Bolivia

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This article is about the South American country. For other uses, see Bolivia (disambiguation).

Coordinates: 16°42′43″S 64°39′58″W16.712°S 64.666°W

Plurinational State of Bolivia

Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (Spanish)

Tetã Hetãvoregua Mborivia (Guarani)
Puliwya Mamallaqta (Quechua)
Wuliwya Suyu (Aymara)

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto: "La Unión es la Fuerza" (Spanish)

"Unity is Strength"[1]

Anthem: "Himno Nacional de Bolivia" (Spanish)

Menu
0:00
 Location of Bolivia (dark green)
in South America (grey)

Sucre (constitutional)
Capital
La Paz (seat of government)

Santa Cruz de la Sierra

Largest city 17°48′S 63°10′W17.800°S

63.167°W

Spanish and
Official languages[2] 36 indigenous languages[show]


 68% Mestizo
Ethnic groups  20% Indigenous Bolivians
(2018 )
[3]
 5% White
 1% Black
  4% Other
 2% Unspecified

Demonym(s) Bolivian

Unitary presidential
Government
constitutional republic

• President Evo Morales

• Vice President Álvaro García Linera

Plurinational Legislative
Legislature
Assembly

• Upper house Senate

• Lower house Chamber of Deputies

Independence
from Spain

• Declared August 6, 1825

• Recognized July 21, 1847

• Admitted to the United

November 14, 1945
Nations

• Current constitution February 7, 2009

Area

1,098,581 km2 (424,164 sq mi)

• Total
(27th)

• Water (%) 1.29

Population

• 2019 estimate 11,428,245 (2019)[4] (83rd)

• Density 10.4/km2 (26.9/sq mi) (224th)

 GDP (PPP) 2019 estimate

• Total $95.088 billion[4] (92nd)

• Per capita $8,320[4] (125th)

GDP (nominal) 2019 estimate

• Total $45.045 billion[4] (95th)

• Per capita $3,942[4] (122th)

44.6[5]
Gini (2016)
medium

0.693[6]
HDI (2017)
medium · 118th

Currency Boliviano (BOB)

Time zone UTC−4 (BOT)

Driving side right

Calling code +591

ISO 3166 code BO

Internet TLD .bo

a. ^ While Sucre is the constitutional capital, La Paz is the

seat of the government as member of the UCCI and the de
facto capital. See below.

Bolivia (/bəˈlɪviə/ ( listen), Spanish: [boˈliβja]; Guarani: Mborivia [ᵐboˈɾiʋja]; Quechua: Puliwya
[pʊlɪwja]; Aymara: Wuliwya [wʊlɪwja]), officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia (Spanish:
Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia [esˈtaðo pluɾinasjoˈnal de βoˈliβja])[7][8] is a landlocked country
located in western-central South America. The capital is Sucre while the seat of government and
financial center is located in La Paz. The largest city and principal industrial center is Santa Cruz
de la Sierra, located on the Llanos Orientales (tropical lowlands) a mostly flat region in the east
of Bolivia.

The sovereign state of Bolivia is a constitutionally unitary state, divided into nine departments.
Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands, situated
within the Amazon Basin. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by
Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru.
One-third of the country is within the Andean mountain range. With 1,098,581 km2
(424,164 sq mi) of area, Bolivia is the fifth largest country in South America, the 27th largest in
the world and the largest landlocked country in the Southern Hemisphere.

The country's population, estimated at 11 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians,

Mestizos, Europeans, Asians and Africans. The racial and social segregation that arose from
Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern era. Spanish is the official and predominant
language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most
commonly spoken are Guarani, Aymara and Quechua languages.

Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire, while
the northern and eastern lowlands were inhabited by independent tribes. Spanish conquistadors
arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During the
Spanish colonial period Bolivia was administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas. Spain built
its empire in large part upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivia's mines. After the first call
for independence in 1809, 16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic,
named for Simón Bolívar. Over the course of the 19th and early 20th century Bolivia lost control
of several peripheral territories to neighboring countries including the seizure of its coastline by
Chile in 1879. Bolivia remained relatively politically stable until 1971, when Hugo Banzer led a
coup d'état which replaced the socialist government of Juan José Torres with a military
dictatorship headed by Banzer; Torres was murdered in Buenos Aires, Argentina by a right-wing
death squad in 1976. Banzer's regime cracked down on leftist and socialist opposition and other
forms of dissent, resulting in the torture and deaths of a number of Bolivian citizens. Banzer was
ousted in 1978 and later returned as the democratically elected president of Bolivia from 1997 to
2001.

