND REMEDY
PRESBYOPIA
CAUSE: - As one grows old, the ciliary muscles become weak. As a result of this the power of
accommodation is reduced. In this defect one is usable to see nearby objects clearly. It generally
occurs beyond the age of 40 years.
REMEDY: - It can be corrected by using spectacles having convex lenses of suitable focal length
4. Explain persistence of vision. Give one example of persistence of vision.

PERSISTENCE OF VISION:-We see an object when its image is formed on the retina. The
image disappears as soon as the object is removed from our sight. But the impression of the image
on the retina lasts for about 1/10th of the second. This is known as persistence of vision. Hence we
continue to see the object even after it is removed.
Example: - When a burning stick of incense is moved fast in a circle, a circle of red light is seen.
5. Explain the term "distance of distinct vision."

DISTANCE OF DISTINCT VISION:-Though the focal length of the eye lens is adjustable, it cannot be
reduced below a certain limit. Due to this, an object held very close to the eye could not be seen clearly.
For a normal eye, the minimum distance at which the object can be seen clearly without strain on
the eye is about 25cm. This distance is known as the least distance of distinct vision.
6. What is dispersion of light? Explain what is spectrum.

Answer. When a thin white ray of light is made to pass through a prism, it gets refracted and also
splits into seven different colours.

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Dispersion: - Separation of a beam of light into its seven constituent colours is known as dispersion of light.
Spectrum: - The coloured band of light when obtained on a screen is called spectrum of white light.
The spectrum has seven colours in the following order red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
7. What is the cause of dispersion of light?

White light is a mixture of seven colours. When a white ray passes through a prism it splits into its
constituent colours because the refractive index of glass is different for different colours.
8. What are the main observations (interpretation) of dispersion of light?
1. The prism produces deviation of light passing through it.

2. The prism splits the beam into its constituent colours.
3. The deviation of red light is minimum, while that of violet light is maximum.
4. On the screen a band of colours as in a rainbow is observed and is known as spectrum.
9. What will happen if two prisms are kept near each other, as shown in the figure and a beam
Of white light is made incident on the surface of one of them?
A spectrum will be formed due to the first prism. The rays corresponding to the various colours will
be combined by the second prism and hence white light will be obtained again.
Q3. Answer the following
1. What is meant by refraction of light?

Answer. The change in the direction of a ray of light when it passes from one transparent medium to
another is called refraction of light.
2. What is meant by refractive index?

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3. State the laws of refraction of light.
4. A simple microscope is called a magnifying glass. Why? Explain with a neat diagram. Write
two uses of a simple microscope. OR
Write a short note on simple microscope. State the important uses of simple microscope.
Answer. Simple microscope:- Principle:- When an object is placed within the focal length of a
convex lens, its virtual, erect and magnified image is formed by the lens on the same side of the lens as
that of the object. The working of a simple microscope (a convex lens of suitable focal length) is based
on this principle.
Important uses of simple microscope are:-

1. It is used by watch repairers to observe minute parts of a watch while cleaning or repairing it.
2. It is used by jewellers to examine precious stones and to detect false in them.
3. It is used for reading words in small print.
4. It is used in a laboratory to observe small parts of some instruments.
Example: - To observe the vernier scale reading etc.
5. Describe the experiment to determine the refractive index of glass using a glass slab. (OR)
Describe the experiment to verify the law of refraction of light.
1. Fix a white paper on the drawing board. Place the glass slab on it and mark its outline ABCD.
2. Fix two point P1 and P2 on the side AB such that the pins are vertical and the distance between them
Is about 5cm.
3. Observe through the glass slab from the side CD and fix two pins P3 and P4 on the side CD such that
These pins are exactly in the line with the images of the pins P1 and P2.
4. Remove the pins and mark their positions. Label the positions as P1, P2, P3 & P4 respectively.
Complete the ray diagram as shown in the figure (See below)

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Draw the normal NQN' and MRM' Measure the angles, ∟PQN (i.e. angle i), ∟RQN' (i.e. angle r)
∟QRM (i.e. angle i1) and ∟SRM'(i.e. angle e).
It can be seen from the above description (and the measures of the angles i, r, i1and e) that, when a ray
of light is incident obliquely, on a glass slab, its patch changes.
With Q as the centre draw a circle of radius of 2 cm. Draw EF and GH perpendicular to NN'.
Find the refractive index of glass with respect to air using the formula.
Perform the experiment with the angle of incidence (i) as 300, 400, 500, etc. It is found that
2. The incident ray (PO), the refracted ray (QR) and the normal (NQN') at the point of incidence lie in
the same plane.
3. The incident ray and the refracted ray lie on the opposite sided of the normal.
Thus, the laws of refraction of light are verified.
6. State the laws of refraction. Draw a diagram.

117
16. What is an astronomical telescope? What are its types?

Answer. An astronomical telescope is an optical instrument designed to observe astronomical objects
such as stars, planets, comets etc.
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE are of two types:-
i. Refracting telescope:- In a refracting telescope combination of lens are used.
ii. Reflecting telescope:- In a reflecting telescope combination of mirrors are used.
17. Explain how you will locate an image formed by a concave lens. Draw a ray diagram for
object at any position.
Answer.
1. An incident rays parallel to the principal axis is after refraction moves away from principal
axis and appears to start from the focus on the same side as that of the object.
2. An incident ray passes through optical centre without any deviation.
3. A ray incident from one side of a concave lens and directed towards the focus on the other side
emerges after reflection, parallel to the principal axis.
4. A virtual, diminished and erect image is formed on the same side of the object.
18. How will you locate image formed by a convex lens. Explain it.
Answer.
1. An incident ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the focus on the
other side of the lens.
2. An incident ray passes through optical centre without any deviation.
3. An incident rays passing through the focus on the same side of the object, after refraction
emerges parallel the principal axis.
Any two of the above laws are sufficient to draw a ray diagram.
20. Describe an experiment with a diagram to determine the path of a ray of light passing
through prism. Explain what is angle of minimum deviation. (OR)
With the help of a neat and labelled diagram, describe an experiment to illustrate the refraction
of light through a prism.
1. Fix a white paper on a drawing board. Place the prism on it and mark its outline (ABC). Remove
the prism from the paper.
2. Draw LQ perpendicular to AB as shown in the figure. Draw PQ making an angle of 400 with LQ.
Replace the prism on the paper.
3. Fix two pins P1 and P2 on PQ such that the pins are vertical and the distance between them is about
5cm.
4. Observe through the prism from the side AC and fix two pins P3 and P4 on the side AC such that these
pins are exactly in line with the images of the pins P1 and P2.
5. Remove the prism and the pins from the paper. Mark the positions of the pins P1, P2, P3 and P4
respectively.
6. Complete the ray diagram as shown in the figure. Draw NR perpendicular to AC. Produce LQ and
NR as shown in the figure. Label their point of intersection as M.
7. Produce PQ and SR and label their point of intersection as T. Label the angles I, r, i1, e and δ as
shown in the figure.

