Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The History and Evolution of The Concept of Infinity: August 2015
The History and Evolution of The Concept of Infinity: August 2015
net/publication/281273617
CITATIONS READS
0 396
1 author:
John Batchelor
Iowa State University
4 PUBLICATIONS 2 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by John Batchelor on 26 August 2015.
John H. Batchelor
Table of Contents.
3 Introduction.
4 1. A Brief History of Infinity.
7 2. The Contributions of Euclid and Euler.
16 3. Gauss’s Contributions.
18 4. The Contributions of Georg Cantor.
29 5. Cardinal Numbers and One-to-One Correspondence.
36 6. The Uncountable Set of Real Numbers.
37 7. Limits and Convergence.
39 8. The Geometric and Harmonic Series.
40 9. Fermat’s Theorems.
42 10. Geographic Maps and Inversion in a Circle.
43 11. Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity.
44 12. Special Categories of Numbers.
48 13. Non-Euclidean Geometry.
51 14. Religion and Infinity.
52 15. Astronomy and Infinity.
55 16. Infinity and Art.
57 17. Paradoxes and Antinomies.
59 18. Unsolved Problems Regarding Infinity.
62 Afterword.
63 Appendices.
63 I. Timeline of Major Events.
68 II. Proof that2 is an Irrational Number.
70 Works Cited / Bibliography Page.
Batchelor 3
Introduction.
People interpret the concept of infinity in a variety of ways. People often see
infinity as a “number” that is greater than all other numbers. Many philosophers and
theologians believe that infinity represents God or eternity. In some primitive tribes,
infinity began at three, since the members referred to anything larger than three as
“many” and did not considered it countable (Maor 2). The early Greeks were the first
people to study infinity in a formal setting. They began to acknowledge the concept of
infinity during the sixth century B.C. (Maor 3). The Greeks feared infinity, but later
47). Georg Cantor had a profound impact on the study of the infinite. He made the
remarkable discovery of the one-to-one correspondence between the square and the
interval (Dauben 55). In 1900, David Hilbert emphasized the importance of Cantor’s
cardinal number strictly between א0 and c (Dunham, Genius 282). Other mathematicians
such as Gauss, Newton, and Fermat have also made significant contributions to the study
of infinity (Laubenbacher 13). Numerous paradoxes related to infinity exist, and they
continue to puzzle mathematicians. For example, Russell’s Paradox involves sets that do
not contain themselves as elements (Maor 255). Mathematicians continue to study many
unsolved problems. Goldbach’s Conjecture, the infinitude of twin primes, and the search
for an odd perfect number all represent unsolved problems related to infinity (Maor 23).
The concept of infinity has had a major effect on religion, art, and astronomy.
Astronomers have long wondered whether the universe is finite or infinite. Based on
Einstein’s general theory of relativity, it appears that the universe is finite but unbounded
Batchelor 4
(Laubenbacher 16). The study of the infinitesimal has led to questions of the existence of
an “ultimate particle” from which all matter is created (Maor 225). Artists such as M.C.
Escher have creatively depicted infinity through their paintings and sculptures
(Laubenbacher 53). Infinity is a fascinating concept that has evolved and matured since
The early Greeks were the first people to study the concept of infinity in a formal
setting. They were the first people to use a mathematical process to determine the value
circle’s diameter and circumference (Maor 5). Despite the good intentions and
too ambiguous in their study of infinity (Dauben 107). The Greeks believed that
everything in nature could be represented using ratios of integers, and they assumed that
√2 was a rational number. One can express rational numbers as ratios of integers, but one
cannot express irrational numbers in this way. After they discovered that √2 is an
irrational number, they temporarily refused to accept that √2 is a number at all (Maor 46).
geometry resulted in the first crisis in the history of mathematics. The two relatively
simple problems – the determination of the diagonal of a square and that of the
circumference of a circle – revealed the existence of new mathematical beings for which
no place could be found within the rational domain” (qtd. in Maor 44). Mathematicians
have since discovered many other important irrational numbers. The golden ratio, which
sides. Polygons with greater numbers of sides provide a better approximation of a circle’s
circumference. The Greeks used this method to determine a value for π. To approximate
π, they simply divided the value for the polygon’s perimeter by the circle’s diameter. The
value for π represents the limit of these values as the number of sides of the regular
polygon approaches infinity (Dunham, Genius 29, 91). Archimedes made the following
statement about large but finite numbers in The Sand-Reckoner: “Many people believe,
King Gelon, that the grains of sand are without number. Others think that although their
number is not without limit, no number can ever be named which will be greater than the
number of grains of sand. But I shall try to prove to you that among the numbers which I
have named there are those which exceed the number of grains in a heap of sand the size
not only of the earth, but even of the universe” (qtd. in Maor 16). Aristotle also studied
the concept of infinity, particularly with regard to its paradoxes. He believed in the
potential infinite, but he did not believe in the idea of the actual infinite (Laubenbacher
54). Bertrand Russell was originally skeptical of the concept of the actual infinite, but he
later recognized the similarities between Cantor’s theory of the infinite and his own
particular interest in the paradoxes related to infinity. Bolzano emphasized the property
of a one-to-one correspondence between a set and a proper subset of the set. He is famous
for his distinction between potential and actual infinities (Laubenbacher 55). A one-to-
one correspondence can exist between an infinite set and a subset of the set.
Batchelor 6
exists between mathematics and philosophy with regard to the study of the infinite. Georg
infinite sets. Many philosophers and theologians were opposed to Cantor’s theory of the
actual infinite. Cantor defended his theory against such arguments as Aristotle’s concept
of “annihilation of number.” Cantor pointed out that the arguments against his theory
relied on the assumption that infinite sets will behave according to the properties of finite
sets. He showed that this assumption is not always true, and he proved that the
“annihilation of number” concept was not true for infinite sets (Dauben 122).
Georg Cantor made many important contributions to the study of set theory. He
proved the important Uniqueness Theorem with regard to finite exceptional sets (Dauben
theory (Laubenbacher 67). He developed a system of seven axioms for set theory.
Zermelo is particularly famous for his proof of the Well-Ordering Theorem (Dauben
253). Adolf Fraenkel contributed to set theory, and his contributions included the
Substitution Axiom. Fraenkel revised Zermelo’s set theory, and mathematicians now
refer to the resulting theory as Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (Cohen 76). The Axiom of
Choice is a particularly fascinating part of the Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (Cohen 85).
In 1963, Paul Cohen showed that the Axiom of Choice is independent of the other set
theory axioms (Laubenbacher 67). Many mathematicians have contributed to the study of
infinity, including Euclid, Euler, Fermat, Cantor, and Gauss. Non-Euclidean geometry is
an important concept related to infinity. There are many paradoxes and unsolved
problems involving the concept of infinity. Some theologians have objected to the study
Batchelor 7
of the actual infinite, since they feel that it contradicts their understanding of God (Maor
190). Astronomers are also concerned with infinity, since they have long wondered
whether the universe is finite. Artists such as M.C. Escher and Max Bill have depicted
Between 440 B.C. and 300 B.C., several mathematicians and philosophers
contributed to the study of infinity. When Plato was young, he studied in Athens under
information with regard to Socrates. In 387 B.C., Plato founded the Academy in Athens.
This was a well-respected institution, and people regarded it as one of the finest
mathematician, he believed that mathematics was the perfect training for the human
understanding of geometry was essential for his students’ success (Dunham, Genius 28).
Eudoxus was a great mathematician, and he was one of the Academy’s best students. He
attended Plato’s lectures at the Academy, and he was enthusiastic about the motion of the
moon and the planets. Sir Thomas Heath once stated, “[Eudoxus] was a man of science if
ever there was one” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 28). Eudoxus developed the theory of
proportion, and his contributions to the method of exhaustion represent his most
discoveries with regard to the volumes of pyramids and cones. Book XII of Euclid’s
Mathematicians can use the method of exhaustion to determine the volumes and areas of
Batchelor 8
complex geometric figures. Archimedes applied this method when he determined the
formula for a circle’s area. The method of exhaustion is similar to the concept of limits in
calculus (Maor 12). In 332 B.C., Alexander the Great established the city of Alexandria
in Egypt. He formed the Alexandrian Library, which became the most prestigious
propositions related to plane geometry, solid geometry, and number theory (Dunham,
Master 1). The Elements became the accepted text for geometry, and mathematicians
often refer to it as the “Bible of mathematics” (Dunham, Genius 30). There have been
approximately 2,000 different editions of the Elements. Isaac Newton studied Euclid’s
Elements, and Abraham Lincoln became very interested in the Elements. Carl Sandburg,
Lincoln’s biographer, stated that Lincoln “… bought the Elements of Euclid, a book
twenty-three centuries old … [It] went into his carpetbag as he went out on the circuit. At
night … he read Euclid by the light of a candle after others had dropped off to sleep”
(qtd. in Dunham, Genius 30). Bertrand Russell was also fascinated with the Elements. In
his autobiography, he stated, “At the age of eleven, I began Euclid, with my brother as
tutor. This was one of the great events of my life, as dazzling as first love” (qtd. in
Dunham, Genius 31). Euclid presented his mathematical theory in a very clear and
logical manner (Maor 121). He used a system of axioms as the foundation of his theory.
First, he stated five general axioms, five postulates, and 23 definitions. Then, he used
these foundations as the basis for proving his propositions. He developed the axiomatic
plane geometry:
Definition. A straight line is a line that lies evenly with the points on itself (Dunham,
Genius 32).
concepts. Euclid stated several postulates and common notions. Some mathematicians
were skeptical of Euclid’s work. Bertrand Russell commented, “I had been told that
Euclid proved things, and was much disappointed that he started with axioms. At first, I
refused to accept them unless my brother could offer me some reason for doing so, but he
said, ‘If you don’t accept them, we cannot go on,’ and, as I wished to go on, I reluctantly
admitted them” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 37). In 1902, Russell offered the following
additional criticism of Euclid’s work: “[Euclid’s] definitions do not always define, his
axioms are not always indemonstrable, his demonstrations require many axioms of which
he is quite unconscious. A valid proof retains its demonstrative force when no figure is
drawn, but very many of Euclid’s earlier proofs fail before this test … The value of his
work as a masterpiece of logic has been very grossly exaggerated” (qtd. in Dunham,
Genius 38). Despite these harsh criticisms, Euclid’s Elements is clearly the top
“bestseller” in the history of mathematical literature (Laubenbacher 173). Euclid was not
the first person to discover the Pythagorean Theorem, but he provided a unique proof of
the theorem. Mathematicians regard his proof of the Pythagorean Theorem as one of the
most important mathematical proofs ever completed (Hartshorne 8). The figure that
Batchelor 10
Euclid used to demonstrate the proof resembles the structure of a windmill, and people
often refer to the proof as The Windmill for this reason (Dunham, Genius 51). Euclid also
proved the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem. He used the Pythagorean Theorem in
the process of proving its converse. The Pythagorean Theorem is one of the most well
Postulate 5. If a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the
same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely,
meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles.
