Mass Wasting2

Mass Wasting and Classification
Introduction
Mass wasting is the down slope movement of rock, regolith, and

soil, under the influence of gravity, also called mass movement.
Mass wasting is referred has non-technical term "landslide", is the

down-slope movement of a mass of sediment or rock due mainly to the
force of gravity. The "mass" part of the name implies that a somewhat
coherent grouping of sediment/rock begins moving downward due to the
force of gravity, and usually in combination with some triggering
mechanism such as an earthquake or rapid erosion of the base of a slope.
The "wasting" part of mass wasting means that a cliff or mountain

slope is diminishing in size, or wasting away. This can occur suddenly with
tremendous destructive force, or very slowly with only a gradual alteration
of Earth’s surface over a period of many years. Mass wasting, also known
as slope movement is the geomorphic process by which soil, regolith, and
rock move down slope under the force of gravity.
Mass wasting include creep, slides, flows, topples, and falls, each
with their own characteristic features, and take place over timescales from
seconds to years. Mass wasting occurs on both terrestrial and submarine
slopes.
When the gravitational force acting on a slope exceeds its resisting

force, slope failure (mass wasting) occurs. The slope material's strength
and cohesion and the amount of internal friction between materials help
maintain the slope's stability and are known collectively as the slope's
shear strength. The steepest angle that cohesion less slope can maintain
without losing its stability is known as its angle of repose. When a slope
possesses this angle, its shear strength perfectly counterbalances the force
of gravity acting upon it.
Department of Applied Geology

Mass wasting may occur at a very slow rate, particularly in areas
that are very dry or those areas that receive sufficient rainfall such that
vegetation has stabilized the surface. It may also occur at very high speed,
such as in rock slides or landslide, with disastrous consequences, both
immediate and delayed, e.g., resulting from the formation of landslide
dam.
Factors that change the potential of mass wasting include: change

in slope angle; weakening of material by weathering; increased water
content; changes in vegetation cover and overloading.
Gravity factor
The force of gravity is downward, towards Earth’s center. As gravity pulls downward on
material comprising a tilted or sloping portion of Earth’s surface, a translational force is formed
within the slope sediment/rock. This force creates shear stress within the slope's material,
reducing the slope's strength and making it more prone to mass wasting. So, since gravity is
always in effect, there is always the possibility of mass wasting of a sloped surface. Note that
the steeper the slope, the more in line its material components (sediment and/or rock) are
with gravity, so the more likely is mass wasting of that slope. See the diagrams below to better
visualize the effects of gravity on slope material.
Mass wasting is much more likely on the slope shown in this diagram
because the slope is more in line with the force of gravity than in the top
diagram.
Force of Gravity

Rock and or sediment comprising a slope is held together in a variety of
ways, giving that slope its shear strength. This shear strength resists the
shear stress placed on the slope material by gravity. Listed below are some
of the factors related to a slope's shear strength, and therefore its ability to
resist mass wasting.
If slope material is composed of sediment then mass wasting can be

resisted by:
1. Friction between sediment grains in contact with each holds the loose
grains together. The greater the friction between sediment grains, then the
greater the shear strength of a slope.
2. The presence of a small amount of water which sticks sediment grains

to each other. Note that too much water has an opposite effect, reducing a
slope's shear strength.
3. Plant roots which physically bind sediment grains together, and anchor
the sediment to bedrock. The best situation is to have a combination of
small plants which protect slope sediment from the impacts of rain drops
and water runoff, and trees which send roots deeply into the sediment as
well as underlying rock.
If slope material is composed of rock then mass wasting is resisted

by:
A. the formation of natural cement which locks sediment grains together

(present in sedimentary rocks)
B. Interlocking mineral crystals within the rock (common to igneous and

metamorphic rocks).
A slope composed of solid rock will be much more resistant to the

many causes of mass wasting than a slope composed of sediment, no

matter how many plants are binding the sediment together. So, given the
option, always choose a building location underlain by solid rock.
CLASSIFICATION
The movements of rock waste may be either slow or fast. A

classification of movements may be done on the basis of
1. Kind of material moved.
2. Size of the materials.
3. Rate of movement.
4. Water content.
5. Texture of the material.
6. Relation of moving material to the solid surface.
The types of the materials moved are rock, earth, solid debris and
mud.
The classification is essentially based on the amount of water
present in the debris, because water reduces the cohesive strength of fine-
grained materials and act as a lubricant in the down slope movement of
debris. As the proportion of water present in the debris rises, the slope
angle required for the transportation of materials becomes less and less. In
other words, as the amount of debris in proportion to water present
increases, steeper and steeper slopes are needed for the transport of the
materials.
Mass movements are divided into three groups based on rate of

movement:
1. Flowage.

