Evolving Cultural Landscapes

MINOR THESIS ON
EVOLVING CULTURAL LANDSCAPES
Analysis of the UNESCO framework for conservation of cultural landscapes in

India
Subject:
Urban and Cultural Heritage Minor Thesis
ABPL90382
Submitted by:
RITU SARA THOMAS
1019738
A minor thesis submitted
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of
MASTER OF URBAN AND CULTURAL HERITAGE
in the
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING AND PLANNING
UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE
19th October, 2018

ABSTRACT
The conservation of cultural landscapes has been one of the major concerns of national and
international heritage organisations over the past three decades. Various model frameworks
for designation and protection of cultural landscapes have been formulated and implemented
globally by organisations such as UNESCO, NPC, AHC etc. Among these, the UNESCO
framework has proved to serve as a foundation for the development of national management
frameworks. However, the vast differences in the cultural and physical context of the
properties pose a major issue in its implementation globally. The focus of the UNESCO
framework on specific values and the alienation of other equally significant values limit its
adoption as national or regional framework for cultural landscape management.
In India, the characteristics of cultural landscapes have been shaped through the continuity of
living traditions and intangible resources of diverse communities, extending through its
history of more than two millennia. Hence, there is a necessity to formulate context specific
frameworks that are developed through an understanding of the history, the landscape, the
role of the stakeholders and the long-term development goals. This research raises issues
from a critical assessment of the UNESCO framework for cultural landscapes. The
applicability of the UNESCO framework in the conservation of Indian cultural landscapes is
analysed using the World Heritage Site of Hampi as a case study. It attempts to establish the
need for context-based national or regional frameworks by the adaption of UNESCO
framework to the Indian context.
DECLARATION
I certify that this work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any
other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the
best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by
another person, except where due reference has been made in the text.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I acknowledge the guidance provided by my supervisor, Dr. Stuart King towards the
completion of this project. I also acknowledge the opportunity and support provided by the
Study Abroad Programme of the University of Melbourne, Academic Skills, and moral
support by my classmates and family.
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1
Theory of Cultural Landscapes ....................................................................................... 1
International Scenario of Cultural Landscape Conservation ............................................ 3
National and Regional Contexts of Cultural Landscape Conservation ............................. 4
Conservation efforts in India .......................................................................................... 6
Research objectives, research question and methodology ............................................... 7
II. THE UNESCO FRAMEWORK FOR CULTURAL LANDSCAPES ........................ 8
Recognition and Conservation of Cultural Landscapes ................................................... 8
Outcomes and Benefits of the World Heritage Listing .................................................... 12
Problems and Critiques of World Heritage Listing .......................................................... 13
Case study of the Rice Terraces of Philippines Cordilleras ........................................... 14
III. CULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN INDIA ................................................................... 18
Managing Indian Heritage Sites and Landscapes .......................................................... 19
Recognising Indian Heritage Sites as Cultural Landscapes ........................................... 21
IV. HAMPI AS A CULTURAL LANDSCAPE ............................................................... 23
History and Setting of Hampi ....................................................................................... 24
Recognising Hampi as a Cultural landscape ................................................................. 26
Application of the UNESCO Framework on Hampi ..................................................... 33
Benefits of the UNESCO Framework Application on Hampi........................................ 34
Missing Links of UNESCO Framework Application on Hampi .................................... 36
V. CONCLUSION........................................................................................................... 38
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 41
ii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Ten selection criteria for inscription into the World Heritage List ........................................ 9
Table 2: Categorisation of World Heritage Cultural Landscapes ...................................................... 11
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Nathan Sado , Hapao Rice Terraces, Phillipines, November 7, 2016, Accessed on
October 17, 2018. https://fitlivinglifestyle.com/hiking-the-rice-terraces-of-banaue-
philippines/ .................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 2: John Javellana, Reuters, Flooded Rice Paddies Stairstep Down a Mountain Slope in
Banaue, North of Manila, August 19, 2018, Accessed on: October 17, 2018.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/world-heritage/philippine-rice
terraces/?user.testname ................................................................................................ 16
Figure 3: Philip Larson , View of Hampi and its physical landscape showing the River Tungabhadra,
the monuments and plantations, August 1, 2009, Accessed October 17, 2018.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/philiplarson/3787834043/in/photostream/..................... 23
Figure 4: Vtanurag, Vishnu temple near Vittala Temple, August 19, 2012. Accessed October 17,
2018. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ ................................................................ 26
Figure 5: Unknown, Virupaksha temple in Hampi, India, September 19, 2013. Accessed October 17,
2018, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ ................................................................ 26
Figure 6: Integrated Design, Map showing Core Zone, Monuments and Village Boundariesin Hampi
World Heritage Site, 2011, Accessed on October 17, 2018. World Heritage Site
Landscape Study, (Bangalore: Hampi World Heritage Area Management Authority,
2011), 7. http://202.138.105.9/hwhama/images/IMP/HAMPI_Landscape%20Study.pdf
................................................................................................................................... .28
Figure 7: Adam Jones, Hindu pilgrims bathe in the Tungabhadra river, near Hampi Village, India,
July 21, 2009. Accessed October 17, 2018.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/adam_jones/3773700713/...............................................29
Figure 8: Sarah Welch, 15th century aqueduct to Mahanavami Pushkarani step well, Hampi,
September 8, 2017. Accessed on October 17, 2018. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
.................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 9: Dharani Prakash, A view from Anjanadri Hills, April 23, 2018. Accessed October 17, 2018.
https://www.nativeplanet.com/travel-guide/places-connected-to-ramayana-hampi-
002506.html ................................................................................................................ 30
Figure 10: Unknown, Dasara of Dharamaragudda-the Hill of Gods, July 13, 2016. Accessed
October 19, 2018. http://chaha.in/dasara-of-dharamaragudda-the-hill-of-
gods/rsimg_0745/ ........................................................................................................ 32
Figure 11: Author. Diagram representing the interlinks between the historical layers of Hampi ,
October 17, 2018. ........................................................................................................ 35
iii
I. INTRODUCTION
Cultural landscape is a concept that expresses the physical and associative relationship
between people and their environment. This relationship, which is established in the culture,
livelihood and identity of the people, varies considerably based on the context. The values of
cultural landscape are dependent on the way human activities have shaped the land over the
course of time. 1 The destruction of significant landscapes due to climate change and
indiscriminate human activities such as mining and war has sparked the idea of its
conservation. Today, the conservation of cultural landscapes has become one of the major
concerns of national and international heritage organisations.
Theory of Cultural Landscapes
The early expressions of landscapes were through the art of gardening, paintings, literature
and poetry, which were purely of an aesthetic nature. The existence of cultural landscapes, as
a human-nature relation was acknowledged as early as 1000 CE in China. 2 The concept of
landscape as a product of a process including human and natural elements emerged initially
in the writings of French and German academicians in the field of history and geography in
the 1850s.3 However, it was not until the early twentieth century that the term „cultural
landscape‟ was coined by Professor Carl O. Sauer in the field of geography and was widely
promoted by geographers in Berkeley, USA.
The classic definition of the term „cultural landscapes‟, which was introduced in 1925 by
Sauer in his book, the Morphology of Landscape is: “The cultural landscape is fashioned
from a natural landscape by a culture group. Culture is the agent, the natural area the
medium, the cultural landscape the result”. 4 He understood landscape as a definable area
1
Nora Mitchell, Mechtild Rössler, Pierre-Marie Tricaud, “Introducing cultural landscapes,” World Heritage
Cultural Landscapes: A Handbook for Conservation and Management, World Heritage Papers 26 (Paris: World
Heritage Centre, UNESCO, 2009), 17.
2
Peter Fowler,“ World Heritage Cultural Landscapes, 1992–2002: a Review and Prospect,” Cultural
Landscapes: the Challenges of Conservation, (Ferrara: World Heritage Centre, 2002), 17
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001329/132988e.pdf
3
Peter Fowler, “The Idea of Cultural Landscape”, Landscape for the World: Conserving a Global Heritage,
(Cheshire: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 15.
4
Carl. O. Sauer, The Morphology of Landscape (Berkeley, California: University Press, 1925), 46.
1
shaped by cultural forces, which included both tangible and intangible values. This new
discipline of human geography or cultural anthropology is based on the documentation of the
values and evidences of human influence on landscape over a period of time.5 Similar
6
concepts of „landscapes with personality‟ by Fox and „field archaeology‟ by Crawford
evolved during the first half of the twentieth century in the field of archaeology. 7
Sauer‟s morphological approach to cultural landscapes has been critiqued widely due to its
categorisation of all elements into „nature‟ or „culture‟, and the definition is considered to
have a limited view of culture with uniform values. 8 J. B. Jackson expanded on the idea to
understand the experience of the landscape beyond the morphology and explored the
9
symbolic aspect of landscapes. According to Jackson, “Cultural landscapes will always
remain elusive expressions of a persistent desire to make the earth over in the image of some
heaven.”10
Wagner and Mikesell defined cultural landscapes as “a concrete and characteristic product of
the interplay between a given human community, embodying certain cultural preferences and
potentials, and a particular set of natural circumstances. It is a heritage of many eras of
natural evolution and of many generations of human effort.”11, which is the closest
interpretation of the modern notion of cultural landscapes, and including various layers of
history.
The concept of reading landscapes was also promulgated by geographers such as Tuan and
Meinig. That morphological features of a landscape remain, yet different meanings can be
5
Mitchell, “Introducing cultural landscapes,” 18.
6
C.F. Fox, “The Personality of Britain”, quoted in Landscape for the World: Conserving a Global Heritage,
(Cheshire: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 16.
7
Fowler, “The Idea of Cultural Landscape,” 15.
8
Sarah Whatmore, “Materialist returns: Practising cultural geography in and for a more-than-human world”,
Cultural Geographies, 13, (SAGE Publications, 2006), 600-609.
9
J. B. Jackson „Sterile Restorations Cannot Replace a Sense of the Stream of Time‟, in J.B. Jackosn and Helen
Horowitz (eds.) Landscape in Sight: Looking at America. (London: Yale University Press, 1997) 366-68.
10
J. B. Jackson, “Human, all too human geography,” Landscape Vol.2, 2 (Autumn:1952), 5-7.
11
P.L. Wagner and M. W. Mikesell, “Readings in Cultural Geography”, quoted in Landscape for the World:
Conserving a Global Heritage, (Cheshire: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 17.
2
12
ascertained depending on the interpretation of various individuals is the key idea that has
shaped the field of cultural landscape theory today. In 1984, Melnick redefined Sauer‟s
definition to incorporate the modern notion that “[the] cultural landscape is a tangible
manifestation of human actions and beliefs set against and within the natural landscape.” 13
Thus, the concept of cultural landscapes shifted focus from being purely theoretical, to a new
heritage category by the end of the twentieth century.
International Scenario of Cultural Landscape Conservation
International heritage conservation activities emerged as an aftermath of the Second World