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Conclusion: - It can be seen from the ray diagram that

1. PQ is the path of the ray of light before it is incident on the prism.
2. QR is the path of the ray while passing through the prism and
3. RS is the path of the ray of emerging through the prism.
Angle of minimum deviation.

1. Repeat the experiment with angle of incidence as 250, 300, 400 etc.
2. You will find as the angle of incidence is increased the angle of deviation initially decreases,
reaches the minimum value and then goes on increasing.
3. The minimum value of angle of deviation is called, the angle of minim deviation.
4. When the angle of deviation is minimum the angle of incidence (i) is exactly equal to the angle
of emergence (e).
21. Explain the formation of rainbow in the sky. What are the conditions necessary for a
rainbow to be seen in the sky?
Answer. The formation of a rainbow in the sky is a result of dispersion of sunlight by water droplets
present in the atmosphere after it has rained.
The sunlight is a mixture of seven colours: Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.
After it has dropped raining, the atmosphere contains a large number of water droplets. When sunlight
is incident on a water droplets, there is
i. Refraction of light as it passes from air to water.
ii. Internal reflection of light inside the droplet and
iii. Refraction of light as it passes from water to air.
The refractive index of water is different for different colours, being maximum for violet and
minimum for red. Hence, there is dispersion of light (separation into different colours) as it passes
from air to water. (For reference see the figure given below)

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The combined action of different water droplets is to produce a rainbow with red colour at the outer
side and violet colour at the inner side. The rainbow is seen when the sun is on the back side of the
observer (person) and water droplets on the front side.
1. The rays of light coming from the fish bend away from the normal as they travel form water (denser
medium) to air (rarer medium).
2. Hence, the position of the fish in water appears to be above its real position.
Therefore, while shooting a fish in a lake, the gun is aimed below the apparent position of the fish.
22. It is difficult to shoot at a fish deep under water.

Answer.
1. The rays of light coming from the fish bend away from the normal as they travel form water (denser
medium) to air (rarer medium).
2. Hence, the position of the fish in water appears to be above its real position.
Therefore, it is difficult to shoot at a fish deep under water.
23. The sun is seen on the horizon a little before sunrise. (OR)
The sun is seen on the horizon for sometime even after sunset.
Answer.
1. The earth is surrounded by an atmosphere which is denser near the surface of the earth.
2. When the rays of light from the sun enter the earth's atmosphere from outer space, they travel from
a rarer medium to a denser medium. Hence, they bent towards the normal on refraction.
3. Hence, even when the sun is below the horizon while rising or setting, its rays reach us due to
refraction and it appears to be on the horizon.
Therefore, the sun is seen on the horizon a little before sunrise as well as for some time even after
sunset.
24. The pins fixed on one side of a prism, when observed through the prism from the other side,
appears to be shifted away from the base.
Answer.
1. When the rays of light coming from an object are incident on a prism, they are refracted.
2. The emergent rays bend towards the base of the prism as the prism is triangular.
Hence, the pins fixed on one side of a prism, when observed through the prism from the other side,
appear to be shifted away from the base.

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25. Explain one example of refraction found in daily life.

Answer. For reference, see the answer to Q. 4 or Q. 5 or Q. 6 or Q. 9 or Q. 11
26. A convex lens converges the rays of light falling on it.

Answer.
1. A convex lens can be regarded as made up of a very large number of portions of triangular prisms.
2. The base of these prisms is towards the central thicker portion of the lens.
3. A ray of light passing through a prism bends towards its base.
Hence, a convex lens converges the rays falling on it.
27. A convex lens is used to remove (correct) hypermetropia.

Answer.
1. Hypermetropia (long sightedness) arises due to slight flattening of the eyeball.

2. In this case, the distance between the eye lens and the retina is less that that in the case of a normal eye.
3. A person suffering from this defect can see the distant objects clearly as the image of a distant object is
formed on the retina, but cannot see the nearby objects clearly as the image of a nearby object would be
formed behind the retina instead of on the retina.
4. A convex lens converges the ray of light passing through it.
Hence, a rays of light coming from a near by object are converged to some extent before they are
incident on the eye lens. Hence, a convex lens is used to remove hypermetropia.
16. A concave lens is also known as diverging lens.

When rays of light parallel to the principal axis of a concave lens pass through the lens, they appear to
diverge from a point on the principal axis. Hence, a concave lens is also known as divergent lens.
17. An object held very close to the eye cannot be seen clearly.
Answer.
1. The eye lens is held in its position by the ciliary's muscles. When we look at a nearby object, the
ciliary's muscles compress the eye lens so that it bulges out. Hence, the focal length of the eye lens
decreases. Therefore the image is formed on the retina of the eye and hence the object is seen clearly.
2. Though the focal length of the eye lens is adjustable, it cannot be decreased below a certain limit.
3. For a normal human eye, the minimum distance at which an object can be seen clearly without any
strain on the eye is about 25 cm. It is called the least distance of distinct vision.
4. If an object is very close to the eye, it cannot be seen clearly.

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18. A watch repairer uses a convex lens. OR A watch repairers use magnifying glass. OR
A palmist uses a convex lens.
Answer.
1. One gets a magnified view of a minute object by keeping it within the focal length of a convex lens.
2. A watch repairer can see the minute parts of the watch more clearly with the aid of a convex lens
than with a naked eye.
Hence, a watch repairer uses a convex lens.
19. Rapid movement of burning incense stick appears as a complete circle of red light.
Answer.
1. The impression of the image on the retina last for about 1/16th of a second after the removal of the
object.
2. If a burning stick of incense is moved at a rate of more than ten revolutions per second, we see a
complete circle of red light due to persistence of vision.
Hence, when a burning stick of incense is moved fast in a circle, a circle of red light is seen.
20. A person suffering from myopia (short sightedness) uses spectacles of concave lenses.
Answer.
1. Myopia arises due to slight elongation of the eyeball or due to the eye lens. In this cake, the distance
between the eye lens and retina is more than that in the case of a normal eye.
2. A person suffering from this defect can see nearby object clearly as the image of a nearby object is
formed on the retina, but cannot see distant objects clearly as the image of a distant object is formed a
little in front of the retina instead of on the retina.
3. A concave lens diverges the rays of light passing through it. When spectacles of concave lenses of
suitable focal length are used, the parallel rays coming from a distant object are diverged to some
extent before they are incident on the eye lens.
Therefore, the image of a distant object is formed on the retina of the eye and hence the distant object
can be seen clearly.
21. When we enter a dark room suddenly from bright light, we feel total darkness in the
beginning.
Answer.
1. When the light incident on the eyes is very bright, the muscles of the iris reduce the size of the
pupil. When the light is dim, the muscles of the iris increase the size of the pupil.
2. It requires some time for this change in the size of the pupil.
Hence, when we enter a dark room suddenly from bright light, we feel total darkness in the beginning.