This is Euclid’s famous Parallel Postulate, and it is the most controversial statement
associated with Greek mathematics (Dunham, Genius 35). Other mathematicians did not
challenge the fact that the Parallel Postulate was true. However, they challenged the
Marie Legendre attempted to prove the Parallel Postulate, and Gauss tried to show that
the Parallel Postulate was really a theorem (Laubenbacher 24). According to the writer
Proclus, “This [Parallel Postulate] ought even to be struck out of the Postulates
succeeded in proving the Parallel Postulate. Wolfgang Bolyai warned his son, Johann, not
to try to prove the Parallel Postulate. He stated, “You must not attempt this approach to
parallels. I know this way to its very end. I have traversed this bottomless night, which
extinguished all light and joy of my life …. I entreat you, leave the science of parallels
alone” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 56). This statement reflects the profound frustration that
mathematicians experienced when they were unable to prove the Parallel Postulate.
Batchelor 11
Legendre offered several proofs of the Parallel Postulate, but other mathematicians
greater empirical certainty than any external experience. But its infinite extent by no
means follows from this” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 57). Gauss, Bolyai, Riemann, and
Nikolai Lobachevski were very influential with regard to the early study of non-
Genius 57). In non-Euclidean geometry, the sum of the angles of a triangle is not the
In Book VII of the Elements, Euclid addressed the concept of number theory.
He defined prime numbers, composite numbers, and perfect numbers. A perfect number
is a whole number that equals the sum of its proper divisors (Moews 1). For example, 6 is
a perfect number, since 6 = 1 + 2 + 3 (Dunham, Master 2). Euclid stated the Fundamental
Theorem of Arithmetic, which says that a number can be factored as a product of prime
numbers in only one way. Euclid’s Proposition IX.20 states that the set of prime numbers
is an infinite set. Euclid proved this statement, which is called the infinitude of primes.
G.H. Hardy, a British mathematician, made the following comment regarding Euclid’s
proof of this theorem: “[The proof is] as fresh and significant as when it was discovered –
two thousand years have not written a wrinkle on [it]” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 73). The
Batchelor 12
following theorem represents Proposition IX.36 of the Elements, stated using modern
terminology.
This theorem provides a method that one can use to generate perfect numbers (Dunham,
Master 3). In his Proposition XII.10, Euclid proved that a cone’s volume is one third of
the volume of the cylinder with the same base and height. This relationship can be
expressed using the formula, Vcone = (1/3)πr2h. Archimedes commented, “… though these
properties were naturally inherent in the figures all along, yet they were in fact unknown
to all the many able geometers who lived before Eudoxus, and had not been observed by
anyone” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 77). In the final proposition of the Elements, Euclid
showed that there are exactly five regular solids. The five regular solids are the
tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron (Maor 104). This proof
relied on the following formula, which Euler discovered in 1752: Every simple
Leonhard Euler made major contributions to the study of analytic number theory.
This branch of mathematics applies the concepts of calculus and analysis to the study of
the whole numbers. While analysis traditionally involves the study of continuous
combines these two concepts (Dunham, Master 61). Euler also studied the field of
indeterminate analysis (Euler 299). Euclid originally proved that the set of prime
numbers is an infinite set. Every odd prime number has the form 4k+1 or 4k–1.
Batchelor 13
Throughout the first 200 positive integers, there are more 4k–1 odd prime numbers than
4k+1 odd primes. However, this majority switches in favor of the 4k+1 odd primes after
the first 26,861 positive integers. J.E. Littlewood proved that this majority switches back
and forth between the 4k–1 odd prime numbers and the 4k+1 odd primes infinitely many
times as one progresses through the positive integers (Dunham, Master 63). Fermat
proposed that a 4k+1 prime number can be expressed as the sum of two perfect squares in
exactly one way, while a 4k–1 prime number cannot be expressed as the sum of two
perfect squares in any manner. Euler proved this proposition, and he was very interested
in the study of prime numbers. Fermat made the conjecture that every number of the form
n
22 + 1 is a prime number. In 1732, Euler disproved this conjecture by showing that
5
22 + 1 = 232 + 1 = 4,294,967,297 = (641)(6,700,417) (Laubenbacher 160). Euler studied
the concepts of indeterminate equations of the first degree and the second degree (Euler
465).
million and beyond. He wished to determine an exact sum for the infinite series,
1/15 + 1/63 + 1/80 + 1/255 + 1/624 + . Euler clarified the nature of this series by stating
that the terms of the series represented reciprocals “whose denominators are one less than
all perfect squares which simultaneously are other powers” (qtd. in Dunham, Master 65).
For example, 15 is a denominator in the series, since 16 = 42 = 24. This means that 16 is
both a perfect square and a fourth power at the same time. He previously proved that
(π2)/6 = 1 + 1/4 + 1/9 + 1/16 + 1/25 + 1/36 + 1/49 + 1/64 + 1/81 + . Euler applied this
result and proved that the sum of the series equals 7/4 – (π2)/6. Euler studied the
Master 67). This result established a significant connection between the prime numbers
and the harmonic series. On the equation’s right side, the numerator represents the
product of all prime numbers. The denominator represents the product of all numbers that
are one less than prime numbers. In 1737, Euler considered the sum of the reciprocals of
S = 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/5 + 1/7 + 1/11 + 1/13 + 1/17 + . Euler proved that the set S diverges
(Ingham 10).
Now suppose that one wished to find the sum of the reciprocals of all of the
positive integers whose only prime number factors are 2 and 3. This is the sum,
T = 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + 1/6 + 1/8 + 1/9 + 1/12 + 1/16 + 1/18 + 1/24 + 1/27 + 1/32 + .
Euler proved that this sum can be expressed in the following way:
(1/k) = [1/(1 -1/p)] , where the sum on the left side represents positive integers k,
k 1 p
and the product on the right side represents prime numbers p. Euler’s result involved a
combination of number theory and analysis. The fact that the set of prime numbers is an
V = 1/3 – 1/5 + 1/7 + 1/11 – 1/13 – 1/17 + 1/19 + 1/23 – 1/29 + . This series consists of
the reciprocals of the odd prime numbers. In the series, a positive sign precedes each
prime number with the form 4k – 1. A negative sign precedes each prime number with
the form 4k + 1. Euler showed that the sum V has an approximate value of 0.3349816.
Batchelor 15
After proving that the series converges, Euler claimed that the set of 4k + 1 prime
numbers is an infinite set (Dunham, Master 77). In 1837, Peter Gustav Lejeune-Dirichlet
as long as a and b are selected as relatively prime numbers. Two numbers are relatively
prime if there does not exist any number greater than 1 that is a factor of both of the
theory. Number theory involves the study of the positive integers. In 1772, Euler wrote to
Daniel Bernoulli and stated that he had proved that 231 – 1 is a prime number. This
159). Euler attempted to find four different numbers such that when any two numbers are
added, the sum is a perfect square. He provided a correct solution when he showed that
the numbers 18,530; 38,114; 45,986; and 65,570 satisfy this condition. Four of the
volumes of Euler’s Opera Omnia cover the topic of number theory. Harold Edwards
stated that even if this were Euler’s only mathematical accomplishment, “his
contributions to number theory alone would suffice to establish a lasting reputation in the
annals of mathematics” (qtd. in Dunham, Master 7). In 1747, Euler stated, “Whether …
there are any odd perfect numbers is a most difficult question” (qtd. in Dunham, Master
13). The question of whether or not any odd perfect numbers exist represents an unsolved
problem in mathematics. While no odd perfect numbers have been found, no one has ever
proved that they cannot exist (Laubenbacher 160). In 1748, Leonhard Euler discovered
the formula, eπi + 1 = 0. This is called Euler’s formula, and it is significant because it
Batchelor 16
provides a relation between the constants of arithmetic, geometry, analysis, and complex
numbers (Maor 53). During the same year, Euler discovered the following formula for
3. Gauss’s Contributions.
outstanding mathematical ability from a very young age. His first major accomplishment
occurred in 1796, when he showed that a straightedge and compass could be used to
construct a 17-sided regular polygon (Hartshorne 249). He later showed that an N-sided
regular polygon could be constructed using a straightedge and compass, if N is prime and
has the form 22n + 1 (Maor 123). This means that one can use a straightedge and compass
Gauss received his doctoral degree from the University of Helmstadt. His dissertation
was entitled, “A New Proof of the Theorem That Every Integral Rational Algebraic
Function Can Be Decomposed into Real Factors of the First or Second Degree”
(Dunham, Genius 239). Gauss is famous for his proof of the Fundamental Theorem of
Algebra. Let P denote a polynomial whose coefficients are real. The theorem states that
one can factor P into a product of real quadratic and/or real linear factors. In other words,
every real polynomial with degree n can be decomposed into n linear factors, some of
which may be complex (Laubenbacher 216). Euler had unsuccessfully attempted to prove
this theorem in 1749. In 1801, Gauss published his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. This was
a major work on the topic of number theory. Gauss made a conjecture with regard to the
distribution of the prime numbers among the whole numbers. Mathematicians now refer
Batchelor 17
to this conjecture as the Prime Number Theorem (Ingham 25). Let σ(N) denote the
number of prime numbers below the integer N. The Prime Number Theorem states that
Vallée Poussin proved the Prime Number Theorem (Maor 23). Gauss believed in the
potential infinite, but he did not believe in the actual infinite. In 1831, he told
Schumacher, “I must protest most vehemently against your use of the infinite as
façon de parler, meaning a limit to which certain ratios may approach as closely as
desired when others are permitted to increase indefinitely” (qtd. in Maor 55). Gauss
stated, “Mathematics is the queen of the sciences, and the theory of numbers is the queen
of mathematics” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 240). Gauss was often concerned about how
his ideas would be received in the mathematical community, and he was afraid of public
Carl Friedrich Gauss encouraged the work of Sophie Germain, who was a
mathematician during the early part of the 1800s. At this time, society held the opinion
that women were not supposed to become mathematicians. Germain’s parents did not
permit her to study mathematics. Sophie Germain used the pseudonym, Antoine LeBlanc,
in order to avoid revealing her gender. She made significant efforts toward developing a
proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem (Laubenbacher 185). In 1807, Gauss learned Sophie
Germain’s true identity. Gauss continued to encourage her, and he recognized the gender
The taste for the abstract sciences in general and, above all, for the mysteries of
numbers, is very rare: this is not surprising, since the charms of this sublime
Batchelor 18
science in all their beauty reveal themselves only to those who have the courage to
fathom them. But when a woman, because of her sex, our customs, and prejudices,
encounters infinitely more obstacles than men in familiarizing herself with their
knotty problems, yet overcomes these fetters and penetrates that which is most
hidden, she doubtless has the most noble courage, extraordinary talent, and
Gauss lived by the motto, “Pauca sed matura.” This means, “Few but ripe.” Gauss
published a relatively small number of papers. He refused to publish his results until they
were perfect enough to satisfy his standards (Dunham, Genius 243). He was hesitant to
publish his ideas because he feared public scrutiny. When he discovered non-Euclidean
geometry, he did not receive recognition because he refused to publish his results.