2. Sliding.
3. Subsidence.
A. FLOWAGE B. SLIDING C.
SUBSIDENCE
Slow Rapid Translational Rotational Falls A. Natural
flowage flowage slides slides (toppling) subsidence
(creep) Earth Rock slides Single Rock
1. Shallow flows Rotational falls
2. Deep slides
creep Mud Debris slides
flows Multiple Debris
1. Soil, 2. Sub- rotational falls
B. Artificial
Mass aqueous slides
subsidence
creep Rock
glaciers
1. Talus
Creep, Stone
2. Rock streams
Creep
Solifluction
Flowage: When water is present in the debris then the debris tends to flow
down with the water. When the amount of water present is relatively less,
the movement of debris is slow and when the amount of water is more, the
movement of debris is faster. Consequently, it is possible to identify two
sub-divisions. a. Slow flowage: The ground may be moving down slope at
as such low rate as few centimeters a year or even less, include

Slow flowage is gradual, almost imperceptible down slope transit of
soil and may sometimes take places even under the cover of vegetations is
observed in both tropical and temperate climate. The rate of downgrade
movement may vary from one millimeter to several centimeters in a year.
In most cases, soil creep is essentially a surface phenomenon in which only
the top one meter or so of the soil is involved in the failure.
1. Soil creep, 2. Talus creep, 3. Rock creep and 4. Solifluction.
b. Rapid flowage: In the rapid flowage the movement of failing mass

may be easily visible and the mass may travel a few meters or more a day.
The conditions causing flowage in the two classes may be closely related
or entirely different.
1. Soil creep:
Soil creep in which movement is relatively fast (10 centimeters a

year or more) and the material involved is mostly made of rock
fragments. It is a account of soil creep that telegraph, poles and trees
are found bend downwards on slopes

Talus creep: Talus or Scree is a slope built up by an accumulation of

rock fragments at the foot of a cliff or ridge.

2. Solifluction:
Slow flowing of water saturated earth or soil gravity is known as

solifluction is found in permanently frozen grounds. Solifluction differs
from soil creep in water content. In solifluction the soil movement
occurs in almost saturated condition where as soil creep may start
without much water, due to presence of enough water.
To solifluction the conditions are:
1. The water supply from melting of ground ices and snow.

2. Slope
3. Permanently frozen ground.
4. Supply of the rock waste.
5. Solifluction is a slower, continuous and surfaceal movement.
B. Rapid flow movement
1. In rapid flow movement the amount of water present in the debris is

more, so that these is through lubrication of the debris and mass
movement takes place principally or wholly in the form of flow.
Rapid movement includes 1. Mud flow, 2. Earth flow or slump, 3.
Avalanches, 4. Rock slide or debris slide and Falls

1. Mud flows: Mud flow is a highly fluid, high velocity mixture of
sediment and water that has a consistency of wet concrete. These

usually result from heavy rains in areas where there is an
abundance of unconsolidated sediment that can be picked up by
streams. Thus, after a heavy rain streams can turn into mud flows
as they pick up more and more loose sediment. Mud flows can
travel from long distance over gently sloping streams beds,
because of their high velocity and long distance of travel they are
potentially very dangerous.
Debris flows or mudflows
Commonly occur in volcanic areas, where they are called lahars.

Mudflows generally follow established drainage patterns (valleys).
Road damaged by the mudflow in central Italy.
2. Earth flows (slump):

Earth flows are usually associated with heavy rain and move at velocities
between several Cm/yr and 100s of m/day. They usually remain active for
long period of time; they generally tend to be narrow tongue – like features
that begin at a scarp or small cliff.
Slumps
Slumping involves the rotational movement of a material downward

and outward along a curved shearing plane. Or slides wherein downward
rotation of rock or regolith occurs along a concave-upward curved surface
(rotational slides). The upper surface of each slump block remains
relatively undisturbed, as do the individual blocks. Slumps leave arcuate
scars or depressions on the hill slope. Slumps can be isolated or may occur
in large complexes covering thousands of square meters. They often form
as a result of human activities, and thus are common along roads where
slopes have been over steepened during construction. They are also
common along river banks and sea coasts, where erosion has under-cut the
slopes. Heavy rains and earthquakes can also trigger slumps.
Slump Or Slope failure
Movement of a mass of rock or unconsolidated material as a unit along a

curved surface occurs along over steepened slopes

Large-scale landslides of the Slump variety have occurred in the arid and
semi-arid. The blocks formed by these slumps are called Toreva blocks

2. Rock Avalanches: Any large catastrophic landslide may be called

an Avalanche. They can include broken rock, ice and snow, usually
so mixed that the material term debris is most appropriate. Debris
avalanches are very high velocity flow of large volume mixture of
rock and regolith that results from complete collapse of a
mountainous slope. They move down slope and then can travel from
considerable distances along relatively gentle slopes and they are
often triggered by earth quakes and volcanic eruptions.