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22. The magnification of a real image is negative.

• The ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object is called the magnification produced by the lens.
• A real image is inverted with respect to the object. Therefore, according to the new Cartesians sign
convention, if the height of the object is positive, the height of the image is negative.
Hence, the magnification of a real image is negative.
23. The linear magnification produced by a concave lens is less than one.
1. The ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object is called magnification produced b
the lens.
2. The image produced by a concave lens is smaller than the object.
Hence, the linear magnification produced by a concave lens is less than one.
24. The rays of light travelling through the optical centre of a lens are not deviated or laterally
displaced.
Answer. The portion of a lens near the optical centre is like a very thin slab of glass. Hence, the rays of
light travelling through the optical centre of a lens are not deviated or laterally displaced.
25. The refractive index of any medium is related to the refractive index of air. (OR)
Why is it customary to state the refractive index of a medium with respect to air?
Answer.
1. By convention, the refractive index of a medium should be stated with respect to a vacuum.
2. But, the refractive index of a medium with respect to air is nearly equal to its refractive index
with respect to vacuum.
Hence, it is customary to state the refractive index of a medium with respect to air.
26. Objects seen through a prism appear coloured.

Answer.
1. The prism produces deviation of a beam of light passing through it.
2. The prism also splits the beam into its components colours.
Hence, objects seen through a prism appear coloured.
27. Presbyopia develops after the age of 40 years.

Answer. As one grows old, the ciliary muscles become weak. As a result of this the power of
accommodation is reduced. In this defect one is usable to see nearby objects clearly. It generally
occurs beyond the age of 40 years.
28. Old people use bifocal glasses.

Ans.
1. As a person grows old, the crystalline lens grows in size and the ciliary muscles become weak,
so that the power of accommodations reduced.
2. As a result, it becomes difficult to see nearby objects as well as distant objects clearly.
3. To correct these two defects two lenses than is convex and concave lenses are to be used.
These are put in the same spectacle and are called bifocal glasses.
4. Old people use bifocal glasses so that they can see nearby as well as distant objects clearly.
29. An object which is nearer to the eye appears to be bigger in size than the distant object.
1. The apparent size of the object depends upon the angle it subtends at the eye.
2. An object which is nearer to the eye subtends a larger angle at the eye than an object which is
farther from the eye.
3. Hence, an object which is nearer to the eye appears to be bigger in size than the distant object.

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Q4. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

4. Give two examples in nature, showing the effect of refraction of light. (OR)
Answer. Examples in nature, showing the effect of refraction of light.
1. The bottom of pond appears raised.
2. The sun is seen on the horizon a little before sunrise.
5. What do you find when the angle of incidence of a ray of light falling on a prism is increased gradually
from 350 to 600, and the angle of deviation and the angle of emergence are measured in each case?
1. When the angle of incidence ray of light falling on a prism is increased gradually from 350 to
600, the angle of deviation and the angle of emergence go on changing.
2. Initially, the angle of deviation becomes less and less. For a particular angle of incidence, the
angle of deviation becomes minimum.
3. When the angle of incidence is increased further, the angle of deviation also increases. When
the angle of deviation is minimum, the angle of incidence and the angel of emergence are
exactly equal to each other.
6. State the relation between the refractive index of glass with respect to air (ang) and the
refractive index of air with respect to glass (gna).
7. With the help of a neat and labelled diagram, describe the experiment to show that when a ray of light is incident
obliquely on a glass slab, its path changes. (OR)Explain with the help of an experiment, refraction of light.
1. Fix a white paper on the drawing board. Place the glass slab on it and mark its outline ABCD.
2. Fix two point P1 and P2 on the side AB such that the pins are vertical and the distance between them
is about 5cm.
3. Observe through the glass slab from the side CD and fix two pins P3 and P4 on the side CD such that
these pins are exactly in the line with the images of the pins P1 and P2.
4. Remove the pins and mark their positions. Label the positions as P1, P2, P3 & P4 respectively.
Complete the ray diagram as shown in the figure (See below)

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Draw the normal (Perpendiculars) NQN' and MRM' Measure the angles, ∟PQN (i.e. angle i),
∟RQN' (i.e. angle r) ∟QRM (i.e. angle i1) and ∟SRM'(i.e. angle e).
It can be seen from the above description (and the measures of the angles i, r, i1and e) that, in
the absence of glass slab, the ray of light would have travelled along the path PQT. In the presence of
the glass slab in the path of light, the ray travelled along the path PQRS, i.e. there occurred a change in
its path.
Thus, when a ray of light is incident obliquely on a glass slab, its path changes.
8. With reference to the experiment 'Refraction of light through a glass slab' answers the
following question on the basis of the following figure.
i. What change occurs in the direction of the ray of light when it travels from air to glass?
Answer. When the ray of light travels from air to glass, it bends towards the normal (r < i).
ii. What change occurs in the direction of the ray of light when it travels from glass to air?
Answer. When the ray of light travels from glass to air, it bends away from the normal. (e > i1)
iii. What are the incident ray of refracted ray when the ray of light travels from glass to air?
Answer. When the ray of light travels from glass to air, QR is the incident ray and RS is the refracted
ray.
iv. What are the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction when the ray of light travels from
glass to air?
Answer. When the ray of light travels from glass to air, i1 is the angle of incidence and e is the angle of
refraction.
v. State the relation between the angles i and e and the relation between the angles r and i1.
Answer. i = e & r = i1.
vi. With the pins P1, P2, P3 & P4 fixed on the paper, what do you find if you observe through the
glass slab from the side CD?
What do you find if you observe through the glass slab from the side AB?
What conclusion do you draw from these observations?
Answer
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1. With the pins P1, P2, P3 & P4 fixed on the paper, when we observe through the glass slab from
the side CD, we find that the pins P3 & P4 are exactly in line with the images of the pins P1 &
P2.
2. When we observe through the glass slab from the side AB, we find that the pins P1 & P2 are
exactly in line with the images of the pins P3 & P4.
Conclusion:- In the first part, the path of the ray of light is PQRS, while in the second part, the path of
the ray of light is SRQP. Hence, it follows that the principle of reversibility of the path of light is
obeyed in the case of refraction of light.
Q6. Answer in short the following questions.
1. What type of lens should be used to obtain a magnified image of a slide or a small filmstrip on
the screen? Where the slide should be placed?
Answer.
As the image is to be obtained on a screen, it must be a real image. We can obtain a real image only
with the help of a convex lens.
Hence, a convex lens should be used to obtain the image on the screen. Since we with to obtain a
magnified real image, the slide or the filmstrip should be placed between F and 2F on the other side of
the lens with respect to the screen.
2. When an object of height 2 cm is placed in from of a convex lens, the height of the image is
found to be 3 cm. State, giving reason, whether the given statement is true or false. If the
statement is true, state the nature and position of the image.
Answer.
1. When an object is placed between the optical centre and the principal focus of a convex lens, the
image formed by the lens is virtual and magnified (larger than the object). When an object is placed
between F and 2F, the image formed by the lens is real and magnified.
2. In the statement given in the question, the height of the image is reposted as greater than the height
of the object. Hence, the statement given in the question is correct and true.
3. In the above case, if the image is virtual, it will be erect and on the same side of the lens as that of
the object. If the image is real, it will be inverted and beyond 2F on the other side of the lens with
respect to the object.
3. You are given a lens which gives a virtual, erect and magnified image. What type of lens is it?
Answer. Since the lens gives a virtual, erect and magnified image, it must be a convex lens.
4. When an object of height 3 cm is placed in front of a concave lens, the height of the image is
found to be 6cm. State, giving the reason, whether the given statement is true or false.
Answer. When an object is placed in front of concave lens, the image formed by the lens always
smaller that the object. In the statement given in the question, the height of the image is reported as
greater than the height of object. Hence, the statement given in the question is false.
5. An object is kept in front of a lens of focal length +10cm. Describe the nature of the image if
the object distance is 8cm.
Answer. Since the focal length of the lens is positive, it is a convex lens. The object distance (8cm) is
less than the focal length of the lens (10cm). Therefore, the image will be virtual, erect and magnified
(larger than the object)
6. An object is kept in front of a lens of focal length +10cm. Describe the nature of the image in
the following cases. 1. The object distance is 25cm. 2. The object distance is 5cm.
Answer. Since the focal length of the lens (+10cm) is positive, it is a convex lens.