War and subsequently, the UNESCO recommendation on the Beauty and Character of
Landscapes and Sites were adopted in 1962. 14 The influential book by Briks on The Cultural
Landscape- past, present and future published in 198815, and the philosophical definition
“Cultural landscape is a transformed part of free nature resulting from man‟s intervention to
shape it according to particular concepts of culture”16 by Svobodova in 1990, gave the
necessary impetus for the consideration of cultural landscapes as a possible heritage
category. 17 Thus, the term „cultural landscapes‟ was professionally accepted worldwide in
1992, when the UNESCO World Heritage Centre (WHC) recognised the need for its
inscription and protection as „World Heritage Sites‟ and formulated the categories of
designed landscapes, organically evolved or relict landscapes, and associative landscapes.
The 1994 version of the „Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World
Heritage Convention‟, describes cultural landscapes as „combined works of nature and man‟
and the properties were mostly listed under the Criterion (v) -“be an outstanding example of a
traditional human settlement, which is representative of a culture and which has become
12
Yi Fu Tuan, “Thought and Landscape,” in The Interpretation of Ordinary Landscapes, ed. D. Meinig
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 89-102.
13
R. Z. Melnick, Cultural Landscapes: Rural Historic Districts in the National Park System, (Washington D.C.:
National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1984), 2.
14
15
H. H. Briks. et. al. The Cultural Landscape – Past, Present and Future, (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1988).
16
H. Svobodova, Cultural Aspects of Landscape, ed. (Wageningen; Pudoc, 1990), 24.
17
Fowler,“The Idea of Cultural Landscape,” 17.
3
vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change”.18 The concept was further expanded in
2005 to include “evolution of human society and settlement over time” and criterion (v) was
redefined as “an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use
which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the environment
especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change”,19 which
included the notions of “human interaction with the environment” and sustainable land-use in
relation to cultural landscapes. 20
Since its global recognition, research and studies by various academicians such as Ken
Taylor, Jane Lennon, Nora Mitchell and Maggie Roe have contributed to the critical
assessment of the concept of cultural landscape and its management. The challenges and new
directions in the conservation of cultural landscapes in the twenty first century have been
examined in a series of essays about the emerging concepts in this field.21 The challenges and
context of new cultural landscapes have also been critically assessed. 22 Moreover, the
implications of the adaptation of the UNESCO management framework for national and
regional contexts and its implications in properties throughout the globe are being widely
discussed.23
National and Regional Contexts of Cultural Landscape Conservation
In 1981, the United States National Park Service (NPS), established one of the most
comprehensive and detailed national frameworks on cultural landscape preservation. The
NPS recognises cultural landscapes as, “a geographic area, including both cultural and natural
resources and the wildlife or domestic animals therein, associated with an historic event,
activity or person, or exhibiting other cultural or aesthetic values”, defining it as a resource
based entity, and using detailed documentation tools such as Cultural Landscape Inventories
18
World Heritage Centre, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention
(Paris: UNESCO, 1994), 14.
19
World Heritage Centre, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention
(Paris: UNESCO, 2005), 14.
20
Jukka Jokilehto, What is OUV? : Defining the Outstanding Universal Value of Cultural World Heritage
Properties, (London: ICOMOS, 2008), 29.
21
Ken Taylor, Archer St Clair, Nora J. Mitchell, Conserving Cultural Landscapes: Challenges and New
Directions, (New York: Routledge, 2015).
22
Maggie Roe and Ken Taylor, New Cultural Landscapes, (Oxon: Routledge, 2014).
23
Ken Taylor and Jane Lennon, Managing Cultural Landscapes, (Oxon: Routledge, 2012).
4
(CLI) and Cultural Landscape Reports (CLR). 24 It categorises cultural landscapes broadly as
historic sites, historic designed landscapes, historic vernacular landscapes and ethnographic
landscapes, which draws parallels to the UNESCO categorisation.
The European Landscape Convention also follows the UNSECO Heritage Convention;
however it covers all landscapes, including the ones that are not of outstanding universal
25
value. It recognises landscapes as a key factor in improving the quality of life of people.
Similarly, in the United Kingdom, conservation efforts concentrate on lived-in landscapes.
The program of Historic Landscape Characterisation (HLC) by English Heritage assumes that
the entire historic landscape is the product of change. 26 Australia ICOMOS adopted the Burra
Charter for heritage conservation and follows the UNESCO guidelines for conservation of
cultural landscapes.
In South Asia, cultural landscapes are a significant yet overlooked category of heritage,
mainly due to the monument-centric approach to heritage management. In the World
Heritage List, out of the 88 cultural landscapes inscribed, only two are from South Asia, one
is the Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan and the other is the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in
India.27 These properties are governed by the UNESCO framework due to the lack of a
national framework for cultural landscape management. Thus, the national and regional
heritage organisations of South Asia often adopt the heritage categorisations and tools of
international organisations and other national frameworks without its critical assessment. 28
24
Arnold R. Alanen and Robert Z. Melnick, Preserving Cultural Landscapes in America, (Baltimore and
London: The John Hopkins University Press, 2000), 10.
25
G. J. Fairclough , G. Lambrick and D. Hopkins , „Historic landscape characterisation in England and a
Hampshire case study„, in Fairclough GJ and Rippon SJ (eds), Europe‘s cultural landscape: archaeologists and
the management of change, occasional paper no 2, (Brussels, Belgium: Europae Archaeologiae Consilium, 69,
2002).
26
Fairclough et al, “Historic landscape characterisation in England and a Hampshire case study,” 69.
27
UNESCO, “Cultural Landscapes” Website, http://whc.unesco.org/en/culturallandscpe/, Accessed on 15
October, 2018.
28
Kapila D. Sinha, “Prospects for managing South Asian cultural landscapes”, Cultural Landscapes of South
Asia: Studies in Heritage Conservation and Management, (London and New York: Routledge, 2017), 258.
5
Conservation efforts in India
In India, there is an absence of regional or national framework for the identification and
management of cultural landscapes. The practices of heritage conservation and management
continue to follow a monument-centric approach, carrying on its colonial past. The focus of
the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), established by the British, was to survey India‟s
monuments, stabilize ruins, and protect them for aesthetic benefits. In contrast, the pre-
colonial era in India understood the concepts of time and space differently. History is
represented and remembered through the intangible resources including mythological stories,
ballads, plays and festivals. Time is considered to be cyclic rather than linear, which
regenerates life and creates a cycle of life and death that remains endless. The monuments are
valued, not only for their historical value, but due to its symbolic meaning and continued use
in daily life. Similarly, the landscape represents multiple meanings through its interdependent
elements, providing a setting for various traditions. 29
Considering the dynamic, complex and living nature of heritage properties, the cultural
landscape concept is suitable for heritage management in India. 30 Studies by Rana Singh and
S.C. Malik examines the interdependence of attributes and cross-cultural understanding of
cultural landscapes. 31 The consideration of existing heritage sites as cultural landscapes are
being assessed. 32 However, there are gaps in the direct adoption of the UNESCO framework,
similar to Western countries and Australia, for formulating a national framework in India,
due to the differences in physical and cultural contexts.
Cultural landscapes are a blend of physical, socio-cultural, economic, religious and political
environment, involving tangible and intangible elements. 33 Due to its complex nature, the
lapse in conservation of any of these factors, can lead to an imbalance to the delicate social
balance between the society and the landscape. Hence, there is a necessity to formulate
context-based frameworks that are developed through constant involvement with the site, and
29
Sinha, Cultural Landscapes of South Asia, 3- 4.
30
Sinha, Cultural Landscapes of South Asia, 258.
31
Rana P.B. Singh, Urban Cultural Landscapes and Sacredscapes: the Indian Vision, 22-24 July, 2017.
32
Sinha, Cultural Landscapes of South Asia, 265.
33
Singh, Urban Cultural Landscapes and Sacredscapes,3.
6
consideration of its various layers of history, engagement with the community and addressing
its long-term development goals.34
Research objectives, research question and methodology
In this research, the adaptation of the UNESCO framework in the conservation of cultural
landscapes in India is analysed, with a view to formulate a regional or national framework.
The structure of the minor thesis follows three main sections:

i) The UNESCO framework for cultural landscape conservation. ii) Cultural landscapes in
India. iii) The application and implications of the UNESCO framework on an Indian case
study. In the first section, the process of recognition and management of cultural landscapes
by the World Heritage Centre is examined. The definition, categorisation, selection criteria,
the benefits and challenges are examined through various UNESCO documents and a case
study. The theory of cultural landscapes in India, and its need for its recognition is discussed
in the second section. A case study of Hampi as a cultural landscape The UNESCO
framework is applied to this case study and its implications are discussed. In conclusion, the
necessity for context-based national framework for India is examined and recommendations
are provided.
The research aims to highlight the importance of conservation of cultural landscapes in the
international and Indian contexts and the gaps in the existing literature. It evaluates the
formulation of the UNESCO framework and to explore its implications on World Heritage
cultural landscapes. It attempts to establish the significance of cultural landscape recognition
and conservation in India and critically analyse the adoption of UNESCO framework in
India. The need for context-based national or regional frameworks is examined by the
adaption of UNESCO framework to the Indian context.
34
Nalini Thakur, “Indian Cultural Landscapes: Religious pluralism, tolerance and ground reality,‖ New
Dimensions in Research of Environments for Living ―The Sacred‖, No.3 (Monsoon 2011),
https://architexturez.net/doc/az-cf-21175.
7
II. THE UNESCO FRAMEWORK FOR CULTURAL LANDSCAPES
Cultural landscapes have been recognised as one of the most distinct categories within
heritage conservation. Numerous policy frameworks have been developed on a national and
international scale for its conservation. The most widely accepted framework that caters to
cultural landscape conservation on a global scale is the UNESCO framework for World
Heritage Listing. It provides a foundation for the development of national management
frameworks due to its continuous evaluation and incorporation of current international
thought. Hence, the study of the UNESCO framework for conservation becomes an essential
tool in this research.
Recognition and Conservation of Cultural Landscapes
The 16th session of the „Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage‟ held in France in 1992, was the first legal instrument to recognise and
protect cultural landscapes.35 The World Heritage Committee defines cultural landscapes as,
as „combined works of nature and man as designated in Article 1 of the Convention‟. They
are „illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the
influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunities presented by their natural
environment and of successive social, economic and cultural forces, both external and
internal‟. 36
To achieve a World Heritage inscription, State Parties i.e. the member countries that have
signed the World Heritage Convention prepare a tentative list for the inscription of properties
into the UNESCO‟s World Heritage List and submit nomination proposals called dossiers.
The dossier is a written document that justifies the „Outstanding Universal Value‟ (OUV) of
the heritage property by describing its attributes and unique values of significance that
distinguishes it from other properties. These nominated properties are then evaluated by two
35
The purpose of the Convention was to ensure that the cultural landscapes of „Outstanding Universal Value‟
are identified, protected, conserved, presented and transmitted to the future generations. The guidelines towards
its inscription into the World Heritage List were also adopted in the Committee. Source: Mitchell, “Introducing
cultural landscapes,”19.
36
World Heritage Centre, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention,
(Paris: UNESCO, 2012), WHC. 12/01, 98.
8
advisory bodies ICOMOS and IUCN based on site inspections and are either inscribed,
rejected or deferred by the World Heritage Committee, which meets annually.
The statement of OUV is considered the key concept to the inscription of sites in the World
Heritage List. According to the Operational Guidelines, OUV is defined as “cultural and/or
natural significance which is so exceptional as to transcend national boundaries and to be of
common importance for present and future generations of all humanity.”37 It is considered
essential as it illustrates the uniqueness and universality of a property on a global scale, and
justifies the need for international cooperation for its conservation. It must satisfy at least one
of the ten selection criteria, established by the Committee, as mentioned in Table 1.
Table 1: Ten selection criteria for inscription into the World Heritage List.
Source: UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage
Convention, (Paris: World Heritage Centre, 2017), WHC. 17/01, 30.
For the inscription of sites into the World Heritage List, the sites must be of
‗Outstanding Universal Value, and must satisfy at least one of following ten
selection criteria, established by the Committee.
i to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius;
ii to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or

within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or
technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design
iii to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a

civilization which is living or which has disappeared
iv to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or

technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in
human history
v to be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or

sea-use which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction
with the environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact
of irreversible change
vi to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas,

or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal
significance. (The Committee considers that this criterion should preferably be
used in conjunction with other criteria)
37
UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, (Paris: World
Heritage Centre, 2017), WHC. 17/01, 19.
9
vii to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty
and aesthetic importance
viii to be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history,

including the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the
development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features
ix to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and

biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water,
coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals
x to contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ
conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened
species of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or
conservation.
In addition, to prove the OUV of a cultural property, it must satisfy the conditions of
authenticity, applicable for properties nominated under criteria (i) to (vi). The test for
authenticity through attributes: materials, design, workmanship and setting were first
recognised by the Nara Conference, in 1994.38 The Nara Document on Authenticity describes
that the prerequisite for testing the authenticity is the assessment of the characteristics of
cultural heritage, their meaning and the sources of information. The 2005 Operational
Guidelines expanded the list of attributes into: “form and design, materials and substance, use
and function, traditions, techniques and management systems, location and setting, language
and other forms of intangible heritage, spirit and feeling and other internal and external
factors.”39 For cultural landscapes, the distinctive character and components serve as the
attributes.
All properties to be inscribed must also satisfy the terms of integrity, especially for cultural
landscape properties. Integrity is defined in the Operational Guidelines is “a measure of the
wholeness and intactness of the natural and/or cultural heritage and its attributes”.40 The
assessment of all elements that express OUV are required, which includes the continuation of
relationships and living functions in the case of cultural landscapes. The property must be of
adequate size to appropriately represent the values of significance and any adverse effects of
38
39
World Heritage Centre, Operational Guidelines, 2017, 27.
40
10
development or neglect must be examined. The extent to which various layers of history,
meanings and relation between the attributes remain intact and is represented in the landscape
is to be included in the statement of integrity for cultural landscapes. 41
The Convention categorises World Heritage cultural landscapes into a) Clearly defined
landscapes which are designed and created by man intentionally, b) Organically evolved
landscapes, which may be relict (or fossil landscapes) or continuing landscapes, and c)
Associative cultural landscapes. 42
Table 2: Categorisation of World Heritage Cultural Landscapes

Source: UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage
Convention, (Paris: World Heritage Centre, 2017), WHC. 17/01, 30.
(i) The most easily identifiable is the clearly defined landscape, designed and created
intentionally by man. This embraces garden and parkland landscapes
characteristically constructed for aesthetic, social and recreational reasons which
are often (but not always) associated with religious or other monumental buildings
and ensemble.
(ii) The second category is the organically evolved landscape. This results from an
initial social, economic, administrative, and/or religious imperative and has
developed its present form by association with and in response to its natural
environment. Such landscapes reflect that process of evolution in their form and
component features. They fall into two sub-categories:
A relict (or fossil) landscape is one in which an evolutionary process came to an end
at some time in the past, either abruptly or over a period. Its significant
distinguishing features are, however, still visible in material form.
A continuing landscape is one which retains an active social role in contemporary