B. Rock Sliding: In sliding there is a rapid down slope movement of

principally dried materials. There are different kinds of slide such as a.
rock slide, b. debris slide and c. land slide.
Rocks falls
Separated rock blocks move down on step surface of a cliff. These

are known as rocks falls. These are common in mountains areas during
spring season when freezing and thawing is repeated. They may involve
large rock masses and result in severe loss of life and damage to property.



Rock falls from steep hillsides frequently disrupt road traffic in the
mountainous regions or when a piece of rock on a steep slope becomes
dislodged and falls down the slope.
In land slide a mass of rock and debris separates from the underlying
rock along a shear plane and most rapidly down slope under the influence
of gravity as a result of failure along the shear plane.
In rock slide and debris slide the failure surface is shallow and
frequently parallel to the surface and when there is mass movement of
consolidate rockes is called rock slide and when there is mass movement
of unconsolidated debris or regolite it is called debris slide.
Debris falls:-

Debris falls are similar, except they involve a mixture of soil,

regolith, vegetation, and rocks. A rock fall may be a single rock or a
mass of rocks and the falling rocks can dislodge other rocks as they
collide with the cliff. Because this process involves the free fall of
material, falls commonly occur where there are steep cliffs. At the
base of most cliffs is an accumulation of fallen material termed
talus. Debris falls are similar, except they involve a mixture of soil,
regolith and rocks.
C. SUBSIDENCE:- It is defined as sinking or settling of the ground in

almost vertically downward direction which may occurs because of
removal of natural support from the underground or due to compactions
of the weaker rocks under the load from overlying mass.
Types of subsidence :-
There are two types of subsidence:-
1. Natural subsidence:-
These are the type of landslides which occur usually in low lying
area due to natural activities.

Example:- Plate tectonics (regional changes in land and water)
Karst (chemical weathering of soluble rocks)
1. Artificial subsidence:-
These are type of the landslides which occur usually in low lying
area due to manmade activities.
Example: Mining, loading, oil extraction, ground water etc.
Sinking may vary from a few centimeters to many meters and may be due
either to natural or artificial causes.
Natural causes responsible for subsidence:-
a. Solution of subsurface rocks:-

Ground water is a active solvent many rocks especially
lime stones, dolomite and gypsum. When such chemically susceptible
rocks support the ground in any given region, there is possibility of
dissolution (partial or complete) of these rocks with the passage of time.
This may eventually results in settling or subsidence of the ground from
above.
b. Geological constitution:-
Sometimes the geological region may be responsible for
settling of the ground. Thus, when the layers of weak plastic character
such as those of peat and shale or deposits of coarse sand and silt are over
lain by other deposits, they may result from settlement due to the load of
the over lying material.

Among the artificial causes of the subsidence, the following deserve
special mention:-
Removal of material- It is a matter of common knowledge that

subsidence are settling of the ground is more in the mining and oil
extraction regions. It is because with the extraction of economically
important minerals and also oil and ground water, the ground loses
critical support below and hence sinking take places at the surface.
Settling of ground associated with removal of ground water is a
commonly observed phenomenon. In other case, ground may contract
because of drainage. These are especially true for swampy regions.
POSSIBLE PREVENTIVE MEASURES
A. Slope Reduction
1. Reduce slope angle
2. Place additional material at toe of slope
3. Reduce the load on slope
B. Retention Structures
1. Plant ground cover
2. Retaining walls and structures
3. Terrace slope (farms)
C. Fluid Removal
1. Diverting surface runoff
2. Subsurface drainage

3. Hot air blown through boreholes (good use for politicians)
D. Others
1. Drive vert. piles into foot of shallow slide (? effective)
2. Rock bolts (used in tunneling and mining, too)
3. Harden soil (dry and bake clay-rich soil)
4. Modify slope geometry, load, and dewatering

combinations
5. Expensive
3. Slides
Rockslide: Blocks of bedrock slide down a slope, Generally very fast

and destructive

Rock slides and debris slides result when rocks or debris slide down a pre-
existing surface, such as a bedding plane, foliation surface, or joint surface
(joints are regularly spaced fractures in rock that result from expansion
during cooling or uplift of the rock mass). Piles of talus are common at the
base of a rock slide or debris slide. Slides differ from slumps in that there
is no rotation of the sliding rock mass along a curved surface.
Earth flows Form in humid areas on hillsides following heavy rain

or melting snow, in fine-grained materials (clay and silt). Also
occurs at the toe of slumps. Rate of movement varies (less than 1
mm per day to several meters per day), but may be long-lived (days
to years). Includes the liquefaction associated with earthquakes.