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If an object is kept at 25cm from the lens, the image will be real, inverted and diminished (smaller
than the object)
If an object is kept at 5 cm from the lens, the image will be virtual, erect and magnified (larger than
the object).
7. Anu and Anand have concave and convex lenses respectively. They took lenses in sunlight and
tried to burn two pieces of paper of equal areas and temperature. Say whose paper will be get
burned. Give the reason.
Explain with the help of a diagram, why the other paper did not burn.
Answer.
The convex lens will burn the paper. The rays of sunlight will converge at the principal focus of the
lens. Hence, if the paper is held at the focus, it will burn due to the concentration of heat energy.
The paper held in front of the concave lens, will not burn, the concave lens will diverge the rays of
sunlight falling on it. Hence, the paper will not burn.
8. When are bifocal lenses used in spectacles?

Answer. When a person cannot see nearby objects as well as distant objects clearly, bifocal lenses are
used in spectacles.
9. Ramesh from standard X uses spectacles. The number of his spectacles is -1. Answer the
following question.
i. Which lenses are used in his spectacles?
ii. Name the defect of vision
iii. What is your conclusion about the eyeball?
iv. Find the focal length of the lens.
Answer.
10. Sunitha from Standard XI uses spectacles. The number of her spectacles is +0.5. Answer the
following questions:
1. State the type of lenses used in her spectacles.
2. Name the defect of vision.
3. What is your conclusion about her eyeball?
4. Find the focal length of the lens.
Answer.
Convex lenses are used in the spectacles used by Sunitha.
Sunitha is suffering from hypermetropia (long – sightedness)
The eyeball of Sunitha must have slightly flattened.
Focal length of the lens.

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11. Explain the phenomenon of persistence of vision. Give one example of persistence of vision.
OR Explain the meaning of the persistence of vision. Give one example with explanation. OR
Define: - Persistence of vision
Answer. Persistence of vision:- We see an object when its image is formed on the retina. The image
disappears as soon as the object is removed from our sight. But the impression of the image on the
retina lasts for about 1/16th of a second after the removal of the objects. This effect is known as the
persistence of vision. It is due to persistence of vision that we continue to see the object in its position
for about 1/16th of a second after it is removed.
Example: - When a burning stick of incense is moved fast in a circle, a circle of red light is seen.
12. Name two devices whose working is based on the phenomenon of persistence of vision. OR
Name any two application based on persistence of vision.
Answer. The two devices whose working is based on the phenomenon of persistence of vision are
1. The working of a television set
2. The working of a motion picture.
Write a short note on persistence of vision OR Explain persistence of vision. Give two examples
of persistence of vision
Ans. Write the above two answers jointly.
13. Explain in short how a continuous picture is formed on a T.V. Screen OR

Explain, in short the working of a television set.
Answer.
1. The working of a T.V set is based on the phenomenon of persistence of vision.
2. The television consists of a cathode ray tube with a convex screen of glass. The inner surface
of the screen is coated with a fluorescent material.
3. The image falls on the screen and the corresponding part of the screen glows.
4. The images are projected on the screen at the rate of more than 20 images per second.
5. Each image is slightly different from the other.
6. As a result of persistence of vision we see a continuous picture of a T.V screen.
14. Explain the principle and working of a motion picture.

Answer.
1. If a sequence of two pictures is shown within 1/16th of a second, the eye is not able to
distinguish between the two pictures.
2. Their images on the retina get superimposed.
3. If a sequence of still pictures taken by a movie camera is projected on the screen at a rate
greater than about 20 images per second, then the successive images cannot be distinguished as
separate images.
4. They get blended into one another. This is the principle used in motion picture projection.
15. What will happen if the intensity of the rays in the cathode ray tube in a T.V. set is suddenly
increased?
Answer. If the intensity of the rays in the cathode ray tube in a T.V. set is suddenly increased, there
will be a sudden increase in the fluorescence of the material on the inner surface of the screen. This
will be painful to the eyes of the person watching the T.V.
16. Describe construction of an Astronomical telescope and draw a ray diagram showing the
format of an image by a Astronomical telescope.

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1. A telescope is used to view large objects which are very far away e.g. stars, planets, comets
and stellar bodies.
2. A simple refracting Telescope consists of two convex lenses called as objective and eyepiece.
3. The objective has a large focal length (fo) and large aperture to gather more light to form
bright image of a distant object.
4. The eyepiece has a short focal length (fe) and small aperture so that whole light inside the
telescope may enter into the eye for distinct visibility.
5. Both the lenses are arranged co – axially so that the distance between them can be changed.
6. The angular magnification of the telescope is given by
17. Explain new Cartesian sign convention.

Ans. Cartesian sign convention.

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1. The object is always placed to the left of a lens.

2. All the distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens.
3. Distances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken as positive whereas distances
measured against the direction of incident ray are taken as negative.
4. All the heights measured upward and perpendicular to the optical axis are taken as positive
whereas all the heights measured downward and perpendicular to the optical axis are taken as
negative.
5. By convention if we place the object to the left of the lens, the object distance ‘u’ will always
be negative.
6. The focal length ‘f’ is positive for a convex lens and is negative for a concave lens.
18. Explain the types of lenses with the help of diagrams.