society closely associated with a traditional way of life, and in which the
evolutionary process is still in progress. At the same time, it exhibits significant
material evidence of its evolution over time.
(iii) The final category is the associative cultural landscape. The inclusion of such
landscapes on the World heritage List is justifiable by virtue of the powerful,
religious, artistic or cultural associations with the natural element rather than
material cultural evidence, which may be insignificant or even absent.
41
Mitchell, “Introducing Cultural Landscapes,” 25.
42
11
The most popular and relevant criteria used for the inscription of cultural landscape
43
properties are criterion (iv) and (v), which describes an outstanding example of a typology
or a land-use, respectively. These criteria have been modified to suit the definition of cultural
landscapes, by the inclusion of „human history‟ and „human interaction with the
environment‟ in its definitions.44
The nominated properties must be protected under a conservation and management system
implemented by the State Party. Adequate legislations and regulatory systems implemented at
national, regional and local levels should ensure that the attributes of OUV and conditions of
authenticity and integrity are sustained or enhanced over time. This involves a process of
listing of properties under a national or regional registry, inventorying, delineation of
boundaries for protection, and implementation of comprehensive conservation and
management plan and periodic monitoring.
Outcomes and Benefits of the World Heritage Listing
A long term benefit, of inscription of cultural landscapes in the World Heritage List, as
mentioned by Fowler, is the promotion of greater global awareness of cultural landscape
protection. 45 The inscription highlights the major issues concerning cultural landscapes, and
the necessity to derive solutions and help organise international funding for those properties
in danger. The conservation of cultural landscapes help support sustainable land use using
modern technologies, which helps enhance the natural values of the property. The protection
of traditional land use forms support sustenance of bio-diversity, despite changing
environmental conditions. It also helps sustain the spiritual associations of the people with
the landscapes represented through traditional customs, rituals and pilgrimage. 46
Additionally, the strict regulations and the high scrutiny of nomination proposals have
ensured the maintenance of high standards of the UNESCO framework. It has enabled
43
Fowler, Landscape for the World: Conserving a Global Heritage, 180.
44
Criterion (iv) was modified to include „human history‟ in the „Operational Guidelines‟ in 1994. Source: World
Heritage Centre, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention (Paris:
UNESCO, 1994), 14.
Criterion (v) was modified to include „human interaction with the environment‟ in the „Operational Guidelines‟
in 2005. Source: World Heritage Centre, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage
Convention (Paris: UNESCO, 2005), 14.
45
Fowler, “World Heritage Cultural Landscapes, 1992–2002,” 13.
46
Mitchell, “Introducing Cultural Landscapes,” 19.
12
properties that were highly neglected to be recognised and examines the current issues
concerning cultural landscapes on a global scale.
Problems and Critiques of World Heritage Listing
The WHC categorisation and criteria for inscription of cultural landscapes have been widely
critiqued by experts worldwide. Fowler emphasises that the preparation of a nomination
dossier for cultural landscapes is a challenging process, as the property must possess the
quality of universality and also represent the cultural traits of a geographical region. 47 He
emphasizes that the concept is not fully applied to certain types of sites such as industrial
cultural landscapes, campaign cultural landscapes and disaster landscapes. 48 Moreover, the
criteria used for the inscription of cultural landscapes are no different from that of other
cultural and natural properties, as detailed in the „Operational Guidelines‟.
The Global Strategy adopted by the World Heritage Committee in 1994 has recognised that
there is an uneven distribution of cultural landscapes inscribed in the World Heritage List.
The unfamiliarity of the concept of cultural landscapes and the lack of expertise has led to
fewer African, Asian and Pacific properties being inscribed in the List.49 The complexity in
the conservation of cultural landscapes in these regions is due to the interrelationship between
multiple attributes and interdependence of socio-economic, physical and spiritual values.
Though the UNESCO framework for World Heritage Listing has incorporated a wide range
of properties in its framework such as cultural heritage, natural heritage, mixed properties and
cultural landscapes, it highlights only one or two key attributes that contribute significantly to
its OUV. The recognition of the OUV has overshadowed other significant values of cultural
landscapes. This has the potential to generate potential management conflicts in the future. 50
47
Peter J. Fowler,“ Analysis of World Heritage Cultural Landscapes, 1992–2002,” World Heritage Cultural
Landscapes, 1992–2002, (Paris: World Heritage Centre, 2003), 26
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001331/133121e.pdf
48
Fowler, “World Heritage Cultural Landscapes, 1992–2002”, 13.
49
World Heritage Committee, Global Strategy for a Balanced, Representative and Credible World Heritage
List (Paris: UNESCO Headquarters, 1994), (Accessed September 10, 2018).
http://whc.unesco.org/en/globalstrategy/
50
N.P. Khanna, “Conflicting Perceptions,” Working Conservation, (Seminar 542, October 2004). (Accessed
September 10, 2018). http://www.india-seminar.com/semframe.html.
13
Case study of the Rice Terraces of Philippines Cordilleras
One of the earliest inscriptions in the cultural landscape category is the Rice Terraces of the
Philippine Cordilleras in Asia in 1995. It was the first continuing cultural landscape to be
inscribed, dating to about 2000 years old. The five clusters of rice terraces inscribed, the
Nagacadan, the Hungduan, the central Mayoyao, the Bangaan and the Batad terrace clusters,
together represent skills and knowledge of traditional agricultural practices passed on through
generations, which has survived the pressures of modernism. These rice fields are cultivated
on high altitudes varying from 700 to 1500 metres and steep slopes, by carefully carving the
natural contours of the hills to create pond fields, using intricate irrigation and water
harvesting systems and unique farming techniques, as shown in Figure 1. 51 The Ifugao Rice
Terraces are the product of sacred traditions and fragile social life that has evolved over
centuries providing a delicate balance between nature and man.
The traditional method of management of this fragile site has been attributed to the strong
spiritual values of the Ifugao culture. 52 The tribal mountain culture has deep rooted wealth of
culture and traditional land-use management systems that exist even today. The integrity of
the rice terraces are characterised by a delicate balance of the history, culture, beliefs,
traditional land-use and agricultural practices.
According to the nomination dossier, the three criteria for proving the significance of the
cultural landscape; Criterion (iii): Dramatic testimony to a community‟s sustainable system
of rice production, Criterion (iv): Memorial to the history and labour of more than a thousand
generations of farmers, Criterion (v): Outstanding example of land-use. The dossier
recognises the futility of conservation of the rice terraces without the cooperative approach of
the community as a whole, based on traditional land use management systems. However, the
implementation of Rice Terraces Master Plan formulated by the lfugao Terraces
Commission, and the Provincial Government have yielded negative results and even led to
the its inscription on the World Heritage Site in Danger in 2001.
51
UNESCO, Nomination proposal : Rice Terraces of the Philippines Cordilleras, (Berlin: World Heritage
Centre, 1995). (Accessed September 10, 2018). https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/722/
52
UNESCO, Nomination proposal : Rice Terraces.
14
Figure 1: Nathan Sado , Hapao Rice Terraces, Phillipines, November 7, 2016, Accessed on October 17, 2018.
https://fitlivinglifestyle.com/hiking-the-rice-terraces-of-banaue-philippines/
The growing pressures of modernisation and socio-economic needs of the society and lack of
financial support from the authorities have further aggravated the issue. The early inscription
of the Rice Terraces into the World Heritage list has led to the increased exploitation of its
tourism potential, which unless controlled can lead to the risk of destruction of the fragile
social balance of the landscape, that initially attracted tourists. 53
The terraces are built along the contours of the highest peaks, which makes it inaccessible to
farm animals and machinery, as shown in Figure 2. Hence, it makes this type of agriculture
labour intensive. Availability of skilled labour to manage the rice fields is scarce. The current
conservation activities have failed to create adequate awareness, and participation among the
younger generation of the community has subsequently decreased, leading to a loss of
traditional knowledge of land-use management systems. 54
53
UNESCO, Nomination proposal: Rice Terraces.
54
UNESCO, Report of a Joint Reactive Monitoring Mission to the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras,
Ifugao Province, (The Philippines: UNESCO, 2006).
https://whc.unesco.org/document/8217. (Accessed August 6, 2018). 7, 1.3.
15
The abandonment of rice terraces due to unsustainability caused by climate change, irregular
rainfall patterns and reduction in labour force is a major issue, which led to its inscription in
the Danger list.55 Forests that act as the natural edges of the rice fields and help maintain the
water cycle and replenish the traditional hydraulic system are also facing the threat of
deforestation, as they are not included in the listing. The initial inscription ignored the
conservation of the forest cover, which plays a major role in the sustenance of the rice
terraces.
Figure 2: John Javellana, Reuters, Flooded Rice Paddies Stairstep Down a Mountain Slope in Banaue, North of Manila,
August 19, 2018, Accessed on: October 17, 2018. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/world-heritage/philippine-
rice-terraces/?user.testname=none
After its inscription in the World Heritage List in Danger, the Management Plan was re-
evaluated under the leadership of a cohesive local community group. The need for cultural
conservation was recognised as important factor towards the conservation of the terraces, as
its maintenance is an integral part of the local tradition and culture. Currently, a local
development plan managed by the local community has helped revive the traditional
architecture and crafts through documentation and resulted in community based tourists
programmes. This has ensured a sustainable economy, which in turn has led to the successful
55
Adrian Phillips and Zhao Zhijun , Report on the ICOMOS/IUCN Reactive Monitoring Mission to the Rice
Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras (2001) ,WHC-01/CONF.207/INF.5. (Accessed September 10, 2018).
16
conservation practices of the terraces and removal of the rice terraces from the World
Heritage List in Danger in 2012.
The case study illustrates that a holistic, context-based and inclusive framework with a
bottom-up approach is required for sustainable cultural landscape conservation. A profound
understanding of diverse values can be managed and interpreted better at a localised level.
Although the UNESCO framework serves as a basis for national and regional cultural
landscape frameworks, it requires adaptation to suit the specific context. Thus, there is a need
to focus attention to national, regional and local framework for the effective management of
cultural landscape and minimize future conflicts.
17
III. CULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN INDIA
Indian Cultural Landscapes (ICL) are understood within India by academics as “a repository
of the collective perception of geography in which landscape is shaped by the convergence of
56
memory, imagination, information and continuity.” The focus of the definition is on the
memory of people and the continuity of values. Indian cultural landscapes are a complex
system consisting of various layers of history and cultural amalgamation of tangible and
intangible resources.57
In pre-colonial India, the concept of time was understood as a cyclic process rather than
linearly, as perceived during the colonial era. Similarly, the concept of space is considered to
regenerate continuously in the cyclic time. Divinity is manifested through the medium of
nature.58 The various elements of the landscape including rivers, hills, caves, and terrain
carried symbolic meaning. Landmarks, cardinal directions, the patterns of seasons were
considered significant to the planning of habitable space. The physical landscape provides a
natural setting for various rituals and festivals and has the capacity for regeneration. History
is viewed as a process of renewal and regeneration according to the cyclic passage of time 59
and it continues to be remembered through literature, art and dance forms and festivals. The
characteristics of cultural landscapes have been shaped through a process of renewal of the
memory of diverse communities represented through living traditions and intangible
resources.60
The focus on sacredness of Indian Cultural Landscapes is significant. Indian Cultural

Landscapes are also defined as “„intellectual landscapes‟, a collection of religious, cultural
and physical meanings ascribed to geographical components through collective memory,
planted on the ground in active engagement of communities over generations, empowering
56
Singh, Rana P.B. “Indian Cultural Landscape vis-à-vis Ecological Cosmology: A Vision for the 21st
Century”. Annals, National Association of Geographers of India, Annals- NAGI, 33. 2, (New Delhi, December,
2013).
57
S.C. Malik, Indian Civilization: The Formative Period. (Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, 1968),
173-174.
58
Sinha, Kapila D. Cultural Landscapes of South Asia,6.
59
Malik, Indian Civilization, 173-174.
60
Singh, Rana P.B. Urban Cultural Landscapes and Sacredscapes,3.
18
nature and land from physical to the metaphysical.” 61 The spiritual associations and
sacredness of landscapes are significant only in its continued use. The level of sacredness of
landscape vary based on the cultural group and may diminish or increase over time.
The attributes of Indian cultural landscapes cannot be segregated. All elements are considered
as part of a whole.62 The tangible and intangible resources are so interlinked that their
distinction is subtle. The physical, social, cultural, economic and religious values are so
interwoven with the intangible values of language, livelihood and spiritual associations of the
community. 63 Thus ICLs are a distinct concept than that defined by the World Heritage
guidelines.
Managing Indian Heritage Sites and Landscapes
The conservation of monuments and sites in India, falls under the jurisdiction of the
Archaeological Survey of India, which is a government organisation established by the
British Raj in 1861. The Conservation Manual published by John Marshall in 1911 is
followed till date. The historic monuments and archaeological sites, more than hundred years
of age, are legally protected under the „Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and
Remains Act, 1981 and amended in 2010‟. However, legislations for cultural landscapes find
a mention in this Act.
India has an age old mechanisms of land management through which the cultural and natural
resources are being adequately maintained by the community without external support. The
focus on monuments and their aesthetic value followed as a result of colonisation. 64 The
diversity of cultural landscapes in India can be viewed on two planes – the local viewpoint of
the traditional and continuing landscapes and the colonial viewpoint of the formal and the
official landscapes, focussed on a monument centric approach.65 These divergent viewpoints
have resulted in conflicting perceptions of heritage and its management, among the
community and heritage management bodies.
61
Thakur, “Indian Cultural Landscapes.”
62
Thakur, “Indian Cultural Landscapes..”
63
Singh, Urban Cultural Landscapes and Sacredscapes,3.
64
LeDuc, Matthew. "Discourses Of Heritage And Tourism At A World Heritage Site: The Case Of Hampi,
India." Practicing Anthropology 34, no. 3 (2012): 29-33.
http://www.jstor.org.ezp.lib.unimelb.edu.au/stable/24781880.
65
19
The top-down approach to conservation has led to new challenges in the twenty-first century.
The loss of community stewardship, growth in population and touristic activities, shortage of
natural resources etc. have greatly impacted sites in India and their capacity for
regeneration.66 The existing conservation frameworks ignore the community values and
aspirations and do not deal with local issues. It overlooks significant associations of multiple
attributes, which can lead to potential future conflicts in its management. Thus, there is a
need to integrate the traditional practices and the colonial methodology of heritage
conservation, which can be achieved through the recognition of the dynamic and complex
nature of heritage sites and its landscape. 67
The complexity of management of Indian landscapes lies in the presence of multiple

