9.

1 MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

Uses of sulphuric acid,H2SO4,in our daily life are as follows :

a) Manufacture of fertilisers such as Ammonium Sulphate,(NH 4)2SO4
b) Manufacture of electrolyte in lead-acid accumulators (car battery)
c) Manufacture of soaps and detergents
d) Manufacture of pesticides (insecticide)
e) Manufacture of plastic items such as rayon and nylon
f) Manufacture of paints and dyes

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID IN INDUSTRY

1. Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry through the Contact process

2. The manufacturing of sulphuric acid in industry involves three stages.

STAGE AIM
STAGE 1
Sulphur dioxide,SO2,gas can be produced by burning suplhur
in air. To produce sulphur dioxide,SO2,gas

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

sulphur dioxide

STAGE 2
The gas mixture of sulphur dioxide,SO2,and oxygen O2,is
passed over vanadium(V) oxide,V2O5,(catalyst) at a
temperature of 450 – 500 0C and under the pressure of 1 To produce sulphur trioxide,SO3,gas
atmosphere.

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2 SO3(g)

sulphur trioxide

STAGE 3
Sulphur trioxide,SO3,gas is dissolved in concentrated
sulphuric acid, H2SO4,to form oleum,H2S2O7 .
To produce sulphuric acid,H2SO4
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)
oleum
Water is then added to the oleum to dilute it o produce
sulphuric acid,H2SO4 .

H2S2O7(l) + H2O H2SO4

ENVIROMENTAL POLLUTION BY SULPHUR DIOXIDE

1. Fossil fuels such as petrol and manufactured products of sulphuric acid contain sulphur.

2. Burning this products will oxidize sulphur,S,to form sulphur dioxide,SO 2.

S(s) + O 2 SO2(g)

3. Sulphur dioxide,SO2,is an acidic gas.When it dissolves in rainwater,it forms sulphurous acid,H 2SO3 and
causes acid rain.

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3 (aq)

4. Sulphur trioxide,SO3,will also form when sulphur dioxide,SO2,reacts with oxygen,O2,gas in air.

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

5. When sulphur trioxide,SO3,dissolves in rainwater,sulphuric acid,H 2SO4,is also formed causing acid rain.

SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

6. The effects of acid rain on the environment are as follows :

a) Corrodes and destroys property such as bridges, buildings and statues.

b) Reduces pH of soil and causes it to be unsuitable for plant life.

c) Reduces pH of water and causes the death of aquatic life.

d) Destroys the beauty of the environment such as the collapse of limestone caves.

7. * Acid rain is the rain that has a pH of less than 5.6.

*Besides sulphur dioxide, SO2, carbon dioxide,CO2,gas in air can dissolve in rainwater to form carbonic
acid,H2CO3 .

*Emission of sulphur dioxide,SO2,gas to the environment can be controlled by :

a) reducing ombustion of fossil fuels by using other alternative energy such as solar energy.

b) chanelling gasses through air filtering systems before releasing it through the chimneys.
9.2 MANUFACTURE of AMMONIA and its SALT

USES OF AMMONIA

Uses of ammonia,NH3,in daily life are as follows :

a) Manufacture of nitrogenous fertilisers such as ammonium phosphorus,(NH 4)3PO4

b) Manufacture of nitric acid,HNO3,through the Ostwald process.

c) Manufacture of electrolytes in dry cells.

d) Manufacture of cleaning agents such as washing powder and detergents.

e) Manufacture of explosives such as trinitrotoluene(TNT)

f) Manufacture of dyes

PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA
* Very soluble in water.
* Produces thick white fumes with hydrogen chloride, HCL, gas.
* Less dense than air.
* Has characteristics of weak alkali when dissolved in water, H 2O
* Pungent smell.
* Colourless gas.

MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA.