Avalanche is a flow of snow down a mountainside, though rock

slides and debris flows are also sometimes called avalanches.
Avalanches are one of the biggest dangers in the mountains for both
life and property. Many factors contribute to avalanches. Point-
release avalanches occur when the weight of the snowpack exceeds
the shear strength within it, and are most common on steeper terrain.
In fresh, loose snow the release is usually at a point and the
avalanche then gradually widens down the slope as more snow is
entrained, usually forming a tear-drop appearance. This is in contrast
to a slab avalanche. Slab avalanches account for around 90% of
avalanche-related fatalities, and occur when there is a strong, stiff
layer of snow known as a slab. These are usually formed when snow
is deposited by the wind on a lee slope. When the slab fails, the
fracture, in a weak layer, very rapidly propagates so that a large
area, that can be hundreds of metres in extent and several metres
thick, starts moving almost instantaneously. The third starting type is
a slush avalanche which occurs when the snowpack becomes

saturated by water. These tend to also start and spread out from a
point.
As avalanches move down the slope they may entrain snow from the
snowpack and grow in size. The snow may also mix with the air and
form a powder cloud. An avalanche with a powder cloud is known
as a powder snow avalanche. The powder cloud is a turbulent
suspension of snow particles that flows as a gravity current. Powder
snow avalanches are the largest avalanches and can exceed 300
km/h and 10,000,000 tonnes of snow, they can flow for long
distance along flat valley bottoms and even up hill for short
distances.
Creep
Creep is a long term process. The combination of small movements

of soil or rock in different directions over time are directed by
gravity gradually downslope. The steeper the slope, the faster the
creep. The creep makes trees and other shrubs curve to reach the sun
light. These often trigger land slides because the dirt underneath is
not very strong. The trees most of the time die out because of lack of
water and sun, and these rarely happen in wet climates.
The rate of soil creep down a slope depends on the steepness

(gradient) of the slope, water absorption and content, type of
sediment and material, and lastly vegetation. The rate of creep will
take into account all of these factors to decide whether or not the
hillside will progress downward. Creep is what is responsible for the
rounded shape of hillsides.

Water is a very important factor when discussing soil deformation
and movement. When building a sand castle at the beach you would
notice that the presence of water making damp sand aids in keeping
your castle standing up. The water will offer cohesion to the sand
which will bind the sand particles together. However, when you pour
a bucket of water over your sand castle or it gets hit by a wave, it
destroys it. This is because the presence of too much water fills all
the pores between the grains with water creating a slip plain between
the particles and offering no cohesion causing them to slip and slide
away. This holds true not only for sand castles but for hillsides and
creep as well. The presence of water may help the hillside stay put
and give it that cohesion but in a very moist/wet environment or
during/after a large amount of precipitation the pores between the
grains could become saturated with water and cause the ground to
slide along the slip plain it creates.
Creep can be caused by the expansion of materials such as clay

when they are exposed to water. Clay expands when wet, then
contracts after drying. The expansion portion pushes downhill, then
the contraction results in consolidation at the new offset.
Vegetation also can play a role with slope stability and creep. When
a hillside contains many trees, ferns, and shrubs their roots can
create an interlocking network that can strengthen unconsolidated
material. They also aid in absorbing the access water in the soil to
help keep the slope stable. They also however, add to the weight of
the slope giving gravity that much more of a driving force to act on
in pushing the slope downward. Slopes with the absence of
vegetation have a greater chance of movement.

Design engineers sometimes need to guard against downhill creep
during their planning to prevent building foundations from being
undermined. Pilings are planted sufficiently deep into the surface
material to guard against this behavior.
Solifluction
In geology, solifluction, also known as soil fluction or soil creep, is a

type of mass wasting where waterlogged sediment slowly moves
downslope over impermeable material. It can occur in any climate
where the ground is saturated by water, though it is most often found
in periglacial environments where the ground is permanently frozen
(permafrost). A term often used for deposits formed under
periglacial conditions is Gelifluction. During warm seasonal periods
the surface layer (active layer) melts and literally slides across the
frozen underlayer, slowly moving downslope due to frost heave that
occurs normal to the slope. This type of mass wasting can occur on
slopes as shallow as 0.5 degrees at a rate of between 0.5 and 15 cm
per year. In Germany the solifluction deposits from the Younger
Dryas are found to have a consistent thickness of 0.4–0.7 metres.
Subsidence