management organisations. All cultural properties, heritage monuments and sites are being
protected by the Archaeological Survey of India, whereas all natural properties are protected
by the Forestry Department under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Tourist activities are
controlled by the Department of Tourism and non-governmental organisations such as
INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage) attempt to conserve the
intangible resources. The lack of coordination between these departments and their
conflicting conservation and development strategies add to the complexity.
A major concern for the management of Indian landscapes is the accessibility. The lack of
proper roads, difficult terrain and thick forest cover deter the conservation efforts. Further,
political and developmental pressures cause landscapes to become victims of unauthorised
and inappropriate alterations, which have compromised the notions of authenticity and
integrity. 68 New legislations that include urban precincts, rural and vernacular landscape
within the category of cultural landscapes are necessary. Although the concept of cultural
landscapes is widely recognised in academic circles in India, the efforts towards its heritage
management and conservation have not been successful. 69
The inevitable changes to the landscape can be managed by the conservation of heritage sites
as cultural landscapes, which considers multiple attributes of the landscape. The values
66
Silva and Sinha, Cultural Landscapes of South Asia, 6.
67
D. L. Hayes, “Lapsarian Landscape,” Matericos Perifericos,12, (Rosario, Argentina, 2015), 8-10.
68
A. Banerjee, „The Problem‟, Seminar 467- Conserving Our Heritage, July, 1998, 13.
69
Silva and Sinha, Cultural Landscapes of South Asia,1.
20
contributed by various levels of stakeholders such as the living community, tourists and
management and conservation organisation can be recognised only by a larger view of
cultural landscapes beyond the cultural, historical and ecological attributes.70 Further, there is
a need to address the lack of national or regional frameworks for the recognition and
management for cultural landscapes in India.
Recognising Indian Heritage Sites as Cultural Landscapes
India has been a State Party to the UNESCO Convention since 1983. The initial years saw the
representation of numerous sites in the List. However, as time progressed the pre-requisites
for entering the List have increased and few Indian sites are being inscribed today. The only
site that has succeeded in being inscribed under the category of relict cultural landscapes is
the „Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka‟ in 2003. The inscription of „continuing cultural landscapes‟
which characterise most Indian landscapes are a continuing struggle due to the lack of a
context based national or regional framework for its management.
Khanna emphasises that heritage cannot be associated with one value at one given period of
time. Perceptions and values change over time and is part of an ever-evolving process. In
such a context, traditional and western viewpoints are only a small part of numerous values
that should be included in the protection and management of cultural landscapes. Depending
on their level of interaction, the perception of each group of people and organisations vary.71
Thus, Indian cultural landscapes are justifiable only as continuing cultural landscapes with
living and evolving heritage values.
An appropriate starting point for the assessment of heritage sites in India is its listing under
the cultural landscape category, according to the UNESCO World Heritage Listing
framework. However, the concepts of OUV and authenticity propounded will need to be re-
evaluated in the context of India. Thakur argues that for the cultural landscape conservation
in India, specific context-based tools need to be developed with constant involvement with
the site and with the engagement of the community, without involving preconceived
notions. 72 For this, a wider interpretation of values through a conservation and management
70
D. Thackeray, “Considering Significance in the Landscape: Developing Priorities Through Conservation
Planning,” in Managing the Historic Rural Landscape, ed. J. Grenville (London: Routledge 1999), 23.
71
Khanna, “Conflicting Perceptions”.
72
21
plan are considered necessary. The inscription of evolving and continuing cultural landscapes
require larger areas and multiple associations to be managed efficiently, which will prove to
be a challenge.
The current legislations and framework for heritage management are inadequate for the
management and conservation of Indian cultural landscapes. The new developments in the
field of heritage conservation have not been updated in the top-down approach to heritage
conservation governed by the AMASAR Act. 73 The monument-centric conservation efforts
are focussed on limited number of attributes, ignoring the intangible resources, community
aspirations and the surrounding landscape. 74 Thus, there is a need for a holistic framework,
adapted to the Indian context at the national, regional and local levels for the recognition and
conservation of cultural landscapes in India.
73
74
Silva and Sinha, Cultural Landscapes of South Asia,7.
22
IV. HAMPI AS A CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
In this section, the case study of Hampi, which is a prominent heritage site in India is
assessed as a cultural landscape using the UNESCO framework. The attributes that recognise
Hampi as a cultural landscape are examined. The application of the UNESCO framework for
recognising Hampi as a cultural landscape and its implications are also discussed.
The case study of Hampi is selected on the basis of its recognition as a potential cultural
landscape by in the field of heritage conservation. 75 The Group of Monuments in Hampi are
already inscribed as a World Heritage Site, however, not in the cultural landscape category.
Moreover, the case study is considered a suitable example of an „Indian cultural landscape‟
embodying the concept of „intellectual landscapes‟, and possess the necessary attributes of a
continuing rural and vernacular landscape, as shown in Figure 3.76
Figure 3: Philip Larson , View of Hampi and its physical landscape showing the River Tungabhadra, the monuments and
plantations, August 1, 2009, Accessed October 17, 2018.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/philiplarson/3787834043/in/photostream/
75
Khanna, “Conflicting Perceptions”.
76
Thakur, “Indian Cultural Landscapes”.
23
History and Setting of Hampi
Located in the Tungabhadra river basin of Bellary District of Karnataka, in South India,
Hampi is part of the living landscape of twenty seven villages, agricultural fields and
pilgrimage centre. The name „Hampi‟ is anglicised version of „Hampe‟, which is derived
from „Pampa‟, the other name of the river and the local deity. The villages serve as a setting
to more than 1600 granite monuments, out of which 56 have been inscribed as a World
Heritage Site under „Group of Monuments in Hampi‟, dating from the 14 th -16th century.
The history of Hampi dates back to the Neolithic/Chalcolithic times as can be ascertained
from the discovery of Neolithic and hand-made pottery in recent excavations near here. The
discovery of minor rock edicts from Nittur and Ude-golam, both in the Bellary district
confirm the influence of the Ashokan Empire in the 2nd century BCE.77 The discovery of
Brahmi inscriptions and a terracotta seal of the second century CE proved that Hampi and its
environments were under the control of various dynasties, which ruled over Karnataka in
succession such as Kadambas, the Chalukyas of Badami, and the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas
of Badami, the Hoysalas, Yadavas and others. The shrine and sculptures of this period dates
to the 8th and the 9th centuries. 78
Hampi is a prominent heritage site as it is the capital of the last great Hindu kingdom of
South India, the Vijayanagara Empire that was founded in 1336 C.E. and lasted until the 16th
77
Director of Print, Mysore State Gazetters: Bellary District, (Bellary: Government Press, 1972) in
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/64798/10/10_chapter%203.pdf, 30.
78
The most significant historic period of Hampi dates back to the mid-14th century, when the Vijayanagara
Empire (City of Victory) was founded by two local princes, Hukka and Bukka. The two brothers were captured
as prisoners by the Tughlaq empire of Northern India, when they attacked the South Indian kingdom of
Chalukya. Being impressed by their conduct, they were sent to the southern provinces to pacify the local
chieftains and thus, a large empire was founded. Acting under the orders of Vidyaranya, a great Hindu sage,
after whom the kingdom was named, the empire was founded in about 1336 C.E. They established their capital
first at Anegundi, and later shifted to Hampi in 1336 C.E.
The early rulers of Vijayanagara belonged to the Sangama dynasty. Among the greatest of these rulers were
Deva Raya II (1422-1446 C.E.), Krishnadevaraya (1506-1529 C.E.) and his successor Achyuthadevaraya (1529-
1542 C.E). It was only under Krishnadevaraya, in the 16 th century, that the empire passed through the golden
age. This empire stretched from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. While the medieval imperial city is at
present in ruins, the village of Hampi, with its temple of Virupaksha and the holy sites and shrines of the
Matanga and Malyavantha hills, still continue as a centre of pilgrimage.
Sources:
1. John M. Fritz, George Michell and M.S. Nagaraja Rao, “Vijayanagara: The City of Victory,”
Archaeology, 39, no. 2, (March/April 1986), 24-25.
2. Thandu Muduliar, Hand Book of Hampi, (Hospet, 1945), 18.
24
century. A Jain temple called the Ganagitti Temple (Oil women temple) and a small shrine
adjacent to it and a stumba (lamp post) with inscriptions dates to AD 1386, which is a typical
early Vijayanagara architecture. The Sacred Centre consists of the Virupaksha temple, which
is estimated to be functioning since 7th century CE, is a living temple till date.79 The
sprawling complex consists of antechambers, pillared halls, flag posts, tower gateways and
shrines, with the river forming a part of the sacredness of the landscape.
The remains of the city are spread over an area of 25 sq km covering several villages,
whereas its outer fortification includes a larger area. Remains of fort walls, temples,
mandapas (pillared pavilions), shrines, memorial structures, gateways, check posts, water
structures, stables, bazaars etc. survive in Hampi. 80 The monuments are a typical example of
Dravidian architecture comprising of temples of massive dimensions, with the base
constructed of local granite stone and lime mortar and gopuras (towers) of burnt bricks, as
shown in Figure 4 and 5. The construction techniques used were stone masonry and post and
lintel system. In addition to the large Dravidian temples complexes, the site encompasses
suburban townships (puras) with residential areas, bazaars, shrines, tanks, agricultural fields,
and the river. The relics of skilled workmanship, architecture, town planning and a unique
hydraulic system integrated into its natural setting remain today.
79
Muduliar, Hand Book of Hampi, 18.
80
The gateways to the walled city, one of which is called the Bhima‟s Gate has many carvings on it and
depicted mythological stories, with a blind spot huge wall to confuse the invading army. A king‟s balance of 5
meter tall is located southwest of the Vittala temple, which the king used to weigh his equivalent weight of gold,
gems, silver and precious stones and distribute it to peasants. The ruins of elevated platforms for performances,
mints where coins were made, elephant stables, the guard‟s quarters, monolithic statues still stand today.
Another marvellous showpiece is the Vittala temple built in the 16 th century, with gateways and compound
walls, 56 pillars in the temple that emit musical notes when tapped, halls with an array of carved statues, with a
stone chariot located within the complex. Source:. Fritz, Michell and Rao, “Vijayanagara: The City of
Victory,”27.
25
Figure 4: Vtanurag, Vishnu temple near Vittala Figure 5: Unknown, Virupaksha temple in Hampi, India
Temple, August 19, 2012. Accessed October 17, 2018. September 19, 2013. Accessed October 17, 2018,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
In 1565 C.E, the Vijayanagara Empire was defeated and the capital ransacked by a
confederation of the Muslim Deccan Sultanates, in the famous „Battle of Talikot‟. Several
remains and influences of Islamic architecture, such as tombs and domes are also found in
Hampi, which forms a lesser known part of its history.81 The significance of the architecture
lies in the adoption of Indo-Islamic architectural elements in the secular buildings. The region
was controlled by the Marathas until the district was transferred to the British rule in 1800.
The site was rediscovered by an antiquarian, Colonel Colin Mackenzie, who visited and
82
sketched the ruins. The site is being maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India
since 1921 and 56 monuments have been inscribed in the World Heritage List in 1986, as
shown in Figure 6. The Vijayanagara Research Project, led by John Fritz and George
Michell, has studied the archaeological records of Hampi extensively, although much of the
83
research is concentrated on the history of the site. Although different aspects of the site are
being studied such as landscape features, community profile, history and World Heritage
implications, it has not been viewed in a holistic perspective i.e. as a cultural landscape.
Recognising Hampi as a Cultural landscape
For the recognition of a site as a cultural landscape according to World Heritage guidelines,
the site should be illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time. The
site should consist of various layers of history and cultural amalgamation of tangible and
intangible values and resources, to be ascribed as an Indian cultural landscape. The following
81
. Muduliar, Hand Book of Hampi, 18.
26
section attempts to illustrate the various attributes of „interaction between nature and man‟
that characterise Hampi as a cultural landscape.
The historical development of Hampi has been highly influenced by natural and physical
components such as topography, hills, boulders, vegetation, soil, water features etc.84 Hampi
is located in the midst of the great Deccan Plateau towards the foothills of the Western Ghats
and the hill ranges are part of the Central Sahyadri hill ranges. The natural features comprises
of rocky hillocks characterised by granite boulders shaped the historic setting and served as
the source of local building materials. The rocky hills and river serves as natural barriers that
protected the large basin in which Hampi and the other villages are located.85 The
nomination dossier of the Group of Monuments at Hampi emphasises the “spectacular setting
dominated by the river Tungabhadra, hill ranges and open plains, with widespread physical
remains.86 Fritz and Michell mention the relationship of Vijayanagara‟s physical layout to the
features in the surrounding landscape. 87 This relationship has been identified even in the
Hindu epic of Ramayana. The major issues concerning the terrain is the rampant quarrying
and illegal blasting activities that affects the historic setting.
The river Tungabhadra flowing through Hampi and its nearby villages act as its lifeline in its
semi-arid climate. Similar to other religious towns in India, the river is the destination for
various spiritual and everyday activities such as spiritual cleansing and scattering of ashes,
washing, and transportation, with access through the ghats 88, as shown in Figure 7. However,
the river was not the primary source of water in the past. Water was collected by harvesting,
routing and storing surface runoffs, and directly storing rainfall and making them available to
82
Fritz, Michell and Rao, “Vijayanagara: The City of Victory,” 29.
83
John M Fritz, George Michell and the Director of the Department of Archaeology and Museums,
Government of Karnataka. Monograph Series of the Vijayanagara Research Project, Vol 1- 14, (New Delhi:
Manohar,1992). https://www.penn.museum/sites/VRP/html/Publications.html
84
Integrated Design. World Heritage Site Landscape Study, (Bangalore: Hampi World Heritage Area
Management Authority, 2011), 5. http://202.138.105.9/hwhama/images/IMP/HAMPI_Landscape%20Study.pdf
85
D. Devakunjari, Hampi, (New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1983), 41.
86
UNESCO, Nomination Proposal: Group of Monuments in Hampi, (Paris: UNESCO, 1986).
https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241.
87
Fritz, Michell and Rao, “Vijayanagara: The City of Victory,” 29.
88
The ghats or bathing places i.e. entry points or steps leading to the river continue to be used today. The
coracles, a country boat made of bamboo, cane, plastic sheets and a fine coating of bitumen, that can hold 6-8
people and sheep about 6 cm in diameter, serve as a means of transport across the river. Source: Integrated
Design, Hampi World Heritage Site Landscape Study, 48.
27
the public through temple tanks or the Pushkarni. 89 An elaborate irrigation system with a
network of tanks, stepwells (shown in Figure 8), bunds, and canals also existed in the
Vijayanagara period. However, the floods in 2007 and 2009 have revealed the flood
vulnerability of the area.
Figure 6: Integrated Design, Map showing Core Zone, Monuments and Village Boundariesin Hampi World Heritage Site,
2011, Accessed on October 17, 2018. World Heritage Site Landscape Study, (Bangalore: Hampi World Heritage Area
Management Authority, 2011), 7. http://202.138.105.9/hwhama/images/IMP/HAMPI_Landscape%20Study.pdf
89
The water from the surrounding steep and rocky hills were collected in smaller tanks for desilting and through
percolation pits before draining to larger tanks. Source: Integrated Design, Hampi World Heritage Site
Landscape Study, 37.
28
Figure 7: Adam Jones, Hindu pilgrims bathe in the Figure 8: Sarah Welch, 15th century aqueduct to Mahanavami
Tungabhadra river, near Hampi Village, India, July 21, Pushkarani step well, Hampi, September 8, 2017. Accessed on
2009. Accessed October 17, 2018. October 17, 2018. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
https://www.flickr.com/photos/adam_jones/3773700713/
The agricultural activities in the south and west of the settlement of Hampi dates back to the
Vijayanagara period, which is the main economic source. The flat valleys between the hills
are filled with paddy fields, banana and coconut plantations. Certain features of Indian
farming practices such as the scattered and continuous unfenced fields and farms grouped
around rural villages are prominent here, as shown in Figure 9. 90 Agriculture has played an
important role in shaping the landscape and bridging the Sacred Centre and the Urban Core,
comprising of the monumental remains. Testimonies provided by traveller accounts provide
invaluable information describing the character and extent of agricultural activities during the
Vijayanagara period. 91
Agriculture practises can be characterised as part of both the tangible and intangible heritage
from the physical and social viewpoints. The historic water networks are being used till date,
and all agricultural activities have been developed in relation to the historical irrigation and
water systems. However, in the post Vijayanagara period, the development of modern
90
Pradyumna P. Karan, “Land Utilization and Agriculture in an Indian Village”, Land Economics, 33, 1
(Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, Feburary, 1957), 55-64.
91
Travellers such as Fernao Nuniz (1535), Mackenzie (1800) and Sewwll (1900) describes the extent of
agricultural activities during the Vijayanagara period. As accounted by Domingo Paes “ ….Provisions of rice,
wheat, grains, jowar and a certain amount of barley and beans, moong, pulses, horse gram and many other
seeds… are the food of the people…but wheat is not so common and …since no one eats it except the Moors.
The streets and markets were filled with laden oxen.” Limes, oranges, wild brinjals, pomegranates, and grapes
were sold in the market. The provision of sufficient food reveals an efficient agricultural system that was
reflected in the spatial and socio-economic organisation of the empire.
Source: Integrated Design, Hampi World Heritage Site Landscape Study, 59.
29
irrigation states, introduction of the Dam, intensification of agriculture, introduction of new
crops, mechanization and natural disasters have changed the agricultural profile considerably.
Today, the indigenous red sugarcane has been replaced by the production of non-indigenous
white cane, and cash crops are replacing traditional food crops such as paddy, ragi and
pulses.92
Figure 9: Dharani Prakash, A view from Anjanadri Hills, April 23, 2018. Accessed October 17, 2018.
https://www.nativeplanet.com/travel-guide/places-connected-to-ramayana-hampi-002506.html
Traditional village assemblies were responsible for the management of land, land use and
irrigation, settlement of disputes, and taxation, even prior to the establishment of
Vijayanagara. The assembly that represented several villages, called the „nadu‟ was the basic
building block of agricultural activities, but in a fragmented form. With the establishment of
Vijayanagara, new developments in the social and political systems changed the agricultural
activities. Powerful individuals called Amaranayakas, took responsibility for the management
92
Integrated Design, Hampi World Heritage Site Landscape Study, 60.
30
of agricultural activities and land control, replacing the „nadu‟ system. 93 This individual
ownership continued post Vijayanagara period as well.
The streets formed an integral part of the heritage city. The towering entrances of the temples
were the focal points of wide streets that are paved with slabs and have colonnaded bazaars
and rest houses on its either sides. These streets gain significance because they served as the
destination of the pilgrimage routes and processional pathways during festivals.94 These
streets and the Hampi Bazaar are mentioned by Portuguese traders of the sixteenth century.95
The 700 m long road in front of the Virupaksha temple, served as a marketplace for
merchants selling pearls and precious gems during the Vijayanagara period. A large number
of pilgrims congregate on these streets to celebrate the annual festivals and additionally
touristic activities have increased due to the inscription on the World Heritage List.
Thousands of tourists and pilgrims visit the site every year and the livelihood of many village
residents are dependent on leading tours, running guest houses, souvenir shops, restaurants,
and cold drink shops. 96
Hampi was regarded as sacred site long before the emergence of the Vijayanagara Empire.
As depicted in the Hindu epic, Ramayana, the birthplace of the monkey god, Hanuman was
considered to be across the river from Hampi. 97 Hence, it is considered a sacred site for
pilgrimage with historical and mythological associations, as shown in Figure 10. The
mythological landscape was a great significance for the Vijayanagara rulers, who often
compared themselves with Rama, the divine hero king.
93
Jetkins D.J. Davidson, The irrigation and water supply systems of Vijayanagara, (New Delhi: Manohar
American Institute of Indian Studies, 1997), 12.
94
The idols of deities are placed on chariots with large timber wheels, and bamboo and brightly coloured cloth
as superstructures. The chariots are then rolled up and down the streets that stretched almost half a mile and the
tradition is continued in the Virupaksha temple even today, celebrating the marriage of Virupaksha to the
goddess Pampa. Source: Fritz, Michell and Rao, “Vijayanagara: The City of Victory,” 27.
95
John M. Fritz and George Michell, "Living Heritage at Risk," Archaeology 65, no. 6 (2012): 56.
96
Fritz and Michell, "Living Heritage at Risk," 57.
97
According to the epic Ramayana it was here that Rama came in search of his abducted wife, Sita. The
locations exactly stated in the epic matches with Hampi‟s geography, which is filled with langurs. Source: Fritz,
Michell and Rao, “Vijayanagara: The City of Victory,” 27.
31
Figure 10: Unknown, Dasara of Dharamaragudda-the Hill of Gods, July 13, 2016. Accessed October 19, 2018.
http://chaha.in/dasara-of-dharamaragudda-the-hill-of-gods/rsimg_07
The Vijayanagara Empire was essentially Hindu in nature, although Buddhism, Jainism, and
Islam coexisted. Various Hindu sects such as Shivism, Vaishnavism etc were also popular in
the empire. These cross cultural influences of various religious and cultural groups continue
98
till date. T he role of tourists, pilgrims, academicians, conservation practitioners and the
local community provide multiple levels of stakeholders in the cultural landscape.
The High court of Karnataka in 2011 declared that the people of Hampi could no longer
occupy the main bazaar mandapas, i.e. pillared halls. 200 families were removed from their
homes by local authorities, which were later bulldozed away considering them as modern
additions. The bazaars flanking either side of the Hampi Bazar, were functioning as market
places, with its function similar to the Vijayanagara period. These activities were completely
brought to a standstill by the ruling of the Court.
The empty streets and bazaars represent the disconnection from its ancient and recent past.99
Anthropological study on this issue has revealed that the eviction was the result of conflicting
98
Devakunjari, D. Hampi, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1983 edn, 43.
99
Fritz and Michell, "Living Heritage at Risk," 62.
32
discourses of heritage.100 Krog argues that the mandapas were only considered sacred
because they were occupied. The living bazaar was part of the living temple, which was
being maintained by the community through generations. 101 The question of “Whose heritage
is being preserved?” raised by Shepherd gains significance here. 102 This issue has created
tensions between the temple administrators and the archaeological authorities.
Application of the UNESCO Framework on Hampi
The Group of Monuments at Hampi was inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1986 as a
cultural property under criteria (i), (iii) and (iv).103 Criteria (i) illustrates exemplary temple
architecture of Hampi but completely neglects other significant attributes of the site such as
the terrain, river and the agricultural community. Criteria (iii) defines an exceptional
testimony of a vanished civilisation of Vijayanagara, but avoids other the significant layers of
history and its remains. Criteria (iv) is used to satisfy the OUV through an outstanding
example of a type of structure that illustrates the destruction of the empire, however it does
not refer to the significant associations of the larger cultural landscape. Criteria (v) which
signifies an outstanding example of an evolving traditional settlement on the banks of the
Tungabhadra river that has shaped the rocky and riverine landscape and is subject to
irreversible developmental changes, would adequately suit the inscription of Hampi as a
cultural landscape.
Currently, the integrity of the attributes of the listed site lies in the intactness of its physical
fabric, use of locally available materials, traditional knowledge systems of architecture and
skilled craftsmanship. The authenticity has been maintained by the retention of the
monuments in its original setting of the river Tungabhadra and the boulders. However, other
significant attributes as mentioned above have been neglected.
100
Matthew LeDuc."Discourses Of Heritage And Tourism At A World Heritage Site: The Case Of Hampi,
India." Practicing Anthropology 34, no. 3 (2012): 29-33.
http://www.jstor.org.ezp.lib.unimelb.edu.au/stable/24781880
101
Stian Krog, “Living Homes and Dead Monuments: Cultural Heritage and the Construction of Space and
Place in Hampi, India” (Bergen: Department of Social Anthropology, University of Bergen, 2007), 108.
102
Robert Shepherd, “UNESCO and the Politics of Cultural Heritage in Tibet,” Journal of Contemporary Asia,
36(2), (2006):243-257.
103
The site covers an area of 4187.24 ha and a buffer zone of 19,453.62 ha, with a minor boundary modification
in 2012. Source: UNESCO, Nomination Proposal: Group Of Monuments in Hampi.
33
The protection and management requirements are being met by existing legal instruments
such as the AMASAR Act 1958 and its amendment in 2010, Rules 1959 enforced by the
Government of India and protected by the ASI. The Hampi World Heritage Area
Management Authority (HWHAMA) ensures the coordination of the works from different
agencies and the Integrated Management Plan aims to safeguard the OUV of the property.
The Karnataka State Department of Archaeology (KDAM) and Museums protects the 1600
monuments not included within the National list.
The vastness of the site and the lack of personnel and resources limit the archaeological
investigations and the number of sites protected under the ASI and KDAM. Due to the
concentration of resources into the few sites visited by the tourists, these sites have become
detached from its environment. In the attempt to beautify the monuments, active
reconstruction and large scale development activities takes place instead of stabilisation,
which has received wide criticisms. 104
Benefits of the UNESCO Framework Application on Hampi
The recognition of the historic settlements of Hampi under the heritage category of „cultural
landscapes‟, according to UNESCO is advantageous because, all layers of history including
the pre-Vijayanagara and post-Vijayanagara period are respected. There are tangible,
intangible resources and archaeological evidences which points to the historicity of the
property predating the Vijayanagara period. All these layers display considerable
„interactions between nature and man‟ and hence cannot be ignored. The multiple layers are
interlinked and influence each other, as shown in Figure 11.
104
The site was also listed under the World Heritage Site in danger in 1999 due to the construction of two
large scale bridges for vehicular traffic and a footbridge and a new major road within the Core Protected Area ,
which dominated the natural environment and rural setting, which threatening the integrity of the World
Heritage Site. Also, the construction would result in increase in heavy traffic and had resulted in the dismantling
of a mandap (a pillared stone rest house) within the borders of the site. Following the collapse of the bridge, the
site was removed from the endangered list in 2006. This was said to be achievement in the part of the Hampi
Development Authority. Though the construction was suspended, the incomplete bridges still remain.
Source: George Michell, “The Earliest Photographs of Hampi: Lessons to Be Learned,” in South India under
Vijayanagara. Anna L. Dallapiccola and Anila Verghese, eds. (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011), 79-
85.
34
Figure 11: Author. Diagram representing the interlinks between the historical layers of Hampi , October 17, 2018.
The interrelation between the landscape that provided an ideal location for settlement, the
hills that acted as a physical barrier for dynasties and source of materials for construction, and
the unique architecture as a response to the semi-arid climate is evident in a cultural
landscape. Similarly, the interdependence of the landscape elements such as hills, river, soil,
irrigation systems and the traditional agricultural practices and the community that sustains it
are also significant.
The acknowledgement of the spiritual associations of the community to the landscape and the
architecture is one of the most significant achievements in the recognition of sites as cultural
landscapes. Similarly, the cross-culture influences between the various religious and cultural
groups are also included as a significant value. New legislations and management plans that
accompany the recognition of the „cultural landscape‟ heritage category will ensure that the
integration of intangible resource protection and the consideration of the community as a
resource, in the conservation process.
The concept of cultural landscapes ensures that the benefits of touristic activities and
conservation practices trickle down to the surrounding villages. The benefits and impacts of
development activities on the biodiversity can be assessed in a larger context. Thus,
conscious decisions regarding development and its limits can be undertaken, which will result
in benefiting the local population while considering sustainability of the environment. Thus,
35
the recognition of properties as cultural landscapes will ensure a holistic nature of
management and conservation of heritage properties.
Missing Links of UNESCO Framework Application on Hampi
The application of the World Heritage cultural landscape categorisation on Hampi has proved
to be difficult. The site displays evidences of being a „clearly defined landscape‟ created
intentionally to serve the purpose of a capital city to the historic city of Vijayanagara over the
course of two centuries or more. The religious, social, recreational and military reasons for
the formation of this cultural landscape, are associated with numerous religious and secular
monumental buildings, which serve as a major attraction for pilgrimage and tourism, which
appropriately classifies it as a „continuing landscape‟. As most of these monuments have been
abandoned for centuries, they also represent a „fossilised or relict element of an evolved
landscape‟.
The third UNESCO categorisation of „associative cultural landscape‟ is also justified due to
the presence of strong religious and cultural associations of the hills, the river Tungabhadra,
the shrines and the agricultural fields to the community residing in the surrounding villages.
However, the association is supported by material evidence, unlike the definition of this
categorisation. The cultural landscape of Hampi, thus, cannot be defined by any particular
category of cultural landscape, as all definitions fit the description. This analysis is true for
any Indian cultural landscape due to the continuously evolving and associative nature of the
sites.
There are many challenges presented by authenticity requirements of the UNESCO