Because of this, Lobachevsky and Bolyai took credit for the discovery (Maor 125).
In 1845, Georg Cantor was born in Russia (Dunham, Genius 252). Cantor studied
under Kronecker, Kummer, and Weierstrass (Golba 1). His primary interest was in
trigonometric series. Cantor proved the following requirements for integrating a function:
“If one sets f(x) = A0 + A1 + + An + Rn, for any given quantity there must exist an
integer m such that, for n ≥ m, the absolute value of Rn is less than for all values of x
which come into consideration” (qtd. in Dauben 32). Cantor proved the following
important theorem.
series convergent for every value of x, then there is no other series of the same form
Batchelor 19
which likewise converges for every value of x and represents the function f(x)
generalize his previous results, and this led him to the rigorous study of algebraic and
transcendental numbers (Laubenbacher 57). In 1874, Cantor showed that most real
efforts to define irrational numbers with respect to infinite series. He stated, “Here there
would be a logical error, since the definition of the sum ∑av would first be won by
equating it with the finished number b, necessarily defined beforehand. I believe that this
logical error, first avoided by Weierstrass, was earlier committed quite generally, and was
not noticed because it belongs to the rare cases in which real errors can cause no
sequences and the order relations between them. Cantor observed that when comparing
two sequences a and b, either b = a, b < a, or b > a. This represents a trichotomy for the
Georg Cantor wished to develop a method through which one could precisely
identify complex groups of points distributed in specific ways throughout the geometric
continuum. When he introduced the concept of derived sets of the first species, Cantor
emphasized that a point should always be associated with a specific numerical value.
Cantor stated the following definition of limit points: “By a limit point of a point set P I
mean a point of the line for which in any neighborhood of same, infinitely many points of
P are found, whereby it can happen that the [limit] point itself also belongs to the set. By
interior. Accordingly, it is easy to prove that a point set consisting of an infinite number
Batchelor 20
of points always has at least one limit point” (qtd. in Dauben 41). This definition is
related to the Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem, which states that all infinite bounded point
sets must contain at least one limit point (Laubenbacher 71). Every set of points P must
have a set of limit points. Cantor denoted the set of limit points P′, and he referred to this
set as the “first derived point set of P.” Let P′ denote an infinite set of points. Then there
must exist a second derived point set, P′′. Cantor stated that this progression continues
until “one finds through v such transitions the concept of the vth derived point set P(v) of
P” (qtd. in Dauben 41). This progression is related to Cantor’s uniqueness theorem. After
v repetitions of the process, the derived set of points P(v) contains a finite number of
points. Therefore, the set P(v+1) cannot exist. Now consider the Riemann function,
F(x) = C0*(xx/2) – C2/4 – – Cn/(nn) – . Cantor stated that F(x) is continuous in the
throughout the interval (0,2π). When considering derived sets of the second species,
Cantor considered sets such as P(∞). He demonstrated the direct relationship between the
concepts of derived sets and limit points. As he developed the uniqueness theorem,
Cantor frequently referred to the previous work of Heine, Riemann, and Schwarz
(Dauben 45).
In 1883, Georg Cantor published a paper about set theory. He developed the paper
to address the mathematical and philosophical issues associated with transfinite set
theory. In 1874, Cantor had proved the existence of infinite sets that have different and
powers, and how to define equivalence. Cantor stated the following definition of set
equivalence: “Two sets M and N are equivalent … if it is possible to put them, by some
Batchelor 21
law, in such a relation to one another that to every element of each one of them
corresponds one and only one element of the other” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 253). In
1878, Cantor proved that one could restrict the analysis of continuity to the domain of the
real line (Maor 59). He showed that the same number of points exist on an infinite
straight line as on a finite segment of a line. Cantor considered the linear interval (0,1),
and he considered the square that is bounded by the interval (0,1) on the x-axis and by the
correspondence between the square and the interval, he stated, “I see it but I do not
believe it!” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 273). In 1879, Cantor published the first of a group
of six papers about infinite linear sets of points. He defined sets of the second species as
sets for which P(v) is not an empty set for any finite value of v. Cantor provided the
Definition. If P lies partially or entirely in the interval (α, β), then the remarkable case
can occur that any arbitrarily small interval (γ, δ) in (α, β) contains points of P. In
such a case we will say that P is everywhere-dense in the interval (α, β) (Dauben 78).
This definition states that a set P is everywhere-dense on an interval (α, β) whenever its
first derived set P′ contains the interval (α, β). Everywhere-dense sets are always sets of
the second species. In 1879, Paul du Bois-Reymond made the following statement
A distribution of points is called pantachisch if, for any arbitrarily small interval,
points (of which I have various examples) if one studies accumulation points of
infinite order, the existence of which I wrote to Cantor in Halle years ago. At
Batchelor 22
finite and infinite order of increasingly diminishing intervals, and finally my choice
Cantor defined sets of the same power as sets for which a one-to-one correspondence
between the respective elements is possible (Maor 60). Cantor identified the concepts of
denumerable sets and non-denumerable sets. Denumerable sets have the same power as
the set of natural numbers, . Non-denumerable sets have the same power as the set of
real numbers, . Denumerable sets include the rational numbers and the algebraic
numbers; every set of the first species is denumerable. Cantor proved that and are
distinct sets (Dauben 79). Cantor rejected the concept of infinitesimal numbers. He
Theorem. Non-zero linear numbers ζ (in short, numbers which may be thought of as
bounded, continuous lengths of a straight line) which would be smaller than any
arbitrarily small finite number do not exist, that is, they contradict the concept of
In 1880, Georg Cantor published a short paper about transfinite symbols and
derived sets. He showed that sets of the first species could be completely described by
their derived sets, but second species sets could not be completely described by their
derived sets. Let P denote a general point set of the second species. Cantor showed that
P′, the first derived set of P, could be disjointly decomposed into two sets, Q and R:
P′ {Q, R}. In this decomposition, Q denotes the set of points that belong to the first
species sets of P′. R denotes the set of points that are contained in all derived sets of P′;
Batchelor 23
therefore, R is a second species set. He showed that R P(∞), and he referred to P(∞) as the
derived set of P with order ∞ (Dauben 80). Cantor developed a method that one could use
to produce a hierarchy of infinite sets (Maor 64). He believed that the concept of
Theorem II. Given a finite or denumerably infinite set of sets (E), (E′), (E′′), , each of
which is denumerable, then the union of all elements of (E), (E′), (E′′), is likewise
enclosed in intervals (cv,dv) such that the sum of the lengths of these intervals,
(dv – cv) may be made arbitrarily small, in other words, lim (dv – cv) = 0 (Dauben
89).
Georg Cantor provided proofs of several additional theorems related to point sets of the
philosophy. Georg Cantor suffered several nervous breakdowns, and he made the
following statement to Mittag-Leffler after the first breakdown: “I thank you heartily for
your kind letter of May 15; I would have answered it sooner, but recently I have not felt
so fresh as I should, and consequently I don’t know when I shall return to the
continuation of my scientific work. At the moment I can do absolutely nothing with it,
and limit myself to the most necessary duty of my lectures; how much happier I would be
Batchelor 24
to be scientifically active, if only I had the necessary mental freshness!” (qtd. in Dauben
136). Leopold Kronecker was a professor in Berlin. He was a very harsh critic of
Cantor’s work, and Cantor was not able to convince Kronecker that his transfinite
numbers were legitimate (Laubenbacher 74). After this, Cantor became somewhat
disillusioned with his study of mathematics. In 1884, Cantor resumed his effort to prove
the Continuum Hypothesis, which states that there is no transfinite cardinal number that
falls strictly between א0 and c. The cardinal number c represents the cardinal number of
the continuum (Maor 60). The Continuum Hypothesis can be expressed as 2א0 = א1. The
Continuum Hypothesis can be generalized to state that 2אα = אα+1 (Laubenbacher 63).
Cantor announced that he had proved that the real line has the same power as the second
class of numbers. He stated, “Thus you see that everything comes down to defining a
single closed set of the second power. When I’ve put it all in order, I will send you the
details” (qtd. in Dauben 137). Gösta Mittag-Leffler was a Swedish mathematician who
had previously supported Cantor’s efforts (Laubenbacher 75). Cantor became frustrated
when he was unable to prove the Continuum Hypothesis. Later in 1884, Cantor told
Mittag-Leffler that the Continuum Hypothesis was a complete failure. He stated, “The
eventual elimination of so fatal an error, which one has held for so long, ought to be all
the greater an advance” (qtd. in Dauben 137). In 1900, David Hilbert spoke at the Second
International Congress of Mathematicians, which was held in Paris. During his lecture, he
the twentieth century. The first problem on Hilbert’s list was Cantor’s Continuum
Hypothesis (Laubenbacher 64). In 1963, Kurt Gödel and Paul Cohen showed that the
Batchelor 25
him against publishing his new work: “I am convinced that the publication of your new
work, before you have been able to explain new positive results, will greatly damage your
reputation among mathematicians. I know very well that basically this is all the same to
you. But if your theory is once discredited in this way, it will be a long time before it will
again command the attention of the mathematical world. It may well be that you and your
theory will never be given the justice you deserve in our lifetime” (qtd. in Dauben 138).