subsidence is the motion of a surface (usually, the Earth's surface)
as it shifts downward relative to a datum such as sea-level. The
opposite of subsidence is uplift, which results in an increase in
elevation.
Land subsidence occurs when large amounts of ground water have

been withdrawn from certain types of rocks, such as fine-grained
sediments. The rock compacts because the water is partly
responsible for holding the ground up. When the water is withdrawn,
the rocks falls in on itself. You may not notice land subsidence too
much because it can occur over large areas rather than in a small
spot, like a sinkhole. That doesn't mean that subsidence is not a big
event -- states like California, Texas, and Florida have suffered
damage to the tune of hundreds of millions of dollars over the years.

Dissolution of limestone
Subsidence frequently occurs in karst terrains, where dissolution of

limestone by fluid flow in the subsurface causes the creation of
voids (i.e. caves). If the roof of these voids becomes too weak, it can
collapse and the overlying rock and earth will fall into the space,
causing subsidence at the surface. This type of subsidence can result
in sinkholes which can be many hundreds of meters deep and can
provide areas of ecological isolation which see the evolution of new
branches of animal and plant life.
Mining-induced
Several types of sub-surface mining, and specifically methods

which intentionally cause the extracted void to collapse (such as
pillar extraction, longwall mining and any metalliferous mining
method which utilises "caving" such as "block caving" or "sub-level
caving") will result in surface subsidence. Mining induced
subsidence is relatively predictable in its magnitude, manifestation
and extent, except where a sudden pillar or near-surface
underground tunnel collapse occurs (usually very old workings).
Mining induced subsidence is nearly always very localised to the
surface above the mined area, plus a margin around the outside [1].
The vertical magnitude of the subsidence itself typically does not
cause problems, except in the case of drainage (including natural
drainage) - rather it is the associated surface compressive and tensile
strains, curvature, tilts and horizontal displacement that are the cause
of the worst damage to the natural environment, buildings and
infrastructure. Where mining activity is planned, mining-induced

subsidence can be successfully managed if there is co-operation
from all of the stakeholders [2]. This is accomplished through a
combination of careful mine planning, the taking of preventative
measures, and the carrying out of repairs post-mining.
4.
Causes of land subsidence
Land subsidence is most often caused by human activities, mainly from the
removal of subsurface water. This pictures shows a fissure near Lucerne

Lake in San Bernardino County, Mojave Desert, California. The probable
cause was declining ground-water levels. Here are some other things that
can cause land subsidence:
Ground-water pumping and land subsidence
Compaction of soils in some aquifer systems can accompany excessive

ground-water pumping and it is by far the single largest cause of
subsidence. Excessive pumping of such aquifer systems has resulted in
permanent subsidence and related ground failures. In some systems, when
large amounts of water are pumped, the subsoil compacts, thus reducing in
size and number the open pore spaces in the soil the previously held water.
This can result in a permanent reduction in the total storage capacity of the
aquifer system.
Topples
Topples are instances when blocks of rock pivot and fall away from a
slope.
Triggers of mass wasting
Soil and regolith remain on a hill slope only while the gravitational forces
are unable to overcome the frictional forces keeping the material in place
(see Slope stability). Factors that reduce the frictional resistance relative to
the down slope forces, and thus initiate slope movement, can include:
 Seismic shaking
 Increased overburden from structures
 Increased soil moisture
 Reduction of roots holding the soil to bedrock

 Undercutting of the slope by excavation or erosion
 Weathering by frost eave
 Bioturbation
Causes and consequences of Mass Movements
Basically, mass movements occur whenever the downward pull of

gravity overcomes the forces resisting sliding or flow. The down
slope pull tending to cause mass movements, called the shearing
stress, is related to the mass of material and to slope angle.
Counteracting the shearing stress is friction or, in the case of a
cohesive solid, shear strength, sliding occurs. Sudden movements
may be set off by a triggering mechanism, such as an earthquake.
Mass Movements, in turn may cause secondary problems, such as
folding.
1)Earthquake
The vigorous shaking of an already-unstable slope by seismic waves may

cause it to fail. Typically, the higher the magnitude of an earthquake, the
more mass wasting will occur.
2) Over-steepening of a slope
A slope whose material is stable at a fairly gentle slope angle may become
unstable if its slope angle becomes steeper. This can occur where a stream
cuts into a valley slope, or where ocean waves remove the base (toe) of a
slope. Also, sometimes humans over-steepen slopes when constructing
building sites, or roads in mountainous areas as shown in the image to the
left.