1. Ammonia,NH3,is manufactured on a large scale in factories through the Haber process.

2. In the Haber process,nitrogen,N2,and hydrogen,H2,gases are mixed in the ratio of 1:3 volumes or
moles.
N 2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
3. The hydrogen,H2,gas is obtained from methane CH4,a type of natural gas, while nitrogen, N 2,gas is
obtained from air by fractional distillation of liquefied air.
4. The gas mixture is passed over iron (catalyst) at a temperature of 450 – 550 0C and compressed under
a pressure of 200 – 500 atmosphere.
5. The ammonia, NH3 , gas obtained is cooled (temperature of -50 0C) to become liquid ammonia NH3(l).
6. * Molybdenum, MO , or potassium hydroxide, KOH ,can be used as its promoter to enable the
catalyst to work more effectively.
*Hydrogen, H2 is obtained from the reaction between methane and steam.
CH4(g) + H20 (l) CO(g) + 3H2(g)
PREPARATION OF AMMONIUM FERTILISERS IN THE LABORATORY.
1. Ammonium fertilisers are nitrogenous fertilisers that can provide nitrogen elements to plants.
2. Examples of ammonium salts used as fertilisers are ammonium nitrate,NH 4NO3 ,ammonium sulphate,
(NH4)2SO4, and ammonium phosphate , (NH4)3PO4 .
3. Ammonia,NH3,dissolves in water to form ammonia solution,NH 3(aq) , and acid solution produces
ammonium,NH4+ , salt which is used as fertiliser.

Neutralisation reaction Ammonium salt ( fertiliser)

Ammonia solution + phosphoric acid Ammonium phosphate
Ammonia solution + nitric acid Ammonium nitrate
Ammonia solution + sulphuric acid Ammonium sulphate

9.3 ALLOYS.

Arrangement of atoms in pure metal

1. Pure metal is soft and not very strong.

2. Atoms of pure metals have similar size and shape and are arranged closely but there is still space
between the atoms.
3. When force is applied to pure metals, the atoms slide along one another easily.
4. This property causes pure metal to be ductile, that is ,it can be stretched into a wire.
5. When knocked or hammered , metal atoms slide along one another to fill spaces between the
metal atoms.
6. This property causes pure metal to be malleable, that is, it can be knocked or passed into various
desired shapes.

Alloy
1. An alloy is a compound formed from a mixture of metal and other elements.
2. A foreign atom (impurity atom) may be atoms of other metals or non – metals such as carbon.
3. The process of mixing atoms of impurities with atoms of pure metal by melting is called alloying
4. The aims of alloying are to :
a) increase the strength and hardness of the metal
b) prevent corrosion of the metal
c) improve the appearance of the metal so that it is more attractive

Alloy Pure metal atom Main foreign atom

Steel 99% Iron 1% Carbon
Stainless steel 74% Iron 18% Chromium , 8% Carbon
Bronze 90% Copper 10% Tin
Brass 70% Copper 30% zinc
Pewter 97% Tin 2% Copper, 1% antimony
Arrangement of atoms in alloys

1. Impurity atoms which are mixed may be larger or smaller than atoms of pure metal.
2. Impurity atoms fill the empty spaces between the atoms in pure metal.
3. Impurity atom can prevent the layers of metal atoms from sliding along one another easily.
4. Due to this, an alloy is harder and stronger than pure metal.

Uses of alloy

The properties of alloy such as its strength, ability to withstand corrosion and its shiny appearance cause
it to be suitable to be made into various items for daily use.

Types of alloy Functions Properties

Steel To make bridges, vehicles, *strong
building skeleton and train *Hard
tracks. * Withstands corrosions
Bronze To make medals, statues and *Strong
bells. *Hard
*Withstand corrosions
Brass To make keys, musical *Strong
instruments and ornaments. *Shiny
Pewter To make ornamental items such *Withstands corrosion
as picture frames and trophies. * Smooth and shiny surface
Stainless Steel To make kitchen utensils such as *Strong
spoons, forks, pots, pans and *Withstands corrosion
knives. *Shiny
Duralumin To make the body of aeroplanes *Strong
and racing bicycles. *Light
*Withstands corrosions
Copper Nickel To make coins. * Strong
* Shiny silver colour

9.4 Synthetic Polymers and their Uses

1. Polymers are long chains of molecules made from combinations of many small molecules.
2. Small molecules that combine to form polymers are called monomers.
3. Polymerisation is a process of combining monomers to form a long chain of molecules.
4. Polymers can be divided into two types :
a) natural polymer
b) synthetic polymer
Natural polymer

1. A natural polymer is a polymer that occurs naturally.

2. Natural polymers are normally made by living organisms.
Examples of natural polymers and their monomers :
Natural Polymer Monomers (small molecules)
Rubber Isoprene
Cellulose Glucose
Starch Glucose
Protein Amino acid
Fat Fatty acids and glycerol
Nucleic Acid Nucleotides

Synthetic polymers

1. Synthetic(artificial) polymers are man-made polymers that are produced from chemical compounds
through polymerization.
2. Plastic, synthetic fibres and synthetic rubbers are three examples of synthetic polymers.
3. There are two types of polymerisation :
a) Addition Polymerisation
b) Condensation polymerisation