Cantor previously had a close professional relationship with Mittag-Leffler, and Cantor
mathematics entirely. He decided that he would no longer publish in the journal, Acta
criticism very personally. One of the original criticisms was the concept of “annihilation
of number.” Aristotle and other intellectuals believed that based on Cantor’s theory of the
infinite, finite numbers would be “annihilated” by infinite numbers. They pointed out the
property that for finite positive numbers m and n, m + n > m and m + n > n. If infinite
numbers were allowed, the equation m + ∞ = ∞ would appear to violate this property. In
this way, the infinite number would “annihilate” the finite number. However, Cantor
disproved this argument by pointing out that one cannot assume that infinite numbers will
between the infinite numbers ω and ω + 1. This distinction proved that adding a finite
Batchelor 26
number to an infinite number does not result in the “annihilation” of the finite number
disillusionment with mathematics (Dauben 139). Cantor began to devote his energy to the
study of theology and philosophy (Golba 1). He found that he experienced a greater sense
of belonging and encouragement among Roman Catholic theologians than he did among
Pope Leo XIII tried to reconcile scientific discoveries with religious scripture and
with the leaders of the Catholic Church. This led several Catholic intellectuals to pursue
the study of natural science. He encouraged the study of Thomistic philosophy. Pope Leo
XIII believed that science could function to further the goals of the Catholic Church. He
stated, “Above all [education] must be wholly in harmony with the Catholic faith in its
literature and system of training, and chiefly in philosophy, upon which the foundation of
other sciences in great measure depends” (qtd. in Dauben 142). Cantor’s work received
criticism from Mittag-Leffler and Leopold Kronecker, who did not believe in the concept
of the actual infinite (Maor 65). In addition, Aristotle stated, “The infinite has a potential
existence …. There will not be an actual infinite” (qtd. in Maor 55). Some members of
the Roman clergy strongly resisted Pope Leo XIII’s effort to encourage the study of
Collegio Romano. In 1888, Gutberlet founded the journal, Philosophisches Jahrbuch der
He recognized that Cantor’s work represented a new phase for the study of infinity.
Gutberlet worried that mathematical infinity could represent a challenge to the absolute
believed that absolute infinity represented God’s greatness and omnipotence (Maor 8).
However, Cantor believed that the transfinite numbers did not diminish the extent of
God’s greatness. He believed that the existence of these numbers enhanced it (Dauben
143). Gutberlet supported the concept of the actual infinite. He presented Cantor’s work
in order to support his own ideas against the opposition of some theologians. He stated
that he hoped that after he described Cantor’s work, readers could decide, “if they were
correct, when they supposed they could dispose of my theory of actually infinite
magnitude so easily. Above all we now want to explain the Cantorian theory and then to
defend our conception against criticism, which this journal published, with Cantor’s
encouraged Cantor’s interest in the theological and philosophical aspects of his own
Thomas Esser studied the implications of Cantor’s work for theology. Cardinal
accepted Cantor’s theory. He reassured Cantor that his theory did not pose any
theological threats to religious beliefs (Dauben 146). Pope Leo XIII’s enthusiasm for
Cantor’s work helped Cantor to overcome his previous setbacks and become interested in
mathematics again. Cantor believed that God inspired him to do his work (Laubenbacher
76). In 1888, Cantor wrote to Jeiler and stated, “I entertain no doubts as to the truth of the
transfinites, which I have recognized with God’s help and which, in their diversity, I have
studied for more than twenty years; every year, and almost every day brings me further in
this science” (qtd. in Dauben 147). Cantor turned to the study of theology after he
Batchelor 28
encouraged him to continue with his study of infinite numbers (Laubenbacher 76).
Charles Hermite was a French mathematician who studied the nature of the number π
(Dunham, Genius 24). In 1894, Cantor told Hermite, “But now I thank God, the all-wise
and all-good, that He always denied me the fulfillment of this wish [for a position at a
penetration into theology, to serve Him and His Holy Roman Catholic Church better than
I have been able with my exclusive preoccupation with mathematics” (qtd. in Dauben
systematic study of the infinite. Cantor believed that his mathematical talent was given to
him so that he could serve the Catholic Church. In 1896, he told Esser, “From me,
Christian Philosophy will be offered for the first time the true theory of the infinite” (qtd.
in Dauben 147). Cantor emphasized the study of pure mathematics, and he encouraged
mathematics to other sciences. However, Cantor preferred to use the term free
position which distinguishes mathematics from all other sciences, and which produces an
explanation for the relatively free and easy way of pursuing it, it especially deserves the
name of free mathematics, a designation which I, if I had the choice, would prefer to the
now customary pure mathematics” (qtd. in Dauben 132). Other mathematicians were
impressed with Cantor’s work. David Hilbert stated, “No one will expel us from the
Georg Cantor recognized that mathematicians needed a method for comparing the
sizes of sets. The term equinumerosity is used to describe sets that have the same size
developed several examples to show that one does not need the ability to count objects in
order to make a determination of whether two sets are equinumerous. The cardinality or
power of a set is the number of elements that are contained in the set (Maor 253). Two
subsets belong to the same equivalence class if they have the same cardinal number
Definition. Two sets M and N are equivalent … if it is possible to put them, by some
law, in such a relation to one another that to every element of each one of them
corresponds one and only one element of the other (Dunham, Genius 253).
Mathematicians say that two sets have the same cardinality or power if they satisfy this
definition and are equivalent (Maor 253). Cantor’s definition is very important because it
does not require the sets to be finite. One can use the definition to compare infinite sets.
Other mathematicians were not pleased with Cantor’s concept of the completed infinite.
They preferred to restrict the analysis of infinity to the study of the potential infinite.
Gauss stated, “… I protest above all against the use of an infinite quantity as a completed
one, which in mathematics is never allowed. The Infinite is only a manner of speaking
…” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 254). Consider the two sets of numbers (the set of natural
numbers) and E, the set of even natural numbers. Cantor showed that based on his
definition, the sets and E have the same cardinality. This means that the two sets have
the same size. Cantor also showed that the sets and (the set of all integers) have the
Batchelor 30
same cardinality. Georg Cantor stated that any set that could be placed in a one-to-one
transfinite cardinal number א0 to represent the number of items contained in a countably
infinite set (Maor 57). Cantor studied the concept of well-ordered sets. All nonempty
subsets of a well-ordered set must contain a least element. The concept of well-ordered
sets was the basis for Cantor’s theory of ordinal numbers. Cantor explained that the
ordinal numbers represent the different order types for well-ordered sets. Cantor showed
that one can add ordinal numbers, but this kind of addition is not commutative
(Laubenbacher 62).
Georg Cantor used the set of natural numbers, , as the basis for extending the
number system beyond the finite realm. Let M denote the cardinality of the set M.
Cantor next considered , the set of rational numbers. Between any two integers, there
exist an infinite number of rational numbers. Based on this information, it would appear
that there are more rational numbers than natural numbers. However, Cantor showed that
Q = א0. This means that the set of rational numbers is countably infinite (Dauben 79).
Based on Cantor’s definition, the number of rational numbers equals the number of
natural numbers. However, the collection of all real numbers is a non-denumerable set. In
1874, Cantor showed that no interval of real numbers can be placed in a one-to-one
real numbers. Mathematicians refer to the interval (0,1) as the unit interval. Cantor
proved that the interval of real numbers between 0 and 1 (the unit interval) is not
countably infinite (Dauben 51). This theorem can be proved using the method of proof by
contradiction. Cantor used a diagonalization process to show that many infinite sets have
Batchelor 31
cardinality א0. The interval of real numbers between 0 and 1 is infinite, and Cantor proved
that it has a higher “degree” of infinity than the set of natural numbers. The entire set of
real numbers, , has the same cardinality as the interval (0,1) (Dunham, Genius 263).
Georg Cantor tried to formalize the concepts of less than and greater than with
regard to transfinite cardinal numbers. Cantor stated the following definition for the
Cantor then defined strict orderings, stating that A B if A B , but there is not a one-
to-one correspondence between the elements of A and B. Cantor proved that there does
not exist a one-to-one correspondence between and (0,1). He showed that N < (0,1) . By
substitution, this implies that א0 < c. After establishing that it is possible to compare the
cardinalities of two sets, Cantor made the following assertion: If A B and B A , then
A = B (Dunham, Genius 270). Ernst Schröder and Felix Bernstein independently proved
this result, so mathematicians now call it the Schröder-Bernstein Theorem. One can use
the Schröder-Bernstein Theorem in order to determine the cardinality of the set I (the set
of all irrational numbers). The fact that I is not a denumerable set implies that I > א0.
Therefore, the set of irrational numbers represents a subset of the real numbers. One can
correspondence between all real numbers and some irrational numbers. One can express
I = c (Maor 63). Cantor wanted to determine whether there were any cardinal numbers
Batchelor 32
greater than c. He considered the interval (0,1) and the square bounded by the interval
(0,1) on the x-axis and by the interval (0,1) on the y-axis. In 1877, Cantor discovered that
a one-to-one correspondence exists between the square and the interval. After making
this discovery, Cantor exclaimed, “I see it, but I do not believe it!” (qtd. in Dauben 55).
The power set of a set consists of all subsets of the original set. The power set of
P[A] = {φ, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}}. A set containing n elements will
always have 2n subsets. One can express this as P[A] = 2n. Georg Cantor showed that a
power set always contains more elements than the set from which it was generated (Maor
253). This is called Cantor’s Theorem, and it states that for every set A, A < P[A].
Cantor’s Theorem applies to finite sets and infinite sets. In order to find a set that has
cardinality greater then c, Cantor considered the set P[(0,1)]. Applying Cantor’s
Theorem, one can obtain the result P[(0,1)] > (0,1) = c. This implies that P[(0,1)] > c.
Next, Cantor considered the power set of P[(0,1)]. Applying Cantor’s Theorem,
P[P[(0,1)]] > P[(0,1)] . By repeating this process indefinitely, one can obtain the following
א0 < c < P[(0,1)] < P[P[(0,1)]] < P[P[P[(0,1)]]] < P[P[P[P[(0,1)]]]] < (Dunham,
Genius 277). Georg Cantor made the following statement about his views with regard to
the infinite: “This view, which I consider to be the sole correct one, is held by only a few.
While possibly I am the very first in history to take this position so explicitly, with all of
its logical consequences, I know for sure that I shall not be the last!” (qtd. in Dunham,
Genius 280). The following logical paradox is a direct result of Cantor’s Theorem. Let U
represent the universal set, or the set of all sets. Since U contains all possible sets, one
Batchelor 33
cannot possibly enlarge it. Next, consider the power set P[U]. Cantor’s Theorem implies
that P[U] > U . Therefore, P[U] is a larger set than U. This represents a logical
contradiction (Maor 255). When mathematicians formally axiomatized set theory, they
carefully chose the axioms in such a way that they prohibited this kind of logical paradox.
During the 1600s, Galileo Galilei discovered an important paradox related to one-to-one
correspondences. He showed that the number of perfect squares equals the number of
natural numbers. He reasoned that since not every natural number is a perfect square,
there must be more natural numbers than perfect squares. He also observed that the
perfect squares become progressively less abundant as the natural numbers increase.
Galileo stated, “The attributes larger, smaller, and equal have no place either in
comparing infinite quantities with each other or comparing infinite with finite quantities”
Cantor addressed the concepts of less than and greater than with regard to cardinal
numbers. He established that for cardinal numbers a, b, and c, if a < b and b < c, then
a < c. Cantor also stated the trichotomy principle, which says that for any two cardinal
numbers m and n, either m = n, m < n, or m > n. Cantor addressed the concepts of adding
and multiplying cardinal numbers. Let A and B denote two sets that have no elements in
common. The notation AB represents the union of A and B. Let A and B have cardinal
additional properties apply to the addition of cardinal numbers (Dauben 173). For
cardinal numbers: a*b = A B , where AB denotes the Cartesian product of A and B.