Ans. A lens is made out of curved, normally spherical surfaces of glass.
There are two types of lenses.
(i) Convex lens
(ii) Concave lens
Convex lens: - Convex lenses are thicker at the centre than at the edges. It can be further classified in
the following manner.
a. Double convex lens: - Convex surface on both sides.
b. Plano – Convex lens: - A plane surface and a convex surfaces.
c. Concavo convex lens: - Concave and convex surfaces on the same side.
Concave lens: - It is a lens which is thinner at the centre as compared to its edges. It is further
classified in the following manner.
a. Double – concave lens: - Concave surfaces on both sides.
b. Plano – concave lens: - A plane surface and a concave surface.
c. Convexo – concave lens: - Convex and concave surfaces on the same side.

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12. MODERN PHYSICS

Q1. A. CHOOSE THE CORRECT ALTERNATIVES AND REWRITE THE COMPLETE SENTENCES.
1. X – rays are ________________
(Negatively charged particles, positively charged particles, uncharged atoms, Electromagnetic
waves)
2. The process of splitting of a heavier nucleus into lighter nuclei with release of energy is called _____
(nuclear fusion, Nuclear fission, Chemical reaction, Combination reaction)
3. When an atom emits α radiation and gets converted into another atom, its _____________
a. Mass number decreases by 4 and atomic number decreases by 4.
b. Mass number decreases by 2 and atomic number decreases by 4.
c. Mass number increases by 4 and atomic number increases by 2.
d. Both mass number and atomic number remain same.
4. Radioactive isotopes are __________________________

a. Isotopes of different atomic number but same mass number.
b. Isotopes of same atomic number but different mass number
c. Isotopes having same atomic number and mass number.
d. None of these.
5. In fission and fusion reactions, energy is released due to ____________

a. Chemical reaction.
b. Conversion of kinetic energy of one the reactants.
c. Conversion of mass into energy.
d. Conversion of gravitational energy.
6. Chain reaction occurs in ________________

a. Fission
b. Fusion
c. Displacement reaction
d. Combination reaction.
7. X – rays were discovered by ___________

a. Rutherford
b. Becquerel
c. Roentgen
d. Otto Hahn
8. Cathode rays affect ___________________

a. Magnetic field
b. Photographic plate
c. Electric field
d. Lead plate
9. β – particles are ____________________

a. protons
b. neutrons
c. electrons
d. helium nuclei
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Q1. B. MATCH THE FOLLOWING

GROUP A GROUP B
1. Radioactive isotope a. Atom bomb
2. Carbon dating b. Produced X – rays
3. Nuclear fission c. Solar energy
4. Cathode rays d. Treatment of tumour
5. Nuclear fusion e. Archaeology
Ans. (1 – d), (2 – e), (3 – a), (4 – b), (5 – c)
1. Fission process is used in making hydrogen bomb. True

2. Carbon dating technique is used to find percentage of carbon in atmosphere.
False. Carbon dating technique is used to know approximate age of certain items of animal or
vegetable origin.
3. y – Rays are deflected by electric and magnetic field.
False: - y – rays are not deflected by electric and magnetic field.
4. Half life of radioactive substance depends on temperature.
False: - Half life of radioactive substance does not depend on temperature.
5. Law of radioactivity was stated by Otto Hahn.
False: - Law of radioactivity was stated by Rutherford and Soddy.
Q2. DEFINE THE FOLLOWING.
1. Radioactivity: - Spontaneous emission of highly energetic radiations having high penetrating

power is known as radioactivity.
2. Nuclear fission: - The process of splitting up of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei with release of
large amount of energy is called ‘nuclear fission’.
3. Fission fragments: - The new nuclei that result from nuclear fission are called fission fragment.
4. Nuclear fusion: - The production of energy when two lighter nuclei fuse or combine together to
form a heavy and stable nucleus is called nuclear fusion.
1. X – rays are invisible

4. X – Rays are electromagnetic waves having very short wavelength of 5 x 10-8m to 5 x 10-15 m.
5. Wavelength of 4 x 10-7 m to 7 x 10-7 m is visible.
6. Hence, x rays are invisible.
2. X – rays can penetrate through skin but not through bones.

1. Bones are made up of calcium phosphate.
2. X – rays can penetrate through materials like skin and flesh but can not penetrate through dense
materials like calcium.
3. Hence, X – rays can penetrate through skin but not through bones.
3. Exposure of X –rays for a long time should be avoided.

6. At the same time cal also kill the healthy cells and tissues causing harm to the body.
7. Hence, exposure of x – rays for a long time should be avoided.

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7. X – rays are used to detect fracture of bones.

3. X – rays can penetrate through skin and flesh but cannot penetrate through dense materials like bones.
4. Due to this property X – rays can provide a clear image of the bone and hence they are used to
detect fracture of bones.
8. X – rays are used in industries.

4. The penetrating power of X – rays is very high.
5. Therefore X – rays are used to detect flaws of defects in metal castings and welding.
6. Hence, X – rays are used in industries.

4. X – rays cannot penetrate through dense materials like gold and silver.
5. Due to this property X – rays can reveal the presence of hidden gold or silver.
6. Hence, they are used to detect smuggled of gold and silver.
10. It is difficult to achieve controlled fusion reaction in the laboratory.

2. Fusion reactions take place only at a very high temperature of the order of 109 0C.
3. Such a high temperature exists only in the interior of the sun and other stars.
4. hence, it is difficult to achieve controlled fusion reaction in the laboratory.
11. Nuclear fission is considered as a source of energy.

1. The amount of energy available from the fission process is extremely large as compared to the
energy generated from other conventional energy sources. E.g. The energy released per nuclear
fission of uranium nucleus is about 200 MeV.
2. The energy released is used to heat water to prepare steam, which is used to rotate turbines that
generate electricity.
3. Thus nuclear fission is considered as a source of energy.
12. In order to compare radioactive substance with the other, quantity called half life is used.
1. Radioactive decay is a random process and different radioactive substances decay at different
rates.
2. Theoretically an infinite time would be required for a radioactive substance to decay
completely.
3. Thus, the total life span of a radioactive substance is meaningless.
4. Hence, in order to compare one radioactive substance with the other, a quantity called half life
is used.
13. Carbon dating is an important tool in archaeology.
1. Through carbon dating the length of time for which a specimen has been dead may be
determined by activity of carbon -14 (14C) which has remained it.
2. Carbon dating has therefore been an important tool in archaeology as it provides information
about age of archaeological artifacts, manuscripts etc.
Q4. Answer in 2 to 3 sentences.

1. State the characteristics of nuclear fission.
Ans. The process of nuclear fission has following main characteristics:
1. A heavy nucleus is split into fragments. (lighter elements)
2. A large amount of energy about 200 MeV is liberated in fission of one atom.
3. Secondary neutrons are produced.

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2. What are the advantages of controlled chain reaction?