3) Removal of slope vegetation
A slope denuded of vegetation loses surface protection from the impacts of

raindrops, which can mobilize sediment grains with water flowing down
slope. The roots of plants on a slope can play a significant role in binding
sediment together, reducing the likelihood of rapid or sudden mass wasting
of a slope. Removal of the vegetation, due to human cutting or
harvesting, or due to fire, reduces strength of the slope
4) Introduction of water into slope material
An excessive amount of water within a slope increases its mass, increasing

shear stress within parts of the slope, especially along rock fractures tilted
in the same direction as the slope surface. If the slope is composed of
sediment where grains are not cemented together, excess water can float
the grains apart, reducing friction (and shear strength). Both of these
situations, often associated with heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt, can lead
to mass wasting
5) Ice wedging
Water can flow into even the narrowest of rock fractures. If the
temperature then drops below freezing, ice crystals will form, expanding in
volume by 9 %. This is a very powerful force that can wedge apart rocks,
often causing them to fall from steep slopes in mountains and canyons
6) Biological activity
Animals moving along steep slopes may loosen rocks, sending them
crashing down slope. Some animals are more destructive than others,
rolling rocks down slope on purpose.

Causes of Mass Movements
Mass movements are caused by various conditions:
 Volcanic activity many times causes huge mudflows when the
icy cover of a volcano melts and mixes with the soil to form mud as
the magma in the volcano stirs preceding an eruption.
 Mudslides can also develop when water rapidly accumulates
in the ground, such as during heavy rainfall or rapid snow melt,
changing the earth into a flowing river of mud or "slurry.".
 Earthquake shocks cause sections of mountains and hills to

break off and slide down.
 Human modification of the land or weathering and erosion

help loosen large chunks of earth and start them sliding downhill.
 Vibrations from machinery, traffic, weight loading from

accumulation of snow; stockpiling of rock or ore; from waste piles
and from buildings and other structures.
 However, the trigger mechanism for mass movement is the

gravitational pull of the earth on soil, rocks, and mud.
Preventing Measures of landslides
The key to preventing damage from landslides is to identify and avoid

developing landslide prone areas such as steep, unstable hillsides.
However, if some of these areas must be developed then building codes
should require extensive efforts to insure slope stabilization:
 Vegetation of unstable slopes

 Installation of drainage and runoff channeling structures

 Benching and regrading of slopes to lessen their steepness
 Stabilization structures such as retaining walls, deeply sunk

pylons, and backfilled supports
Good slope engineering is expensive and the temptation to cut corners is

great. However, landslide damage is far more expensive and estimates
have shown that for every dollar spent on slope stabilization, between 10
and 2000 dollars are saved over the long term. For example, a landslide in
Utah in 1983 dammed a river and caused flooding of the town of Thistle, a
railroad, and a major US highway. Total damage was about $200 million.
The slide was triggered by a high water table due to high precipitation and
was a reactivation of an older slide that had a well known history of
movement. Estimates suggest that the slide could have been predicted to be
imminent and could have been prevented for about $300,000 worth of
drainage engineering. Benefit to cost ratio: about 100:1.

Creep
Creep is a long term process. The combination of small movements of soil

or rock in different directions over time are directed by gravity gradually
downslope. The steeper the slope, the faster the creep. The creep makes
trees and other shrubs curve to reach the sun light. These often trigger land
slides because the dirt underneath is not very strong. The trees most of the
time die out because of lack of water and sun, and these rarely happen in
wet climates.
The rate of soil creep down a slope depends on the steepness (gradient) of
the slope, water absorption and content, type of sediment and material, and
lastly vegetation. The rate of creep will take into account all of these
factors to decide whether or not the hillside will progress downward. Creep
is what is responsible for the rounded shape of hillsides.

Water is a very important factor when discussing soil deformation and
movement. When building a sand castle at the beach you would notice that
the presence of water making damp sand aids in keeping your castle
standing up. The water will offer cohesion to the sand which will bind the
sand particles together. However, when you pour a bucket of water over
your sand castle or it gets hit by a wave, it destroys it. This is because the
presence of too much water fills all the pores between the grains with
water creating a slip plain between the particles and offering no cohesion
causing them to slip and slide away. This holds true not only for sand
castles but for hillsides and creep as well. The presence of water may help
the hillside stay put and give it that cohesion but in a very moist/wet
environment or during/after a large amount of precipitation the pores
between the grains could become saturated with water and cause the
ground to slide along the slip plain it creates.
Creep can be caused by the expansion of materials such as clay when they
are exposed to water. Clay expands when wet, then contracts after drying.
The expansion portion pushes downhill, then the contraction results in
consolidation at the new offset.
Vegetation also can play a role with slope stability and creep. When a
hillside contains many trees, ferns, and shrubs their roots can create an
interlocking network that can strengthen unconsolidated material. They
also aid in absorbing the access water in the soil to help keep the slope
stable. They also however, add to the weight of the slope giving gravity
that much more of a driving force to act on in pushing the slope
downward. Slopes with the absence of vegetation have a greater chance of
movement.