For the multiplication of cardinal numbers, a*b = b*a, and a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c. In addition,
a*(b+c) = a*b + a*c. These equations represent the associative, commutative, and
distributive properties for the addition and multiplication of cardinal numbers. In Section
addressed the concept of exponentiation with regard to cardinal numbers. The following
cardinal numbers. Then ab*ac = ab+c, (a*b)c = ac*bc, and (ab)c = ab*c (Dauben 174). Now
let X represent the totality of real numbers x for which 0 x 1. Let X denote the
cardinal number of X. Then, X = 2 א0. Georg Cantor defined the exponentiation of cardinal
numbers based on the set of functions from one set to another set (Laubenbacher 84). In
Cantor addressed the concept of א0, the smallest cardinal number that is transfinite.
Cantor referred to sets that have finite cardinal numbers as finite aggregates. He referred
to sets that have transfinite cardinal numbers as transfinite aggregates. Cantor stated the
equation, א0 = v , referring to the totality of cardinal numbers v, which are finite. He
showed that א0 + 1 = א0, and he established that א0 is greater than μ, where μ denotes any
finite number. Cantor also showed that א0*א0 = א0 (Laubenbacher 86). In 1891, Cantor
wrote a paper entitled On an Elementary Question in the Theory of Sets. Let a denote any
cardinal number. In this paper, Cantor established that for all a, 2a > a. More specifically,
א
2 0 > א0. Therefore, the set of real numbers has cardinality greater than the cardinality of
Batchelor 35
the set of natural numbers. In addition, the set of real numbers has cardinality greater than
one-to-one correspondence between a set and a proper subset of the set (Hall 45). A one-
to-one correspondence between sets exists if one can pair the elements of two sets in a
manner such that every element of one set is matched with a unique element of the other
set. Cantor’s Continuum Hypothesis states that there does not exist a transfinite cardinal
number strictly between א0 and c (Dunham, Genius 281). David Hilbert referred to
spite of the most strenuous efforts, no one has succeeded in proving” (qtd. in Dunham,
Genius 282). Later, Kurt Gödel used the axiomatized set theory to prove that Cantor’s
Continuum Hypothesis is logically consistent with all of the other axioms of set theory.
In 1963, Paul Cohen showed that one could not use the axiomatized set theory to prove
the other axioms of set theory (Dauben 269). Cantor was very confident about the
validity of his theory. In 1888, he stated, “My theory stands as firm as a rock; every
arrow directed against it will return quickly to its archer. How do I know this? Because I
have studied it from all sides for many years; because I have examined all objections
which have ever been made against the infinite numbers; and above all because I have
followed its roots, so to speak, to the first infallible cause of all created things” (qtd. in
Georg Cantor studied the properties of rational and irrational numbers. The
digits. The decimal representation of an irrational number does not terminate or have a
group of repeating digits. Between any two rational numbers, there exist an infinite
number of irrational numbers. Between any two irrational numbers, there exist an infinite
number of rational numbers. However, the set of rational numbers and the set of irrational
numbers are not interchangeable collections of numbers. Cantor recognized the need for a
method of comparing the sizes of sets. Mathematicians use the term equinumerosity to
describe sets that have the same size. Cantor defined set equivalence and emphasized the
believed that the concept of the completed infinite was a legitimate idea (Dauben 172).
Cantor analyzed the set of natural numbers and the set of even natural numbers. Based on
his definition, the two sets have the same cardinality. In addition, the set of natural
numbers has the same cardinality as the set of all integers. Cantor’s definition stated that
any set that could be placed in a one-to-one correspondence with the set of natural
number א0 to represent the number of items contained in a countably infinite set
Georg Cantor proved that the set of rational numbers is denumerable. However,
the collection of all real numbers is a non-denumerable set (Laubenbacher 57). In 1874,
correspondence with the set of natural numbers (Dunham, Genius 259). A continuum is
Batchelor 37
an interval containing real numbers, and the interval (0,1) is called the unit interval.
Cantor proved that the unit interval is not countably infinite. One can prove this theorem
using the method of proof by contradiction (Dunham, Genius 259). He showed that the
interval of real numbers between 0 and 1 has a higher “degree” of infinity than the set of
natural numbers, even though both sets are infinite sets. Cantor formalized the concept of
Bertrand Russell stated, “The solution of the difficulties which formerly surrounded the
mathematical infinite is probably the greatest achievement of which our age has to boast”
The concept of the limit is one of the most important concepts of calculus (Hall
146). Newton tried to address the concept of continuous functions, and he developed his
idea of ultimate ratios. The ultimate ratios that Newton described were actually the limits
understood as the ratio of the quantities, not before they vanish, nor after, but that with
which they vanish” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 248). Newton’s theory of ultimate ratios
was flawed because the ratio 0/0 is undefined. Leibniz also studied limits, and he
number that was not equal to zero but had the property that one could not decrease it any
further. Leibniz’s statements about the infinitely small quantities were often imprecise.
It will be sufficient if, when we speak of … infinitely small quantities (i.e., the very
Batchelor 38
least of those within our knowledge), it is understood that we mean quantities that
small] as the ultimate things …, it can be done …, ay even though he think that
such things are utterly impossible; it will be sufficient simply to make use of them
as a tool that has advantages for the purpose of calculation, just as the algebraists
retain imaginary roots with great profit. (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 249)
Bishop George Berkeley was not pleased with the ambiguity of the mathematicians’
statements. He made the following famous comment: “And what are these fluxions? The
velocities of evanescent increments. And what are these same evanescent increments?
They are neither finite quantities, nor quantities infinitely small, nor yet nothing. May we
not call them the ghosts of departed quantities…?” (qtd. in Dunham, Genius 250).
Mathematicians recognized that they needed to make the concept of the limit
more logically precise. Augustin-Louis Cauchy defined limits and used his definition to
prove major theorems of calculus (Laubenbacher 141). Karl Weierstrass provided the
Definition. L is the limit of the function f(x) as x approaches a if for any > 0, there
exists a > 0 so that, if 0 < x – a < , then f(x) – L < (Dunham, Genius 251).
1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 + . When a finite number of terms of the series are added,
the sum will never equal 1. This series has the property that it converges to 1. In other
words, the number 1 is the limit of the series as the number of terms approaches infinity.
The concepts of convergence and limits are fundamental for the study of calculus.
Batchelor 39
-1 < α < 1 (Dunham, Genius 194). This restriction on the values of α is necessary because
the values of the terms of the series must become progressively smaller as one progresses
substance’s half-life is the amount of time necessary for a quantity of the substance to
decay to one-half of the initial quantity (Maor 31). One can predict the limit of some
geometric series using the following formula: a + aq + aq2 + aq3 + = a/(1 – q), if and
only if -1 < q < 1 (Dunham, Genius 194). A convergent series has a distinct sum, but a
divergent series does not. Applications of infinite geometric series occur in geometry,
engineering, and physics. Euler devoted a great deal of attention to geometric series. He
discovered that 1 + 1/4 + 1/9 + 1/16 + 1/25 + = (π2)/6 (Dunham, Master 47). This is
considered one of the most remarkable theorems of mathematical analysis (Maor 35).
Niels Henrik Abel once said, “With the exception of the geometric series, there does not
exist in all of mathematics a single infinite series whose sum has been determined
The harmonic series consists of the sum of the reciprocals of the counting
numbers. One can express this series as 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + 1/5 + (Maor 26). The
first person to prove that the harmonic series diverges was the French scholar Nicolae
Oresme. The terms of the harmonic series become progressively smaller, but the series
does not converge. When one adds the first million terms of the series, the sum is
Batchelor 40
approximately equal to 14.357. When one adds the first trillion terms, the sum is
approximately equal to 28. While the value of the sum of the series increases very slowly,
the series does not converge to a finite sum. Johann Bernoulli studied the harmonic
means that mathematicians considered the behavior of the series to be very bizarre and
counterintuitive (Dunham, Genius 194). The sum of the reciprocals of all prime numbers
also diverges. However, the sum of the reciprocals of all of the twin primes converges to
9. Fermat’s Theorems.
in law, and he practiced law in France. During his spare time, he conducted research
the study of calculus, and he contributed to the study of analytic geometry. However, he
is most famous for his work in number theory (Laubenbacher 159). He studied the perfect
numbers extensively, and he analyzed the previous work of Diophantus. He wrote the
following comments in his own copy of the Arithmetica: “But it is impossible to divide a
cube into two cubes, or a fourth power [quadratoquadratum] into two fourth powers, or
generally any power beyond the square into two like powers; of this I have found a
remarkable demonstration. This margin is too narrow to contain it” (qtd. in Dunham,
Genius 159). Fermat had the irritating habit of claiming to have proven theorems without
mathematics. Fermat stated the following theorem, which Euler proved in 1736.
Batchelor 41
Fermat’s Little Theorem. Given a prime number p and an integer a that is not divisible
by p, then ap-1 has remainder 1 under division by p. Furthermore, there exists a least
and akn has remainder 1 under division by p for all positive integers k (Laubenbacher
160). Based on this theorem, if a number with the form 2n – 1 is prime, then the
statement: “Is Fermat’s observation known to you, that all numbers 22n + 1 are primes? He
said he could not prove it; nor has anyone else to my knowledge” (qtd. in Dunham,
mathematicians could use to generate prime numbers. Euler considered the number
5
22 + 1 = 232 + 1 = 4,294,967,297. He showed that 4,294,967,297 = (641)(6,700,417).
Therefore, this is not a prime number, and Fermat’s claim is not valid in all cases. Primes
with the form 22n + 1 are called Fermat primes (Laubenbacher 160). Fermat stated the
Fermat’s Last Theorem. No cube can be split into two cubes, nor any biquadrate into
two biquadrates, nor generally any power beyond the second into two of the same kind
(Laubenbacher 164). This theorem states that for n > 2, the equation xn + yn = zn does
not have any integer solutions. Fermat claimed that he had proved this theorem, but he
unsuccessful attempts to prove Fermat’s Last Theorem. In 1993, Andrew Wiles finally
proved the theorem. He solved a mathematical problem that had stumped mathematicians
Inversion in the unit circle is a fascinating concept related to the study of infinity.
Consider the circle where O denotes the center, and the radius is 1. Let P denote a point
in the circle’s interior, and let OP denote the distance from O to P. The point P will be
“mapped” to a point Q on the ray OP . The distance from O to Q, denoted OQ, will be
determined by the formula, OQ = 1/OP. All points inside the circle will be mapped to
points outside the circle. All points outside the circle will be mapped to points inside the
circle. This inversion is symmetric. If Q denotes the image of P, then P will be the image
The points along the unit circle will be mapped onto themselves. A straight line that does
not pass through the origin will be mapped onto a circle that passes through the origin.