Modern Bolivia is a charter member of the UN, IMF, NAM, OAS, ACTO, Bank of the South,
ALBA and USAN. For over a decade Bolivia has had[when?] one of the highest economic growth
rates in Latin America; however, it remains the second poorest country in South America.[9] It is
a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index, a poverty level
of 38.6%,[10] and one of the lowest crime rates in Latin America.[citation needed] Its main economic
activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing goods such as textiles,
clothing, refined metals, and refined petroleum. Bolivia is very rich in minerals, including tin,
silver, and lithium.

Contents
 1 Etymology
 2 History
o 2.1 Pre-colonial
o 2.2 Colonial period
o 2.3 Independence and subsequent wars
o 2.4 Early 20th century
o 2.5 Late 20th century
o 2.6 Democratic transition
  2.6.1 1997-2002 General Banzer Presidency
 2.6.2 2005 Morales Presidency and re-nationalization of petroleum assets
 3 Geography
o 3.1 Geology
o 3.2 Climate
o 3.3 Issues with climate change
o 3.4 Biodiversity
 4 Politics and government
o 4.1 Capital
o 4.2 Law and crime
o 4.3 Foreign relations
o 4.4 Military
 5 Administrative divisions
 6 Economy
o 6.1 Foreign-exchange reserves
 7 Transport
o 7.1 Air traffic
o 7.2 Railways
o 7.3 Technology
o 7.4 Water supply and sanitation
 8 Demographics
o 8.1 Genetics
o 8.2 Ethnic and racial classifications
 8.2.1 Indigenous peoples
o 8.3 Language
o 8.4 Religion
o 8.5 Largest cities and towns
 9 Culture
 10 Education
 11 Health
 12 Sports
 13 See also
 14 References
 15 Bibliography
 16 External links

Etymology[edit]
Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a Venezuelan leader in the Spanish American wars of
independence.[11] The leader of Venezuela, Antonio José de Sucre, had been given the option by
Bolívar to either unite Charcas (present-day Bolivia) with the newly formed Republic of Peru, to
unite with the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, or to formally declare its independence from
Spain as a wholly independent state. Sucre opted to create a brand new state and on 6 August
1825, with local support, named it in honor of Simón Bolívar.[12]
The original name was Republic of Bolívar. Some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz
proposed: "If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia" (Spanish: Si de
Rómulo Roma, de Bolívar Bolivia). The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October
1825.[13] In 2009, a new constitution changed the country's official name to "Plurinational State of
Bolivia" in recognition of the multi-ethnic nature of the country and the enhanced position of
Bolivia's indigenous peoples under the new constitution.[13]

History[edit]
Main article: History of Bolivia

Pre-colonial[edit]

Puerta del Sol, Archaeological Zone of Tiwanaku, Bolivia

Tiwanaku at its largest territorial extent, AD 950

The region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara
arrived. However, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the
Tiwanaku culture which had its capital at Tiwanaku, in Western Bolivia. The capital city of
Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village.[14]
The community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800, becoming an important
regional power in the southern Andes. According to early estimates,[when?] the city covered
approximately 6.5 square kilometers (2.5 square miles) at its maximum extent and had between
15,000 and 30,000 inhabitants.[15] In 1996 satellite imaging was used to map the extent of
fossilized suka kollus (flooded raised fields) across the three primary valleys of Tiwanaku,
arriving at population-carrying capacity estimates of anywhere between 285,000 and 1,482,000
people.[16]

Around AD 400, Tiwanaku went from being a locally dominant force to a predatory state.
Tiwanaku expanded its reaches into the Yungas and brought its culture and way of life to many
other cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. Tiwanaku was not a violent culture in many respects.
In order to expand its reach, Tiwanaku exercised great political astuteness, creating colonies,
fostering trade agreements (which made the other cultures rather dependent), and instituting state
cults.[17]

The empire continued to grow with no end in sight. William H. Isbell states "Tiahuanaco
underwent a dramatic transformation between AD 600 and 700 that established new monumental
standards for civic architecture and greatly increased the resident population."[18] Tiwanaku
continued to absorb cultures rather than eradicate them. Archaeologists note a dramatic adoption
of Tiwanaku ceramics into the cultures which became part of the Tiwanaku empire. Tiwanaku's
power was further solidified through the trade it implemented among the cities within its
empire.[17]

Tiwanaku's elites gained their status through the surplus food they controlled, collected from
outlying regions and then redistributed to the general populace. Further, this elite's control of
llama herds became a powerful control mechanism as llamas were essential for carrying goods
between the civic centre and the periphery. These herds also came to symbolize class distinctions
between the commoners and the elites. Through this control and manipulation of surplus
resources, the elite's power continued to grow until about AD 950. At this time a dramatic shift
in climate occurred,[19][page needed] causing a significant drop in precipitation in the Titicaca Basin,
believed by archaeologists to have been on the scale of a major drought.