framework on the cultural landscape of Hampi. Attributes such as strong mythological
associations with the site are ignored, due to lack of adequate sources or tangible evidences to
prove its authenticity. However, intangible evidences are available such as the etymology of
places derived from the myths, the presence of shrines and idols representing the
mythological associations and the beliefs of thousands of pilgrims that flock to the site on a
daily basis, which may be considered insufficient to prove the authenticity of the
mythological values of the site.
An important aspect of the role of the community in the protection of monuments and its
surrounding landscape are neglected. The effects of eviction of the community from the main
bazaar of the Virupaksha temple are evident even today. Similar to the monuments, the
36
cultural landscapes are considered sacred, only in its continued use. Once the sacredness of a
property is lost among the community, it undermines the core spiritual significance that
characterise an Indian cultural landscape.
Apart from the local community, the addition of various other groups also form part of the
community profile. The changes in community profile with the addition of a new set of
professionals such as conservationists, archaeologists, researchers and historians form an
important part of the community. The pilgrims that visit the temples once a year, traversing
the cultural landscape of the villages along the historic processional route, affect the cultural
landscapes directly or indirectly. The economic benefits of heritage and pilgrim tourism and
its adverse effects on the physical landscape cannot be ignored. Thus the changing
community profile also questions the integrity of the key stakeholder profile of the site.
The traditional practices of land use and traditional crops cultivated are being overtaken by
cash crops such as coconuts, bananas and white sugar cane. The environment impacts of the
new Tungabhadra dam and new irrigation technologies are changing the traditional practices.
The area has become prone to floods, which impacts the harvests and thus the livelihood of
the villagers. Heritage tourism has become an integral part of the livelihood of the people.
The traditional crafts in banana fibre by women in the neighbouring have contributed to the
income of the farming community. Thus the authenticity of the changing livelihood is
difficult to prove.
Heritage sites need to be considered as social and cultural processes rather than fixed
entities. 105 Though the original functions and traditions of the monuments have become
obsolete, several traditional practices such as temple rituals, pilgrimage, festivals, agriculture
etc., continues to form an integral part of Hampi today. The complexity and contradictory
issues of conservation of Hampi can be addressed in an equitable and balanced manner, if
considered as a „cultural landscape‟. The application of the UNESCO framework on the case
study contributes numerous benefits. However, the direct adoption of the framework yields
many „missing links‟, which needs to be addressed.
105
Laurajane Smith, Uses of Heritage, (London: Routledge, 2006), 46.
37
V. CONCLUSION
The initial step in the recognition of Indian cultural landscapes is to study the heritage
properties within its region‟s cultural, regional and ecological context and to understand how
it is embodied in the physical landscape. 106 The identification of values in a larger context
that contribute to its national or regional significance is essential. The overlying spiritual
association of the historic buildings and its physical landscape cannot be neglected.
Moreover, the „missing links‟ that characterise Indian cultural landscapes as distinct from the
UNESCO concept have been identified in this research.
The assessment of multiple attributes of the cultural landscapes and their interrelationships as
„interactions between nature and man‟ are key to the identification of values, without
107
distinctions between the natural and cultural or tangible and intangible attributes. These
interrelationships are subtle yet recognisable. Similarly, a need to avoid categorisation and
the consideration of values of cultural landscapes holistically are essential, to avoid
alienations of essential attributes. 108 Also, conservation at a larger scale is proved to be more
sustainable.
The test for authenticity of attributes to prove the significance of a property is not
appropriate.109 This process does not consider the continuity and evolving nature of many
attributes including community profile, livelihoods and spiritual associations. An integrated
approach of both integrity and authenticity depending on the nature of the cultural landscape
is necessary. 110 A test for intactness and continuity of ecological and cultural values may be
considered.
106
Kapila D.Silva and Amita Sinha, Cultural Landscapes of South Asia: Studies in Heritage Conservation and
Management, (Oxon: Routledge, 2017), 259.
107
Neel Kamal Chapagain, “Blurring boundaries and moving beyond the tangible/intangible and the
natural/cultural classifications”, Cultural Landscapes of South Asia: Studies in Heritage Conservation and
Management, (Oxon: Routledge, 2017), 24-38.
108
109
110
Rossler M. “Applying authenticity to cultural landscapes,” APT Bulletin, (2008), 47-52.
38
The roles of various government departments such as the ASI, Forestry Department, Tourism
Department, non-governmental organisations such as INTACH, private conservation firms,
researchers and other professionals should be clearly defined. As a living cultural landscape,
while heritage conservation and tourism aspects guide the management of the site, the
development needs of local population need to be equally addressed. The ever-evolving
aspirations and needs of the community to be realised along with conservation, requires the
expertise multiple departments, working in collaboration.
An accurate physical and digital database creation, after stakeholder consultations and which
is available for comments and criticism is an essential starting point. This database can form a
basis for the management process. This should be reinforced by adequate studies related to
the geology, hydrology, ecology, history and anthropology of the site. As part of the cultural
landscape documentation and interpretation, the expertise of landscape architects and
conservation architects forms an essential contribution to the research. Similarly, the role of
historians and academicians for the purpose of research and interpretation of cultural
landscapes needs to be explored.
The evolving nature of the value systems is better managed through a bottom-up approach.
Similarly, heritage tourism and pilgrimage can contribute to economic growth and better
sustain environment at the grass root level. Authentic intangible heritage has to be integrated
within the management and its commodification should be discouraged. Thus, it is essential
to strive for self-sustaining cultural landscapes with local management systems. According to
the World Heritage principles, stakeholder consultation is the primary step in the
management of cultural landscapes. The integration of anthropological studies within the
research process to localize stewardship is also essential. The values of the local community
and their aspirations should be the basis of the conservation process.
Heritage tourism and pilgrimage effects on the livelihood of the community and its impact on
the landscape needs have to be studied through the participation of multiple stakeholders.
Discussions by consultation should determine the acceptable limits of change, with
representation from the local community as well. With the increasing flow of tourists, it is
critical to create and organise tourist circuits, arrival point of visitors, and their pause and
stop points etc. within the cultural landscape framework, imparting the right understanding to
the visitor without compromising the authenticity of the site. Tourism movement need to be
39
planned at a larger level considering the environment, heritage preservation and the living
settlements so that the impacts on tourism on the cultural landscape are reduced.
Cultural landscapes as a concept has been acknowledged as a heritage category in academic