Lines closer to the center O will result in larger image circles. The image of a parabola is
(Maor 90).
maps. A projection method must be used in order to represent the earth’s surface on a
each point on the earth’s surface onto a unique point on the map. The stereographic
projection is often used to represent the earth’s surface on a flat map. The parallels of
latitude are represented by concentric circles surrounding the north or south pole. The
Batchelor 43
meridians of longitude are represented by straight lines passing through the north or south
pole. The stereographic projection is conformal or angle-preserving (Maor 98). One can
use a sphere to represent a finite model of a plane, using the concept of inversion. A path
that crosses every meridian of longitude at the same angle is called a loxodrome. On a
are represented by straight lines. In 1569, he published his map, which represents the
earth using a rectangular grid. Inversion is an important concept related to the science of
consider this theory very important, since it provides an explanation of the nature of the
time represent a single, four-dimensional entity. Scientists refer to this entity as the
Einstein defined a straight line as the path traveled by a ray of light. While Newton
believed in an infinite universe, Einstein believed that the universe is finite but
unbounded. Sir Arthur Eddington made the following comment regarding Einstein’s
theory.
There was just one place where [Einstein’s] theory did not seem to work properly,
and that was – infinity. I think Einstein showed his greatness in the simple and
He slightly altered his equations so as to make space at great distances bend round
until it closed up. So that, if in Einstein’s space you keep going right on in one
direction, you do not get to infinity; you find yourself back at your starting-point
again. Since there was no longer any infinity, there could be no difficulties at
withstood many tests. Most scientists now accept it as the best modern theory of the
object cannot move faster than the speed of light. Light has a velocity of approximately
300,000 kilometers per second. According to his theory, a ray of light will be bent if it
passes through a major gravitational field. The field surrounding a large star is one
example of such a gravitational field. In 1919, Einstein’s theory passed an important test,
and this helped to satisfy the scientists who were previously skeptical of it. A total eclipse
of the sun occurred on May 29, 1919. Scientists went to Brazil and Africa’s west coast
and photographed the eclipse. The same region of the sky was photographed
approximately six months later. The locations of the stars on the two sets of pictures were
compared. The scientists determined that the positions of the stars had shifted by the
exact amount that Einstein’s theory predicted. Most scientists now regard Einstein’s
general theory of relativity as the best theory of the nature of the universe (Maor 133).
anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + + a1x + a0 = 0, with an, an-1, an-2, … , a1, and a0 representing
mathematical oddities. However, in 1874, Cantor proved that most real numbers are
circle, or to use a compass and straightedge to construct a square with an area equal to the
area of a specific circle. The fact that π is a transcendental number implies that this
Cantor proved that the set of all algebraic numbers is a countable set. This means
that the set of all algebraic numbers has the same cardinality as the set of natural
numbers. In 1851, Joseph Liouville proved a theorem stating that every interval of real
Liouville’s work when he proved that all intervals of real numbers have cardinality
strictly larger than the cardinality of the natural numbers. Therefore, every interval of real
This discovery led to the important distinction between the set of real numbers, which is a
Amicable numbers are pairs of numbers such that the sum of the proper divisors
of the first number equals the second number, and the sum of the proper divisors of the
second number equals the first number. The numbers 220 and 284 are an example of a
Batchelor 46
pair of amicable numbers. Mathematicians have not determined whether there are an
infinite number of pairs of amicable numbers (Moews 2). A perfect whole number is a
whole number that equals the sum of its proper divisors. For example, 6 is perfect, since
perfect numbers. These numbers were 6, 28, 496, and 8128. Nicomachus was an early
Greek mathematician. He recognized the rarity of perfect numbers. He stated that the
perfect numbers were remarkable, “even as fair and excellent things are few … while
ugly and evil ones are widespread” (qtd. in Dunham, Master 2). Euclid studied the
continuously in double proportion, until the sum of all becomes prime, and if the sum
multiplied into the last make some number, the product will be perfect (Dunham,
Master 3).
(Laubenbacher 159).
Proof. Let p = 2k – 1 denote a prime number. Let N = 2k-1(2k – 1) = 2k-1p. The number N
can be factored into prime numbers in exactly one way. Therefore, the proper divisors of
N will only contain the prime numbers p and 2. One can express the sum of these proper
divisors as follows:
N′ = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + + 2k-1 + p + 2p + 4p + 8p + 2k-2p
Batchelor 47
N′ = (2k – 1) + p(2k-1 – 1)
N′ = p + p2k-1 – p
N′ = p2k-1
N′ = N
Therefore, the number N is equal to the sum of all of the proper divisors of N. N is a
perfect number (Dunham, Master 4). One can apply this theorem in the following way.
22(23 – 1) = 4*7 = 28 is a perfect number. Prime numbers with the form p = 2k – 1 are
called Mersenne primes (Laubenbacher 160). Mathematicians have devoted a great deal
of effort to the search for Mersenne primes. In 1772, Euler told Daniel Bernoulli that he
had proved that 231 – 1 is a prime number. The fact that 231 – 1 is prime implies that
1800s, a mathematician stated that this number was “… the greatest [perfect number] that
will ever be discovered, for, as they are merely curious without being useful, it is not
likely that any person will attempt to find one beyond it” (qtd. in Dunham, Master 5).
helped with the search for larger Mersenne primes and perfect numbers. In 1998,
theorem then implies that 23021376(23021377 – 1) represents a perfect number. This perfect
The question of whether or not there are any odd perfect numbers represents an
provided a proof that all perfect numbers are even in 1509. However, his proof was
flawed; he had assumed that all perfect numbers must have the structure, 2k-1(2k – 1).
This assumption is not valid, since no one has successfully proved that every perfect
number must have this structure. In 1747, Euler stated, “Whether … there are any odd
perfect numbers is a most difficult question” (qtd. in Dunham, Master 13). While no odd
perfect numbers have ever been discovered, no one has ever proved that they cannot
exist. Mathematicians have proved several properties that any odd perfect number must
have. If there is an odd perfect number, it must be greater than 10300 (Dunham, Master
15). In addition, any odd perfect number has to contain a minimum of eight different
prime factors. J.J. Sylvester was very skeptical about the likelihood that any odd perfect
meditation on the subject has satisfied me that the existence of any one such – its escape,
so to say, from the complex web of conditions which hem it in on all sides – would be
to reexamine their understanding of the physical world. This concept was “inspired” by
the question of what properties parallel lines have at great distances from the observer.
Euclidean geometry is based on a set of ten axioms that Euclid accepted as true without
proof. The following postulate is Euclid’s Parallel Postulate, and it is Euclid’s most
Parallel Postulate. If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles
on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced
Batchelor 49
indefinitely, meet on that side on which the two angles are less than two right angles
(Maor 119).
This was Euclid’s original statement of the Parallel Postulate. The following is a modern
Postulate. Given a line ℓ and a point P that is not located on ℓ, there exists exactly one
line m, located in the plane of P and ℓ, which is parallel to the line ℓ (Maor 119).
Some mathematicians did not believe that the Parallel Postulate was as self-evident as
Euclid’s other axioms. Proclus stated, “This [Parallel Postulate] ought even to be struck
out of the Postulates altogether; for it is a theorem involving many difficulties, which
Ptolemy, in a certain book, set himself to solve, and it requires for the demonstration of it
a number of definitions as well as theorems” (qtd. in Laubenbacher 3). During the 1600s,
some mathematicians believed that Euclid’s Parallel Postulate was actually a theorem
(Hall 108). Many mathematicians made unsuccessful attempts to prove the Parallel
Postulate using Euclid’s other axioms. Girolano Saccheri, an Italian priest, tried to prove
Carl Friedrich Gauss suspected that the Parallel Postulate was independent of
Euclid’s other axioms. Since Gauss did not publish this conclusion, Nicolai Lobachevsky
and Janos Bolyai took credit for discovering non-Euclidean geometry (Laubenbacher 13).
These mathematicians assumed that two or more parallels to a given line can pass
through a point that is not located on that line. This directly implies that given a point P
not located on a line ℓ, there exist infinitely many lines through P that are parallel to ℓ.
Hyperbolic geometry is based on this new postulate, along with Euclid’s other nine
axioms (Hartshorne 373). In hyperbolic geometry, the angles of a triangle have a sum less
Batchelor 50
than 180°, and this sum depends on the triangle’s size (Maor 125). Euclid’s second axiom
states that one can extend a line indefinitely in either direction. Bernhard Riemann
replaced this with an axiom stating that a straight line is not bounded. Riemann
Riemann’s theory of geometry states that through a point not on a line, there exist no
parallels to the line. Riemann’s theory of geometry is called elliptic geometry. In elliptic
geometry, the angles of a triangle have a sum greater than 180°. This sum depends on the
triangle’s size. In addition, if two triangles are similar, then they are congruent
(Laubenbacher 16).
A great circle is one that divides a sphere into two hemispheres that are equal. For
example, the equator is a great circle if the earth is assumed to be a sphere. A sphere can
serve as a model of elliptic geometry (Hall 103). The tractroid represents a model of
hyperbolic geometry (Maor 130). Gauss stated, “Finite man cannot claim to be able to
observation” (qtd. in Maor 131). He was concerned with the implications of non-
measured a large triangle’s angles, but he found the sum to be equal to 180°. In 1868,
Euclidean geometry (Dunham, Genius 56). In 1916, Albert Einstein published a theory of
gravitation in which space and time represent a single, four-dimensional entity. This
entity is called the space-time continuum. He defined a straight line as the path traveled
by a ray of light. He believed that rays of light are bent when a strong gravitational field
geometry. Although Einstein’s theory was originally met with skepticism, it has
withstood many tests. Most scientists accept Einstein’s theory as the best modern
After Georg Cantor became disillusioned with his study of mathematics, he began
to devote most of his energy to the study of theology and philosophy. The Catholic
Church objected to Cantor’s theory of the actual infinite. Many theologians believed that
Cantor’s concept of the actual infinite was not congruent with their concept of God.