Ans. Controlled chain reactions are basis of atomic reactor. The energy released during controlled
chain reaction is used to heat water to prepare steam which than rotate turbine and generate electricity.
3. Name the nuclear reactors at B.A.R.C. what are they used for?
Ans. The nuclear reactors at B.A.R.C are Apsara Cirus, Zerlina and Purnima. They are used to
produce radioisotopes.
4. State the law of radioactivity.

Ans. The law of radioactivity sates that: “The rate of radioactive atoms present in the substance at
any instant is directly proportional to the actual number of radioactive atoms present at that instant.”
5. How is artificial radioactive substance made? Give example.

Ans.
1. Artificial radioactive substance is made by bombarding lighter nuclei with α – particles,
protons or neutrons.
2. Cobalt (60Co) and Sodium (22Na) are examples of artificial radioactive substances or artificial
radioactive isotopes.
6. What is half life? What is its use?

Ans. Half life (T ½ ) is the time required by a given radioactive substance containing atoms to reduce
to half of its original number. In this time interval the number of radioactive atoms reduces to half.
Half life period is used to compare one radioactive substance with the other.
WISH YOU ALL THE BEST

134
Q4. SOLVE THE FOLLOWING NUMERICAL. Ch 3
PROBLEMS ON EQUIVALENT WEIGHT OF AN ACID.

1. Calculate equivalent weight of
a. Hydrochloric acid
b. Sulphuric acid
c. Acetic acid
d. Nitric acid
PROBLEMS OF EQUIVALENT WEIGHT OF A BASE

2. Calculate equivalent weight of
a. Sodium hydroxide
b. Calcium hydroxide
c. Ammonium hydroxide
d. Potassium hydroxide
PROBLEMS ON NORMALITY
1. Find the Normality of HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, KOH and NaOH.
2. 100 grams of NaOH are present in 4 litres of its solution. Find the normality of the solution.
3. If 2gm of KOH is dissolved in 500 ml water. Find the normality of the solution.
4. Sulphuric acid solution contains 4.9gm of sulphuric acid per litre. Find its normality.
PROBLEMS ON GRAM/ LITRE

1. Find Grams/Litre of the 0.1N NaOH solution.
2. Find gram/litres of 0.25N NaOH.
3. Find the Gms per litre of 0.15N HCl.
PROBLEM ON NORMALITY EQUATION I.E.

10. An acid is 0.01 N.9 ml of this acid required 10 ml of basic solution for complete neutralisation. Find the
normality of base and weight of base dissolved in 1000 ml of solution.
(Equivalent weight of base = 56) (N=0.009N.0.504g)
Q8. SOLVE THE FOLLOWING NUMERICAL. CH 4

Ex. 4.1
1. A filament of electric lamp draws a current of 0.5 amperes. The bulb is used for 2 hours. Calculate the
amount of charge that flows through the circuit.
2. The electric current passing through the cross section of a wire is 2 amperes. Find the amount of charge
that flows through it for two minute.
3. A filament of electric bulb draws a current of 2.5 amperes. If the bulb is used for one hour calculate the
amount of charge that flows through the circuit.
4. Find the electric current passing through a cross section of a wire, if 30 coulomb of electric charge flows
through it for one minute.
5. Calculate the electric current passing through a cross section of a wire when a charge of 150 coulomb
passes through it for half minute.
6. The electric current flowing through the filament of an electric bulb is 1.5A. Find the amount of charge
flowing through the filament in 3 min 10 seconds.
Ex. 4.2
1. Two points in an electric field have a potential difference of 10V. How much work needs to be done to
move a charge of 5C between these points>\?
2. How much work needs to be done to move a charge of 2C between two points if the potential difference
between the points is 18 volts.
3. Calculate the work done in moving a charge of 4 coulombs from a point at 220 volts to another point at
230 volts.
135
4. Find the work done in moving a charge of 100 coulomb between two points, if the potential difference
between the points is 0.5V.
5. Determine the P.D. if 150 Joule of work is done to carry a charge of 30 coulomb between 2 points.
6. If 18 joule of work is done to carry a charge of 12 coulomb between two ends of a wire, find the P.D.
across the wire.
Ex. 4.3
1. Calculate the current flowing through 5Ω resistor when a potential difference of 7.5 volt is applied
across it.
2. Calculate the current in circuit if the resistance of a wire is 10 Ω and P.D. across is 5 volt. (Text Book
Questions)
3. Calculate the potential difference ‘V’ across a 7 Ohm resistor carrying a current of 0.2 A. (Text Book
Questions)
4. Calculate the current flowing through 3 Ω resistor when a potential difference of 4.5 volt is applied
across it.
5. A metallic wire of 100 Ω resistance has a P.D. of 2 volts. How much electric current can flow through
the wire?
6. Calculate the potential difference when a current of 500 MA flows through a conductor having a
resistance of 25 Ω.
7. Calculate the Potential difference between the two terminals of a wire of resistance 35 Ohms when a
current of 250 MA flows through the wire.
8. Determine the P.D. which should be applied across a wire of resistance 50 Ohms in order to send a
current of 0.02 A through it.
Ex. 4.4
1. You are given three resistances of 1 Ω, 2 Ω and 3 Ω. What will be their equivalent resistance in series
and equivalent resistance in parallel combination?
2. Resistors of 10 Ohms and 2.5 Ohms are connected in parallel combination and 3 Ohm resistances are
connected in series combination with them. Find combined resistance. (Text Book Question)
3. Thee resistances of 6 Ohm each are connected in parallel combination. Determine their equivalent
resistance. (Text Book Questions)
4. Resistors of 3 Ohm and 6 Ohm are connected in parallel combination and 5 Ohm resistance is
connected in series combination with them. Find combined resistance.
5. You are provided with three resistances 4 Ω, 5 Ω and 20 Ω. What will be their equivalent resistance in
series and in parallel combinations?
6. Find the equivalent resistance of a parallel combination of resistances 20 Ω and 5 Ω.
7. You are provided with two resistances of 60 Ω and 40 Ω. What will be their equivalent resistance in
series and in parallel combinations?
8. Two resistances of equal value are connected in parallel. If their resultant resistance is 2.5Ω. Find the
value of each.
Ex. 4.5
1. 4 Ohm and 2 Ohm resistors are connected in parallel across the terminals of cell of e.m.f. 1.5V and
internal resistance 2/3 ohm. Find the total current in circuit. (Text Book Questions)
2. 7.2 Ohm and 4.8 Ohm resistors are connected in series across the terminals of cell of e.m.f. 6V and
internal resistance ½ ohms. Find the total current in the circuit.
3. A cell of e.m.f 12V and internal resistance 0.25 Ohm is connected in an electrical circuit shown below.
Find the total current flowing in the circuit.