circles in India, however, its heritage planning and management has not yet been structured.
The value of a heritage did not lie in being solely relics of the past, but in their symbolic
meaning and use in everyday life. Thus, the existing management frameworks are inadequate
for conservation. There is a need to reinsert the monument in its urban and vernacular
landscape, and extent the scope of conservation beyond the building.
The cultural landscapes are the result of continuous interaction between man and nature and
of renewal and regeneration.111 Hence, sustenance rather than protection is essential. There is
a need for context based frameworks for formulating sustainable development goals along
with conservation for „evolving cultural landscapes‟. A context-based policy framework can
help bridge the gap in the management of heritage sites caused by the lack of coordination
between various departments and organisations.
The direct adoption of the UNESCO framework as a national framework for cultural
landscape management and conservation in India is inappropriate due to its inconsideration of
evolution of cultural landscapes and top down management approach. However, the adaption
of the UNESCO framework to fit the Indian context is a possible solution. The role of the
community and the spiritual and mythological associations gain importance in the Indian
context. The subtle links between the multiple layers of history are significant in a cultural
landscape. The significant attributes alienated in the UNESCO framework are required to be
considered in Indian sites. Hence, cultural landscapes should be recognised as an ever-
evolving entity whose successful conservation lies in the finding the acceptable limit of
change. As emphasized by the Global Heritage Fund, cultural landscapes should be
considered as non-renewable resources that are vulnerable to developmental and socio-
112
economic pressures on which the livelihood of communities depends upon.
111
D. R. Bryne. “Heritage as social action” in G. Fairclough, R. Harrison, J.H.Jameson Jr. and J.Schofield (eds.)
The Heritage Reader (London: Routledge, 2008), 149.
112
Global Heritage Fund, Saving our Global Heritage: Sustainable Preservation – GHF‘s Model for
Community Development Based Conservation, Palo Alto, CA: Global Heritage Fund, 2009.
40
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MINOR THESIS ON