However, Pope Leo XIII believed that natural science could help to further the goals of
the Catholic Church (Dauben 141). He tried to reconcile scientific discoveries with
religious scripture. In addition, his enthusiasm for Cantor’s work helped Cantor to
overcome his setbacks and to become interested in mathematics again (Dauben 142). The
Jewish kabbalists believed that God had a transcendental nature, and their belief in God
led them to the study of the infinite (Maor 179). In 1886, Gutberlet stated that he feared
that mathematical infinity could represent a challenge to the absolute infinity associated
with God’s existence. However, Cantor believed that the transfinite numbers did not
diminish the extent of God’s greatness. Rather, he believed that the existence of these
numbers enhanced it (Dauben 143). Several theologians and philosophers in the Catholic
order to support his own ideas against the opposition of some theologians. Thomas Esser
infinity. However, he later accepted Cantor’s theory. He reassured Cantor that his theory
Batchelor 52
did not represent a theological threat to religious beliefs. Cantor believed that God
The Kabbalah states that God does not reveal Himself directly, but only through
His deeds and virtues. In 1638, Galileo Galilei stated, “Infinities and indivisibles
transcend our finite understanding, the former on account of their magnitude, the latter
because of their smallness; Imagine what they are when combined” (qtd. in Maor 179).
Followers of Judaism believed that infinity represented their search for the divine spirit.
Followers of Buddhism and Hinduism believed in eternity and the infinite reincarnation
of the human soul. The Christian concept of the resurrection led to the building of large
cathedrals and churches (Dauben 146). In 1711, Sir Christopher Wren completed
building St. Paul’s Cathedral (Maor 182). The Gothic cathedral provided visitors with the
illusion that they could reach infinite heights. William Wordsworth referred to the Gothic
cathedral’s “spires whose silent finger points to heaven” (qtd. in Maor 181).
Throughout history, people have wondered whether the universe is finite. Edmond
Halley once stated, “… I have heard urged that if the number of Fixed Stars were more
than finite, the whole superficies of their apparent Sphere would be luminous …” (qtd. in
Maor 204). Many people have wondered whether the universe has an outer boundary.
Albert Einstein said, “We never cease to stand like curious children before the great
Mystery into which we are born” (qtd. in Maor 185). The early Greeks transformed
astronomy into a science. Early astronomical models placed the earth at the center of the
universe. Aristotle’s model was complex, consisting of 56 spheres which surrounded the
earth. Democritus first suggested that the Milky Way could be a large collection of stars,
Batchelor 53
not a continuous band of light. Hipparchus developed the science of trigonometry, which
he used to calculate the distance between the earth and the moon. In the Almagest,
Ptolemy asserted that the earth was located at the universe’s center. The Roman Catholic
Church officially accepted this theory (Dunham, Genius 106). Many astronomers were
afraid to publicize their theories because they were afraid of how the Catholic Church
might react to them. Giordano Bruno was killed in 1600 after he insisted that the universe
is infinite (Maor 198). Galileo Galilei was under house arrest for the last years of his life,
and the Catholic Church forced him to recant his theory (Maor 200). In 1600, William
Gilbert stated, “How immeasurable then must be the space which stretches to those
remotest of the fixed stars! How vast and immense the depth of that imaginary sphere!
How far removed from the earth must the most widely separated stars be and at a distance
transcending all sight, all skill and thought!” (qtd. in Maor 190). Nicolaus of Cusa
believed that the universe was infinite and did not have a center. He was fascinated with
In 1473, Nicolaus Copernicus was born in Poland (Maor 192). He began his study
canon of the church of Frauenburg. Copernicus believed that the sun was located at the
universe’s center, and the planets revolved around the sun. His fourth proposition stated,
“The heavens are immense in comparison with the earth.” Copernicus was afraid to
publish his work, apparently fearing the reaction of the Catholic Church. In 1610, Galileo
Galilei discovered four moons of Jupiter. He discovered that Venus exhibited phases
similar to those of the moon. This served as evidence that Venus orbited the sun, not the
earth. Galileo stated, “The book of Nature is … written in mathematical characters” (qtd.
Batchelor 54
in Laubenbacher 101). Kepler stated his three laws of planetary motion. These laws
describe the motion of the planets around the sun. The Cosmological Principle states that
the universe is isotropic and homogeneous. This means that the basic laws of physics are
of many galaxies. He identified Cepheid variables, which are stars that can be used to
determine a galaxy’s distance from the earth. Lucretius stated, “The universe is not
bounded in any direction. If it were, it would necessarily have a limit somewhere. But
clearly a thing cannot have a limit unless there is something outside to limit it … In all
dimensions alike, on this side or that, upward or downward through the universe, there is
no end” (qtd. in Maor 216). Based on Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity, it
appears that the universe is finite but unbounded (Laubenbacher 16). Since the discovery
of subatomic particles, scientists have searched for the ultimate particle from which all
matter is created. The question of whether there really is an ultimate particle represents
an important unsolved scientific problem. People have often wondered if intelligent life
exists somewhere else in the universe. Scientists have used radio telescopes to search for
intelligent messages from other solar systems (Maor 229). A child once asked Einstein
how long the earth will exist. Einstein replied, “There has been an earth for a little more
than a billion years. As for the question of the end of it I advise: Wait and see” (qtd. in
Maor 182).
Batchelor 55
Maurits Cornelis Escher was born in Leeuwarden, Holland in 1898. He began his
artistic career as a landscape painter. Escher painted many pictures of small Italian and
Spanish towns. Later in his career, his art depicted mathematical concepts such as
infinity, reflections, and inversions. M.C. Escher’s depictions of infinity fall into three
main categories: limits, endless cycles, and regular divisions of a plane. Escher’s pictures
were not always consistent with scientific laws. He stated, “I cannot help mocking our
unwavering certainties. It is, for example, great fun deliberately to confuse two and three
dimensions, the plane and space, or to poke fun at gravity” (qtd. in Maor 166). Escher did
not usually depict abstract images. His paintings depicted objects such as horses, people,
and ants. He stated, “The Moors were masters in the filling of a surface with congruent
figures … What a pity it was that Islam forbade the making of images. In their
find this restriction all the more unacceptable because it is the recognizability of the
components of my own patterns that is the reason for my never-ceasing interest in this
domain” (qtd. in Maor 168). Escher’s pictures displayed a great deal of symmetry
rotations. His pictures represent at least 13 of the 17 symmetry groups of the plane.
Escher made the following statement about the relationship between mathematics and art:
“By keenly confronting the enigmas that surround us, and by considering and analyzing
the observations that I had made, I ended up in the domain of mathematics. Although I
am absolutely without training in the exact sciences, I often seem to have more in
Several other artists depicted infinity through their art. Max Bill created a
sculpture of a Möbius strip, which he called Endless Ribbon. He did not realize that the
Möbius strip had already been discovered. When he learned this, he stated, “Sometime
later I was informed that my creation, which I thought I had discovered or invented, was
only an artistic interpretation of the so-called Möbius strip, and theoretically identical to
it … I was shocked by the fact that I was not the first one to discover this object. I
therefore stopped all further research in this direction for a while” (qtd. in Maor 140).
One can use mirrors to produce infinitely repeating images. Sir David Brewster, a
Scottish physicist, invented the kaleidoscope in 1816. In a kaleidoscope, the tube contains
two mirrors, which are usually placed 60 degrees apart. If four mirrors are placed to form
a square, the images will tile the plane with squares. When artists fill a plane with a
repeating design, they can use three kinds of transformations: rotations, reflections, and
translations. The ornamental band is the simplest infinite pattern. It consists of infinite
algebra that involves analyzing infinite patterns (Laubenbacher 254). Johann Sebastian
Bach’s music showed that the composer had a great deal of mathematical talent. His
music displayed a tremendous amount of symmetry. Joan Miró, a Spanish artist, depicted
an endless void in his work, Towards the Infinite. Leonardo da Vinci was an expert in the
art of perspective. An artist using this technique tries to depict what a viewer’s eye would
figures that do not change under a projection. A projection is the collection of light rays
that come from an object and converge at the viewer’s eye. The properties of parallel
Batchelor 57
lines change under a projection. In projective geometry, parallel lines are defined to meet
generalization that any two lines in a plane meet at exactly one point. Every family of
parallel lines must have a unique point where all of the lines intersect. The line at infinity
consists of the collection of all points at infinity (Maor 109). The following principle is
Principle of Duality. Every true statement regarding the mutual relationship among lines
and points will remain true if the words line and point are interchanged everywhere in
Artists apply projective geometry when they depict visual scenes in their pictures.
Several significant paradoxes and antinomies are related to the study of the
mathematician, first described this paradox in 1902 (Miller 1). Some sets belong to
themselves. For example, let N denote the set of all objects whose descriptions do not
include the last letter of the alphabet. Since the description of set N does not include the
letter z, the set N belongs to itself. Next, let P denote the collection of all sets that do not
contain themselves as elements. Consider the question of whether the set P belongs to
itself. Suppose that P belongs to itself. This contradicts that definition of the set P.
Suppose that P does not belong to itself. Then the set P must belong to itself, since P
Batchelor 58
contains every set that does not contain itself as an element. This is a contradiction. This
logical paradox is called Russell’s Paradox, and many mathematicians refer to it as the
mathematics. He studied mathematics at the University of Prague. His most famous work
is a book called Paradoxes of the Infinite. He argued that the best way to approach the
infinite is to use a mathematical approach (Dauben 124). He stated that infinite sets are
not all equal in terms of their multiplicity. One infinite set can be a portion of another
infinite set. In other words, some infinite sets are larger than others. Consider the ray
ACDB , where AC, CD, and DB represent finite, positive lengths of line segments. The
ray with endpoint D in the direction of B has infinite length. The ray with endpoint C in
the direction of B also has infinite length, but it can be thought of as having a length that
is greater by the length of the segment CD . The line ACDB , which extends infinitely in
both directions, can be considered even larger, by the length of the ray with endpoint C in
the direction of A; this ray also has infinite length (Laubenbacher 72). There are several
indeterminate concepts, which do not have distinct values. The only way to evaluate
them is to use limits. The most well known indeterminate concepts are ∞/∞, 0/0, ∞*0, 00,
The paradox of the universal set is an important paradox related to the study of
infinity. Let U denote the set of all sets. Since U contains every set, one cannot enlarge it.