136
4. Two resistors of 15 Ω and 12.5 Ω are connected in series across the terminals of a cell of e.m.f. 1.5 V
and internal resistance 2.5 Ω. Find the current passing through the circuit.
5. The e.m.f. of a voltaic cell is 1.5 V with an internal resistance of 0.25 Ω. If the external resistance of the
circuit is 1.25 Ω, find the current.
Q2. SOLVE THE FOLLOWING NUMERICAL PROBLEMS.
Ex. 6.1
1. Calculate the hear generated in a coil of resistance 100 Ω in 6 minutes when P.D. of 10 V is
applied across it.
2. The heat generated in a coil of resistance 100 Ω in 5 seconds is 522.2 cal. Calculate the P.D.
applied across it to produce above heat.
3. Calculate the heat generated in a wire of resistance 500 Ω in 6 minutes when P.D. of 50V is
applied across it.
4. Calculate the heat in joule, generated in a coil of resistance 200 Ω in 3 minutes when a P.D. of
100 V is applied across it.
5. Calculate the heat generated in calories when a current flows through a wire of resistance 100
Ω and P.D. 100V for 3 min 29 sec.
6. The heat generated in coil of resistance 4.18 Ω in 1 minute is 540 cal. Calculate the P.D.
applied across it to produce above heat.
7. The heat generated in a coil of resistance 100 Ω in 2 minutes is 125.4 cal. Calculate the P.D.
applied across it to produce the above heat.
Ex. 6.2
1. Find resistance of 10W, 240V bulb.
4. The current flowing through a 12V Tungsten filament is 3A. Find the power of the bulb, if the
resistance of the filament is 4 Ω.
5. Calculate the current through a 60W bulb when a P.D. of 250V is applied across its filament.
Ex. 6.2
25. Calculate the heat generated in a coil of resistance 41.8 Ω in 5 min. When 0.5A current is passed
across it.
26. 240J heat is generated in a conductor of resistance 50 Ω and 0.2A current is passed across it. Find
how long current will pass through it.
27. Find the heat generated when a current of 5A flows through a wire of resistance 2.09 Ω for 4
minutes.
28. Calculate the heat generated in a coil of resistance of 8.36 Ω when a current of 1.5A flows through it for 2
minutes.
29. Calculate the heat generated in calories, when a current of 0.5A flows through a coil for 15 min. Resistance
of the coil is 2.09 Ω.
30. Find the resistance of a wire when 0.5A current flows through it for 1 min, producing 1500 cal of heat.
31. An electric current of 0.5A flows through a wire of resistance 41.8 Ω. How long does the current flow
through it to produce 300 calories of heat?
32. 300J heat is generated in a conductor of resistance 100 Ω and 0.5A current is passed across it. Find how
long current will pass through it.
33. 540 cal of heat is generated in a conductor of resistance 62.7 Ω and 2A current is passed across it. Find how
long current will pass through it.
34. The P.D. in an electrical circuit is 60V. An electric current of 0.3A flows through it. If 160J of heat is
produced, find the time for which the current is passed.
35. 300 calories of heat are generated in a wire of resistance 41.8 ohms when a current of 0.5 A flows through
it. Find the time in minutes for which the current is passes.

137
Q3. SOLVE THE FOLLOWING NUMERICAL. CH 7
Ex. 7.1
1. Energy of 2J is used to lift a block of 0.5 kg. How high will it rise?
2. A rocket of mass 100 tonnes is propelled with a vertical velocity 1km/s. Calculate its kinetic
energy.
3. An object of mass 10kg is lying 10m above the ground. Calculate the potential energy
possessed by the object.
4. Calculate the power of a crane which lifts a load of mass 1000 kg to a height of 30m in one
minute.
5. An electric pump is used to lift water to a height of 60m. If the power of the pump is 3.92kw.
Find the mass of water raised in 2 minutes.
6. A body of 4 kg mass falls freely from the top of the tower. If it reaches the ground after 5 sec.
find the K.E.
Q6. Solve the following numerical.
Ex. 8.1
1. What is power used by microwave oven if 0.15 kW-hr of energy is used in 20 minutes.
2. What is the power used by a fridge in 4.80kW.-hr of energy is used in 24 hrs.
3. 5 tube lights uses 1.80 kW-hr energy in 6 hrs. Find power used by the tube lights.
4. If 60W electric bulb is lighted for 6 hours. How much electrical energy is consumed?
5. If an 80W electric bulb is lighted for 5 hrs, how much electrical energy is consumed.
6. If a television uses 0.90 kW. Power in 3 hrs, how much electrical energy is consumed?
7. If a refrigerator uses 0.25 kW power for working in a day, how much electrical energy is
consumed?
Ex. 8.2
1. A man draws a bucked of water from a well which is 10m deep in 20sec. If the mass of he
water drawn is 20kg, find the power used by the man. Can the power be calculated if the mass
of water is not known?
2. An electric pump is used to lift water to a height of 60m in 2 minutes. If the mass of the water
raised is 800 kg, find power of the pump.
3. Calculate the power of a crane which lifts a load of mass 1000 kg to a height if 30m in one
minute.
4. A crane has to lift a heavy object. Calculate the power requirement if the supplied energy to the
crane moves a load of 3000N over a distance of 20m in 2 minutes, assuming that the crane
works with 100% efficiency.
5. An electric motor is used to lift the water stored in a tank at the ground level to an overhead
tank at a height of 20m. If the power of the motor is 1HP, how much time will be required to
pump 7460 kg water? (Take g=10m/s2). If another motor of 0.5 HP is used what time it will
take to do the same work?
6. A crane has to lift a heavy object. Calculate the power requirement if the supplied energy to the
crane moves a load of 5000 N over a distance of 24m in 4 minutes assuming that the crane
works with 100% efficiency.
7. A 30 HP car is moving with a uniform velocity of 54km/hr. Find the forward force exerted by
its engine.
Ex. 8.3.
1. A car of mass 1000 kg is driven along a level road against a constant resistance of 200 N. The
output of the engine of the car is 8kW. Find the maximum speed that the car can achieve and
the acceleration of the car when its speed is around 10m/s.
2. An engine of a train has a useful power output of 4000kW and it pulls the train at a speed of 80

138
m/s. The total weight of the engine and the train is 60 tonnes. If the train is moving against a resistance
of 2 kN, find the acceleration of the trains.
3. A car of mass 1000kg moves at a steady speed of 20m/s up the slope of a hill, the slope makes an angle
with the horizontal whose sine is 0.25. Find the power output of the car assuming that no other resistive
forces are acting on the car and that the efficiency of its engine is 100%.
4. A force F of magnitude F 5N acts on a particle and moves it from a point A to another point B in 5s.
The distance AB is 2m and line AB makes an angle of 400 with the force F. Find the rate at which the
force works i.e., the power of the force F.
SOLVE THE FOLLOWING NUMERICAL. CH 9