EVOLVING CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

Analysis of the UNESCO framework for conservation of cultural landscapes in

Urban and Cultural Heritage Minor Thesis

RITU SARA THOMAS

A minor thesis submitted

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of

MASTER OF URBAN AND CULTURAL HERITAGE

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING AND PLANNING

19th October, 2018

Theory of Cultural Landscapes ....................................................................................... 1

International Scenario of Cultural Landscape Conservation ............................................ 3

National and Regional Contexts of Cultural Landscape Conservation ............................. 4

Conservation efforts in India .......................................................................................... 6

Research objectives, research question and methodology ............................................... 7

II. THE UNESCO FRAMEWORK FOR CULTURAL LANDSCAPES ........................ 8

Recognition and Conservation of Cultural Landscapes ................................................... 8

Outcomes and Benefits of the World Heritage Listing .................................................... 12

Problems and Critiques of World Heritage Listing .......................................................... 13

Case study of the Rice Terraces of Philippines Cordilleras ........................................... 14

III. CULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN INDIA ................................................................... 18

Managing Indian Heritage Sites and Landscapes .......................................................... 19

Recognising Indian Heritage Sites as Cultural Landscapes ........................................... 21

IV. HAMPI AS A CULTURAL LANDSCAPE ............................................................... 23

History and Setting of Hampi ....................................................................................... 24

Recognising Hampi as a Cultural landscape ................................................................. 26

Application of the UNESCO Framework on Hampi ..................................................... 33

Benefits of the UNESCO Framework Application on Hampi........................................ 34

Missing Links of UNESCO Framework Application on Hampi .................................... 36

Theory of Cultural Landscapes

International Scenario of Cultural Landscape Conservation

International heritage conservation activities emerged as an aftermath of the Second World

National and Regional Contexts of Cultural Landscape Conservation

Research objectives, research question and methodology

The structure of the minor thesis follows three main sections:

Recognition and Conservation of Cultural Landscapes

i to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius;

ii to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or

iii to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a

iv to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or

v to be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or

vi to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas,

viii to be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history,

ix to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and

Table 2: Categorisation of World Heritage Cultural Landscapes

A continuing landscape is one which retains an active social role in contemporary

Outcomes and Benefits of the World Heritage Listing

Problems and Critiques of World Heritage Listing

The focus on sacredness of Indian Cultural Landscapes is significant. Indian Cultural

Managing Indian Heritage Sites and Landscapes

The complexity of management of Indian landscapes lies in the presence of multiple

Recognising Indian Heritage Sites as Cultural Landscapes

Recognising Hampi as a Cultural landscape

Application of the UNESCO Framework on Hampi

Benefits of the UNESCO Framework Application on Hampi

Missing Links of UNESCO Framework Application on Hampi

There are many challenges presented by authenticity requirements of the UNESCO

Cultural landscapes as a concept has been acknowledged as a heritage category in academic

Chapagain, Neel Kamal. “Blurring boundaries and moving beyond the

Clark, C. Informed Conservation – Understanding Historic Buildings and Their

Cleere, H. “The Concept of "Outstanding Universal Value in World Heritage

Devakunjari, D. Hampi. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1983.

Fairclough, G. J., G. Lambrick, and DeAndre Hopkins. “Historic landscape

Groth, P. “Frameworks for Cultural Landscape Study.” In Understanding Ordinary

Groth, P. and C. Wilson. “Polyphony of Cultural Landscape Studies.” In Everyday

Hayes, D. L. “Lapsarian Landscape.” In Matericos Perifericos, 12, (2015): 8-10.