Cantor’s Theorem asserts that U < P[U] . Therefore, P[U] contains more elements than U.
formalize the system of axioms of set theory (Dunham, Genius 281). Zeno was a
Batchelor 59
particularly noteworthy paradox. Suppose that a runner wishes to travel from one location
to another location. The runner must first travel half of the distance between the
locations. Then, she/he must run half of the distance that remains. This process repeats
itself infinitely, so the runner must take infinitely many steps in order to reach her/his
destination. Therefore, Zeno claimed that the runner would never travel the complete
distance to the destination. This represented a paradox, since one can demonstrate that a
runner can cover a finite distance in a finite amount of time. One can represent the
runner’s paradox using the infinite sum, 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 + (Maor 4). This
limit of this sum is 1 as the number of terms approaches infinity. The Gabriel’s Horn
hyperbola. Consider the graph of this function for x 1. If one revolves this graph about
the x-axis, the result is a figure called a hyperboloid of revolution. This solid has an
infinite surface area. However, the volume of the solid is finite (Maor 85). Now suppose
that someone states, “I am lying.” The question of whether or not she/he is telling the
1). Goldbach’s Conjecture states that one can express every even number greater than 2
as the sum of two prime numbers (Dunham, Genius 82). While mathematicians have
never succeeded in proving this conjecture, no one has disproved it. Mathematicians have
used modern computers to aid in their work with Goldbach’s Conjecture, but they have
still been unable to prove it (Lam 2). The question of the infinitude of twin primes is
Batchelor 60
another significant unsolved problem. Twin primes are consecutive prime numbers that
Mathematicians know that there exist an infinite number of prime numbers, but no one
has proved that there are an infinite number of pairs of twin primes. The numbers
1,159,142,985 * 22304 1 represent a pair of 703-digit twin primes (Maor 23). Euclid
proved that every number with the form, 2n(1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + + 2n) is a perfect
number. Mathematicians are not certain whether there are any perfect numbers besides
those that are represented by Euclid’s formula. Euler showed that every even perfect
number must be of the form that Euclid specified. However, no one has proven that odd
perfect numbers must have this form or that such numbers do not exist (Dunham, Genius
82).
Mathematicians have not been able to prove whether there are any odd perfect
numbers. If there is an odd perfect number, it must contain at least eight different prime
factors. In addition, the smallest odd perfect number must exceed 10300 (Dunham, Master
15). While mathematicians doubt whether any odd perfect numbers exist, they have been
unable to prove that they cannot exist. J.J. Sylvester strongly doubted the existence of
odd perfect numbers. He stated, “… a prolonged meditation on the subject has satisfied
me that the existence of any one such – its escape, so to say, from the complex web of
conditions which hem it in on all sides – would be little short of a miracle” (qtd. in
Dunham, Master 16). The symbol γ is used to denote Euler’s constant, which has an
approximate value of 0.5772156649 (Savard 1). The Nth partial sum of the harmonic
series always has a value between ln(N) and 1 + ln(N), where ln(N) denotes the natural
Afterword.
Infinity is a truly fascinating concept. The study of infinity has grown and evolved
since the early Greeks first studied it in a formal setting. Mathematicians have persevered
in the study of infinity despite objections from other mathematicians and the Catholic
Church. Euclid, Euler, Cantor, and Gauss made major contributions to the study of the
infinite. The concepts of cardinal numbers and one-to-one correspondence have been
important tools in the formal study of infinity. The study of infinite sets has led to some
interesting questions about topics such as amicable and perfect numbers and non-
more rigorous definitions and systems of axioms. Many unsolved problems remain, such
as Goldbach’s Conjecture, the infinitude of twin primes, and the search for an odd perfect
number (Lam 3). Mathematicians continue to make new discoveries about the infinite,
such as Andrew Wiles’s 1993 proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem (Laubenbacher 156).
I have learned a great deal about the nature of infinite sets. I particularly liked the parts
about set theory, logic and reasoning, and the unsolved problems. In addition, I have been
fascinated with the information about how infinity relates to art, astronomy, and religion.
I am an amateur astronomy enthusiast, and I enjoy studying the major theories of the
universe. M.C. Escher’s drawings of infinite patterns were fun to view. I am confident
that mathematicians will continue to make major discoveries related to infinity during the
coming years, and I look forward to hearing about these discoveries. I hope to complete
John H. Batchelor
Batchelor 63
Appendices.
332 B.C. – Alexander the Great established the city of Alexandria in Egypt.
1507 – Copernicus returned to Poland and became canon of the church at Frauenburg.
1569 – Gerhardus Mercator published his map, which represents the earth using a
rectangular grid.
1600 – Giordano Bruno was killed after he insisted that the universe is infinite.
1638 – Galileo discovered that the number of perfect squares equals the number of
natural numbers. Since not every natural number is a perfect square, this
1729 – Goldbach informed Euler of Fermat’s conjecture that every number of the form,
n
22 + 1, is prime.
1737 – Euler studied the sum of the reciprocals of the prime numbers. He proved that the
series diverges.
Batchelor 64
1747 – Euler stated, “Whether … there are any odd perfect numbers is a most difficult
question.”
1752 – Euler discovered that simple polyhedrons must satisfy the equation V-E+F=2,
1755 – Immanuel Kant, a philosopher, suggested that the universe is composed of many
galaxies.
1772 – Euler wrote to Daniel Bernoulli and stated that he had proved that 231–1 is prime.
1774 – Euler completed a paper called On a Table of Prime Numbers Up to a Million and
Beyond.
1775 – Euler studied series consisting of reciprocals of odd prime numbers, with positive
signs preceding 4k-1 primes and negative signs before 4k+1 primes. The series
1796 – Gauss showed that a straightedge and compass could be used to construct a
1831 – Gauss told Schumacher that he did not believe in the actual infinite.
Batchelor 65
1837 – Peter Gustav Lejeune-Dirichlet proved that every arithmetic progression with the
1851 – Joseph Liouville proved a theorem stating that every interval of real numbers
1868 – Eugenio Beltrami proved that non-Euclidean geometry is just as logically valid as
Euclidean geometry.
1874 – Cantor showed that most real numbers are transcendental numbers.
1874 – Cantor showed that no interval of real numbers can be placed in a one-to-one
1874 – Cantor proved the existence of infinite sets that have different and distinct
magnitudes.
1877 – Cantor discovered that a one-to-one correspondence exists between the square and
1878 – Cantor proved that one could restrict the analysis of continuity to the domain of
1879 – Cantor published the first of a group of six papers about infinite linear sets of
points.
Batchelor 66
1879 – Paul du Bois-Reymond stated that he preferred the term pantachisch instead of
everywhere-dense.
1880 – Cantor published a short paper about transfinite symbols and derived sets.
1883 – Cantor published a paper about set theory developed to address the mathematical
1884 – Cantor told Mittag-Leffler that the Continuum Hypothesis was a complete failure.
1885 – Gösta Mittag-Leffler wrote to Cantor, cautioning him against publishing his new
work.
1886 – Constantin Gutberlet stated that he feared that mathematical infinity could
1888 – J.J. Sylvester stated that he was skeptical about the existence of an odd perfect
number.
1888 – Cantor wrote to Jeiler and expressed confidence in the theory of transfinite
numbers.
1891 – Cantor wrote a paper entitled On an Elementary Question in the Theory of Sets.
1894 – Cantor told Charles Hermite, a French mathematician, that he was glad to have
1896 – Jacques Hadamard and de la Vallée Poussin proved the Prime Number Theorem.
1896 – Cantor told Esser, “From me, Christian philosophy will be offered for the first
1910 – Bertrand Russell stated, “The solution of the difficulties which formerly
1919 – Einstein’s theory of general relativity passed an important test in which scientists
photographed a region of the sky before and after a total solar eclipse.
1963 – Paul Cohen showed that the Axiom of Choice is independent of the other set
theory axioms.
1963 – Kurt Gödel and Paul Cohen showed that the Continuum Hypothesis is
Proof. The method of proof by contradiction will be used. Suppose that 2 is a rational
number. Then, one can express 2 as the quotient of two integers, denoted a and b:
2 = a/b.
Squaring both sides of the equation, we obtain the result, 2 = (a2)/(b2). Multiplying both
sides by b2, we obtain the result, 2b2 = a2. This can be expressed as
a2 = 2b2.
The variables a and b represent integers, as stated above. Therefore, a and b can be
decomposed into their prime factors in only one way. Now let a = c1c2c3cm, and
(c1c2c3cm)2 = 2(d1d2d3dn)2.
c1c1c2c2c3c3cmcm = 2d1d1d2d2d3d3dndn.
It is possible that the prime number 2 will occur among the prime numbers ci and di. This
will happen if a or b is even. Suppose that the number 2 occurs among these prime
numbers. In this case, the number 2 will occur an even number of times on the equation’s
left side. This is true because each of the prime numbers on the left side occurs twice.
The number 2 will appear an odd number of times on the equation’s right side. This is
true because the number 2 already occurs once on the right side, in addition to the
numbers represented by the di variables. Suppose that the number 2 does not occur
among the prime numbers ci or di. Then, the number 2 will not occur on the equation’s
left side, and it will appear one time on the equation’s right side. In all cases, the prime
Batchelor 69
number 2 occurs an even number of times on the equation’s left side and an odd number
of times on the equation’s right side. However, the prime number 2 must appear the same
number of times on both sides of the equation, due to the unique decomposition into
prime numbers. This is a contradiction. The initial assumption that 2 is rational is false.
Works Cited
Cohen, Paul. Set Theory and the Continuum Hypothesis. New York: W.A. Benjamin,
Dauben, Joseph. Georg Cantor: His Mathematics and Philosophy of the Infinite.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979. 32, 34-35, 37, 39, 41, 45, 51, 55, 78-80,
84, 89, 93, 107, 122, 124, 130, 132, 136-139, 141-143, 146-147, 172-174, 253, 262,
269.
Association of America, 1999. 1-5, 7, 13, 15-16, 47, 61, 63, 65, 67, 70, 77.
Dunham, William. Journey through Genius: The Great Theorems of Mathematics. New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 1990. 24, 28-32, 35, 37-38, 51, 53, 56-57, 73, 77, 82, 91,
106, 159, 194, 229, 239-240, 242-243, 248-255, 259, 263, 268, 270, 273, 277,
280-283.
Euler, Leonhard. Elements of Algebra. Trans. Rev. John Hewlett. New York:
Golba, Paul. “Cantor, Georg (1845-1918).” 2000. Seton Hall University. 20 Jul. 2002.
<http://www.shu.edu/projects/reals/history/cantor.html>. 1-2.
Hartshorne, Robin. Geometry: Euclid and Beyond. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000. 8,
and Mathematical Physics. Number 30. New York: Stechert-Hafner Service Agency,
1-3.
by the Explorers. New York: Springer, 1999. 3, 13, 16, 24, 26, 52-55, 57-58, 62-64,
67, 71-72, 74-76, 84, 86, 99, 101, 141, 156, 159-160, 164, 173-174, 185, 216, 254.
Maor, Eli. To Infinity and Beyond: A Cultural History of the Infinite. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1991. 2-5, 8-9, 12, 16, 23, 26, 28-29, 31, 35, 44, 46, 51-53,
55, 57, 59-60, 63-65, 85, 88, 90, 98-99, 103-104, 109, 112, 119, 121, 123, 125,
130-131, 133, 140, 164, 166, 168, 179, 181-182, 185, 190, 192, 198, 200, 204,
<http://www.u.arizona.edu/~miller/finalreport/node4.html>. 1-2.
Savard, John. “Euler’s Constant.” 2002. Edmonton Community Network. 20 Jul. 2002.
<http://members.shaw.ca/quadibloc/math/eulint.htm>. 1-2.