Design engineers sometimes need to guard against downhill creep during
their planning to prevent building foundations from being undermined.
Pilings are planted sufficiently deep into the surface material to guard
against this behavior.
Solifluction

In geology, solifluction, also known as soil fluction or soil creep, is a

type of mass wasting where waterlogged sediment slowly moves
downslope over impermeable material. It can occur in any climate where
the ground is saturated by water, though it is most often found in
periglacial environments where the ground is permanently frozen
(permafrost). A term often used for deposits formed under periglacial
conditions is Gelifluction. During warm seasonal periods the surface layer
(active layer) melts and literally slides across the frozen underlayer, slowly
moving downslope due to frost heave that occurs normal to the slope. This
type of mass wasting can occur on slopes as shallow as 0.5 degrees at a
rate of between 0.5 and 15 cm per year. In Germany the solifluction
deposits from the Younger Dryas are found to have a consistent thickness
of 0.4–0.7 metres.
Subsidence
subsidence is the motion of a surface (usually, the Earth's surface) as it

shifts downward relative to a datum such as sea-level. The opposite of

subsidence is uplift, which results in an increase in elevation.
Land subsidence occurs when large amounts of ground water have been
withdrawn from certain types of rocks, such as fine-grained sediments. The
rock compacts because the water is partly responsible for holding the
ground up. When the water is withdrawn, the rocks falls in on itself. You
may not notice land subsidence too much because it can occur over large
areas rather than in a small spot, like a sinkhole. That doesn't mean that
subsidence is not a big event -- states like California, Texas, and Florida
have suffered damage to the tune of hundreds of millions of dollars over
the years.

Dissolution of limestone
Subsidence frequently occurs in karst terrains, where dissolution of

limestone by fluid flow in the subsurface causes the creation of voids (i.e.
caves). If the roof of these voids becomes too weak, it can collapse and the
overlying rock and earth will fall into the space, causing subsidence at the
surface. This type of subsidence can result in sinkholes which can be many
hundreds of meters deep and can provide areas of ecological isolation
which see the evolution of new branches of animal and plant life.
Mining-induced
Several types of sub-surface mining, and specifically methods which

intentionally cause the extracted void to collapse (such as pillar extraction,
longwall mining and any metalliferous mining method which utilises
"caving" such as "block caving" or "sub-level caving") will result in
surface subsidence. Mining induced subsidence is relatively predictable in
its magnitude, manifestation and extent, except where a sudden pillar or
near-surface underground tunnel collapse occurs (usually very old
workings). Mining induced subsidence is nearly always very localised to
the surface above the mined area, plus a margin around the outside [1]. The
vertical magnitude of the subsidence itself typically does not cause
problems, except in the case of drainage (including natural drainage) -
rather it is the associated surface compressive and tensile strains,
curvature, tilts and horizontal displacement that are the cause of the worst
damage to the natural environment, buildings and infrastructure. Where
mining activity is planned, mining-induced subsidence can be successfully
managed if there is co-operation from all of the stakeholders [2]. This is

accomplished through a combination of careful mine planning, the taking
of preventative measures, and the carrying out of repairs post-mining.
Causes of land subsidence
Land subsidence is most often caused by human activities, mainly from the
removal of subsurface water. This pictures shows a fissure near Lucerne

Lake in San Bernardino County, Mojave Desert, California. The probable
cause was declining ground-water levels. Here are some other things that
can cause land subsidence:
Ground-water pumping and land subsidence
Compaction of soils in some aquifer systems can accompany excessive

ground-water pumping and it is by far the single largest cause of
subsidence. Excessive pumping of such aquifer systems has resulted in
permanent subsidence and related ground failures. In some systems, when
large amounts of water are pumped, the subsoil compacts, thus reducing in
size and number the open pore spaces in the soil the previously held water.
This can result in a permanent reduction in the total storage capacity of the
aquifer system.

A Talus cone at the base of Mount Smith, Canadian Rockies.
Causes of Mass wasting

When there is a little friction between particles they will not lie
on a high angle slope. Another factor in the down slope movement of
material is water or fluid. Material that is stable below it critical angle of
repose may become unstable when saturated water. The water has the
effect of adding significant weight and reducing friction between a load
of materials and the surface upon which it rests. Heavy rain an a slope
known to be near the angle of repose , therefore can spell trouble in a
populated area.