As the rainfall decreased, many of the cities farther away from Lake Titicaca began to tender
fewer foodstuffs to the elites. As the surplus of food decreased, and thus the amount available to
underpin their power, the control of the elites began to falter. The capital city became the last
place viable for food production due to the resiliency of the raised field method of agriculture.
Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000 because food production, the main source of the elites'
power, dried up. The area remained uninhabited for centuries thereafter.[19]
Inca Expansion (1438–1533)

Between 1438 and 1527, the Inca empire, during its expansion from its capital at Cuzco, Peru. It
gained control over much of what is now Andean Bolivia and extended its control into the
fringes of the Amazon basin.

Colonial period[edit]

The Spanish conquest of the Inca empire began in 1524, and was mostly completed by 1533. The
territory now called Bolivia was known as Charcas, and was under the authority of the Viceroy
of Lima. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La
Plata—modern Sucre). Founded in 1545 as a mining town, Potosí soon produced fabulous
wealth, becoming the largest city in the New World with a population exceeding 150,000
people.[20]

By the late 16th century, Bolivian silver was an important source of revenue for the Spanish
Empire.[21] A steady stream of natives served as labor force under the brutal, slave conditions of
the Spanish version of the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita.[22] Charcas was transferred
to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 and the people from Buenos Aires, the capital of
the Viceroyalty, coined the term "Upper Peru" (Spanish: Alto Perú) as a popular reference to the
Royal Audiencia of Charcas. Túpac Katari led the indigenous rebellion that laid siege to La Paz
in March 1781,[23] during which 20,000 people died.[24] As Spanish royal authority weakened
during the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew.

Independence and subsequent wars[edit]

Main article: History of Bolivia (1809–1920)

The struggle for independence started in the city of Sucre on 25 May 1809 and the Chuquisaca
Revolution (Chuquisaca was then the name of the city) is known as the first cry of Freedom in
Latin America. That revolution was followed by the La Paz revolution on 16 July 1809. The La
Paz revolution marked a complete split with the Spanish government, while the Chuquisaca
Revolution established a local independent junta in the name of the Spanish King deposed by
Napoleon Bonaparte. Both revolutions were short-lived and defeated by the Spanish authorities
in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata, but the following year the Spanish American wars of
independence raged across the continent.

Bolivia was captured and recaptured many times during the war by the royalists and patriots.
Buenos Aires sent three military campaigns, all of which were defeated, and eventually limited
itself to protecting the national borders at Salta. Bolivia was finally freed of Royalist dominion
by Marshal Antonio José de Sucre, with a military campaign coming from the North in support
of the campaign of Simón Bolívar. After 16 years of war the Republic was proclaimed on 6
August 1825.

The first coat of arms of Bolivia, formerly named the Republic of Bolívar in honor of Simón
Bolívar

In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, invaded Peru to reinstall the
deposed president, General Luis José de Orbegoso. Peru and Bolivia formed the Peru-Bolivian
Confederation, with de Santa Cruz as the Supreme Protector. Following tension between the
Confederation and Chile, Chile declared war on 28 December 1836. Argentina separately
declared war on the Confederation on 9 May 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved
several major victories during the War of the Confederation: the defeat of the Argentine
expedition and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition on the fields of Paucarpata near the city
of Arequipa.
At the outset of the war, the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army surrendered unconditionally and
signed the Paucarpata Treaty. The treaty stipulated that Chile would withdraw from Peru-
Bolivia, Chile would return captured Confederate ships, economic relations would be
normalized, and the Confederation would pay Peruvian debt to Chile. In Chile, the government
and public rejected the peace treaty. Chile organized a second attack on the Confederation and
defeated it in the Battle of Yungay. After this defeat, Santa Cruz resigned and went to exile in
Ecuador and then Paris, and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved.

Following the renewed independence of Peru, Peruvian president General Agustín Gamarra
invaded Bolivia. The Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the Battle of Ingavi on 20
November 1841 where Gamarra was killed. The Bolivian army under General José Ballivián
then mounted a counter-offensive, capturing the Peruvian port of Arica. Later, both sides signed
a peace treaty in 1842, putting a final end to the war. The estimated population of the main three
cities in 1843 was La Paz 300,000, Cochabamba 250,000 and Potosi 200,000.[25]

A period of political and economic instability in the early-to-mid-19th century weakened

Bolivia. In addition, during the War of the Pacific (1879–83), Chile occupied vast territories rich
in natural resources south west of Bolivia, including the Bolivian coast. Chile took control of
today's Chuquicamata area, the adjoining rich salitre (saltpeter) fields, and the port of
Antofagasta among other Bolivian territories.