Ex 9.1
5. A person hears a thunder 3 seconds after a flash of lightening is seen. At what distance the lightening is
struck?
6. If the observer hears the sound fired cracker 6 seconds after he sees the light of fired cracker. If the
velocity of wind in the direction of sound is 10m/s. find the distance of the place of cracker from the
observer.
7. If you hear the thunder 10 seconds after you see the flash of lightening how far from you has the
lightening occurred?
8. If the observer hears the sound of fired cracker 8 seconds, after he sees the light of fired cracker. If the
velocity of wind along the direction of sound is 20m/s. Find the distance of the place of the cracker from
the observer.
Ex. 9.2
1. A person observes a smoke from the cannon. After 1.5 seconds, he hears the bang. If the cannon is 510
away from the observer. Calculate the velocity of sound in air.
2. A person observes the smoke of a gun 0.5 seconds before he hears the bang. If the gun is 170m away from
the person. Find the speed of sound in air.
3. A person observes the smoke of the gun 1.4 seconds before he hears the bang. If the gun is 476 m away
from the person. Find the speed of sound in air.
Ex. 9.3
1. A person standing near the cliff shouts and hears the echo after 1.6 seconds. If the speed of sound in air
is 340 m/s. State the distance between the person and the cliff.
2. Using SONAR system sound pulses are emitted at the surface of water. The echo is heard after 3
seconds. Find the depth of sea?
3. A student shouted loudly on the school ground and he heard the echo after 1.4 seconds. Find the
distance between the student and the school building.
4. A person standing near a cliff fires a gun and hears the echo after 1.2 seconds. If the speed of sound in
air is 340 m/s, how far is the person from the cliff?
5. From the transmitter in the ship sharp pulses of sound are emitted. These pulses travel downward and
are reflected from the sea bed. The echo is heard after 10 seconds. Find the depth of the sea.
Ex. 9.4
1. Velocity of sound in air at 00C is 332 m/s. It increases by 0.6 m/s for each degree rise in temperature.
At what temperature of air, the velocity will be 350 m/s.
2. Velocity of sound in air at 00C is 332 m/s. At 400C what will be the velocity of sound in air?
3. Velocity of sound in air at 00C is 332 m/s. It increases by 0.6 m/s for each degree rise in temperature.
At what temperature of air will the velocity be 347 m/s.
Ex 9.5
1. A soldier standing between two cliff is X and Y fires a gun. After firing the gun hears the first echo
after 3.4 seconds and the second echo after 4 seconds. Find the distance between the two cliffs.
2. A soldier standing between the two buildings fires a gun. He heard the echo of the sound from the first
building after 2 second and from the second building after 3 second. Find the distance between two
buildings.
3. A boy is standing between the two cliffs A and B on a straight line joining them. After firing the gun he
hears the first echo after 2.4 seconds from A and the second echo after 3 seconds from B. Find the
distance between A and B.

139

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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY – I OMTEX CLASSES S.S.

CLASSES : - OMTEX CLASSES

“Achieve Success Through OMTEX CLASSES The Home of Text” 1

“Achieve Success Through OMTEX CLASSES The Home of Text” 2

12. MODERN PHYSICS

“Achieve Success Through OMTEX CLASSES The Home of Text” 3

I GIVE SCIENTIFIC REASONS.

2. THE FAMILY OF NOBLE GASES IS NAMED AS ZERO GROUPS.

3. INERT GASES EXIST IN THE FORM OF FREE ATOM.

4. VALENCY VARIES GRADUALLY ALONG A PERIOD.

5. MOLECULAR FORMULAE OF CHLORIDES OF SODIUM AND POTASSIUM ARE SIMILAR WHILE

“Achieve Success Through OMTEX CLASSES The Home of Text” 4

6. SOLUTION OF AN ELECTROLYTE CAN CONDUCT ELECTRICITY BETWEEN TWO ELECTRODES. Ch 2

9. WHEN A BRASS ARTICLE IS SILVER PLATED, IT IS USED AS CATHODE.

10. WHEN ALUMINIUM ARTICLE IS ANODISED ITS SURFACE GETS BLACKENED.

“Achieve Success Through OMTEX CLASSES The Home of Text” 5

4. Hence, when aluminium article is anodised its surface gets blackened.

11 KITCHENWARE MATERIALS IS COATED WITH COPPER.

14. A PARALLEL COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES DECREASES EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF THE CIRCUIT.

“Achieve Success Through OMTEX CLASSES The Home of Text” 6

16. MOST OF THE ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES NEED EARTHING.

17. FILAMENT OF INCANDESCENT LAMP IS MADE OF TUNGSTEN.

18. FUSE IS MADE OF A MATERIAL HAVING LOW MELTING POINT.

19. IN RAINY SEASON, WE SHOULD NOT TOUCH THE WALL OF A BUILDING.

21. USE OF FOSSIL FUELS CREATED ENERGY CRISIS.

“Achieve Success Through OMTEX CLASSES The Home of Text” 7

23. WIND MILL REQUIRES SPECIFIC LOCATIONS.

24. FARMERS WINNOW THE GRAINS.

25. WE HAVE TO SEARCH FOR NEW RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES.

28. Water stored in dams is used to generate electricity.

30. We use a pulley to draw water from the well.

32. Vehicles having high, power can attain high speed.

34. CURVED BOARDS ARE PLACED BEHIND A SPEAKER IN AN AUDITORIUM.

35. WE SEE THE FLASH OF LIGHTENING BEFORE A THUNDER IS HEARD.

36. THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IS AFFECTED BY WIND VELOCITY.

“Achieve Success Through OMTEX CLASSES The Home of Text” 9

37. WHISTLE OF A PASSING TRAIN IS CLEARLY HEARD ON A QUIET MISTY NIGHT.

39. In winter the pipeline carrying, water burst in cold countries.

41. A white trails may be seen behind high flying aircraft.

42. during cold nights, sometimes dew is formed. (March 2008)

44. α – particles show less deflection as compared to β – particles

45. y- radiations are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.

47. X – rays are invisible

49. Exposure of X –rays for a long time should be avoided.

50. X – rays are used to detect fracture of bones.

51. X – rays are used in industries.

52. X – rays are used to detect smuggled of gold or silver.

53. It is difficult to achieve controlled fusion reaction in the laboratory.

“Achieve Success Through OMTEX CLASSES The Home of Text” 11

TRANSITION AND INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS.

2. S – BLOCK ELEMENTS AND P – BLOCK ELEMENTS.

3. ELECTROLYTE AND NON – ELECTROLYTE.

4. CATHODE AND ANODE

5. ELECTRIC CURRENT THROUGH METALS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT THROUGH ELECTROLYTE.

6. CATHODE REACTION AND ANODE REACTION

7. ELECTROPLATING AND ANODISING

8. ACID AND BASE

9. NORMALITY AND MOLARITY

10. VOLTMETER AND AMMETER

“Achieve Success Through OMTEX CLASSES The Home of Text” 13

11. RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL COMBINATION.

12. E.M.F. AND P.D.