The angle of repose is different for different kinds of material.
Coarser material may have an angle of repose of up to about 37 0, while the
angle decreases with grain size down to a range of 20 to 35 0 for fine dry
sand. Angular material generally can have a higher angle of repose than
rounded material. There are other factors, aside from lubrication and
Steepness of slope, that can contribute significantly to down slope
movement where vegetation is lacking, for e.g. there is no root system to
stabilize the soil an a slope and erosion is promoted . Down slope
movement is also promoted as material is loosened during freeze thaw
cycles. Certain rock types, such as shale’s, may become very slippery
when wet so that overlying rock layers may slide along the shale. Finally
bedrock structures such an bedding planes and alignment of crystals
with in the rock, may form planes along which the material may be
weaker and movement takes place along these planes.
However an additional force is often responsible for actually
initiating the mass movement, often materials on the slopes are ready
to move downward if only a little extra push is given push. This additional
push sometimes comes in the form of an earthquake, large amounts of
precipitation or changes in slope by natural or human activity
Conclusion
Mass wasting is the down slope movement of rock, regolith, and

soil, under the influence of gravity, also called mass movement.
The "wasting" part of mass wasting means that a cliff or mountain

slope is diminishing in size, or wasting away. This can occur suddenly with
tremendous destructive force, or very slowly with only a gradual alteration
of Earth’s surface over a period of many years. Mass wasting, also known
as slope movement is the geomorphic process by which soil, regolith, and

rock move down slope under the force of gravity.
Factors that change the potential of mass wasting include: change

in slope angle; weakening of material by weathering; increased water
content; changes in vegetation cover and overloading.
Reference:
Text book of Geomorphology By Dayal ,
Engineering Geology book by Parbin Singh.
Text book of geomorphology Blooms.

Contents
Introduction
Force of Gravity
Classification
Type of Mass Wasting
1. Flowage.
2. Sliding.
3. Subsidence.
Causes of Mass Wasting
Conclusion
Reference:

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Mass Wasting and Classification

Mass wasting is the down slope movement of rock, regolith, and

Mass wasting is referred has non-technical term "landslide", is the

The "wasting" part of mass wasting means that a cliff or mountain

When the gravitational force acting on a slope exceeds its resisting

Department of Applied Geology

Factors that change the potential of mass wasting include: change

Department of Applied Geology

If slope material is composed of sediment then mass wasting can be

2. The presence of a small amount of water which sticks sediment grains

If slope material is composed of rock then mass wasting is resisted

A. the formation of natural cement which locks sediment grains together

B. Interlocking mineral crystals within the rock (common to igneous and

A slope composed of solid rock will be much more resistant to the

Department of Applied Geology

The movements of rock waste may be either slow or fast. A

1. Kind of material moved.

2. Size of the materials.

5. Texture of the material.

6. Relation of moving material to the solid surface.

Mass movements are divided into three groups based on rate of

Department of Applied Geology

Department of Applied Geology

1. Soil creep, 2. Talus creep, 3. Rock creep and 4. Solifluction.

b. Rapid flowage: In the rapid flowage the movement of failing mass

Soil creep in which movement is relatively fast (10 centimeters a

Department of Applied Geology

Talus creep: Talus or Scree is a slope built up by an accumulation of

Department of Applied Geology

Slow flowing of water saturated earth or soil gravity is known as

To solifluction the conditions are:

1. The water supply from melting of ground ices and snow.

1. In rapid flow movement the amount of water present in the debris is

Department of Applied Geology

sediment and water that has a consistency of wet concrete. These

Debris flows or mudflows

Commonly occur in volcanic areas, where they are called lahars.

Road damaged by the mudflow in central Italy.

2. Earth flows (slump):

Department of Applied Geology

Slumping involves the rotational movement of a material downward

Slump Or Slope failure

Movement of a mass of rock or unconsolidated material as a unit along a

Department of Applied Geology

Department of Applied Geology

2. Rock Avalanches: Any large catastrophic landslide may be called

Department of Applied Geology

B. Rock Sliding: In sliding there is a rapid down slope movement of

Separated rock blocks move down on step surface of a cliff. These

Department of Applied Geology

Department of Applied Geology

Department of Applied Geology

Department of Applied Geology

Debris falls are similar, except they involve a mixture of soil,

C. SUBSIDENCE:- It is defined as sinking or settling of the ground in

There are two types of subsidence:-

Department of Applied Geology