Thus, since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries.[26] It
also lost the state of Acre, in the Acre War, important because this region was known for its
production of rubber. Peasants and the Bolivian army fought briefly but after a few victories, and
facing the prospect of a total war against Brazil, it was forced to sign the Treaty of Petrópolis in
1903, in which Bolivia lost this rich territory. Popular myth has it that Bolivian president
Mariano Melgarejo (1864–71) traded the land for what he called "a magnificent white horse" and
Acre was subsequently flooded by Brazilians, which ultimately led to confrontation and fear of
war with Brazil.[citation needed] In the late 19th century, an increase in the world price of silver brought
Bolivia relative prosperity and political stability.

Early 20th century[edit]

Main article: History of Bolivia (1920–64)

Bolivia's territorial losses (1867–1938)

During the early 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country's most important source of
wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed
laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first 30 years of the 20th century.[27]

Living conditions of the native people, who constitute most of the population, remained
deplorable. With work opportunities limited to primitive conditions in the mines and in large
estates having nearly feudal status, they had no access to education, economic opportunity, and
political participation. Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932–35), where Bolivia
lost a great part of the Gran Chaco region in dispute, marked a turning-point.[28][29][30]

The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR), the most historic political party, emerged as a
broad-based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led a
successful revolution in 1952. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR, having strong
popular pressure, introduced universal suffrage into his political platform and carried out a
sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country's largest tin
mines.

Late 20th century[edit]

Main article: History of Bolivia (1964–82)

Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military junta overthrew
President Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President René Barrientos
Ortuño, a former member of the junta who was elected president in 1966, led to a succession of
weak governments. Alarmed by the rising Popular Assembly and the increase in the popularity
of President Juan José Torres, the military, the MNR, and others installed Colonel (later General)
Hugo Banzer Suárez as president in 1971. He returned to the presidency in 1997 through 2001.

The United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had been active in providing finances and
training to the Bolivian military dictatorship in the 1960s. The revolutionary leader Che Guevara
was killed by a team of CIA officers and members of the Bolivian Army on 9 October 1967, in
Bolivia. Félix Rodríguez was a CIA officer on the team with the Bolivian Army that captured
and shot Guevara.[31] Rodriguez said that after he received a Bolivian presidential execution
order, he told "the soldier who pulled the trigger to aim carefully, to remain consistent with the
Bolivian government's story that Che had been killed in action during a clash with the Bolivian
army." Rodriguez said the US government had wanted Che in Panama, and "I could have tried to
falsify the command to the troops, and got Che to Panama as the US government said they had
wanted", but that he had chosen to "let history run its course" as desired by Bolivia.[32]

Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups d'état,
counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, General Luis García Meza Tejada carried
out a ruthless and violent coup d'état that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by
promising to remain in power only for one year. At the end of the year, he staged a televised
rally to claim popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo", or, "All right; I'll stay [in
office]."[33] After a military rebellion forced out Meza in 1981, three other military governments
in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke
the Congress, elected in 1980, and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982,
Hernán Siles Zuazo again became president, 22 years after the end of his first term of office
(1956–60).

Democratic transition[edit]

Main article: History of Bolivia (1982–present)

Former President, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada

Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The
most dramatic reform was privatization under the "capitalization" program, under which
investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public
enterprises in return for agreed upon capital investments.[34][35]

In 1993, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada ran for president in alliance with the Tupac Katari
Revolutionary Liberation Movement, which inspired indigenous-sensitive and multicultural-
aware policies.[36] In 1993, Sanchez de Lozada introduced the Plan de Todos, which led to the
decentralization of government, introduction of intercultural bilingual education, implementation
of agrarian legislation, and privatization of state owned businesses. The plan explicitly stated that
Bolivian citizens would own a minimum of 51% of enterprises; under the plan, most state-owned
enterprises (SOEs), though not mines, were sold.[37] This privatization of SOEs led to a neoliberal
structuring.[38]

The Law of Popular Participation dumped upon municipalities the responsibility of maintaining
various infrastructures (and offering services): health, education, systems of irrigation, without
support from the state.[when?][citation needed] The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly
opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent
protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from 1994 through 1996.
The indigenous population of the Andean region was not able to benefit from government
reforms.[39] During this time, the umbrella labor-organization of Bolivia, the Central Obrera
Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A
teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshal the support of many of
its members, including construction and factory workers.

1997-2002 General Banzer Presidency[edit]

In the 1997 elections, General Hugo Banzer, leader of the Nationalist Democratic Action party
(ADN) and former dictator (1971–78), won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won
18%. At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special
police-units to eradicate physically the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The MIR of Jaime Paz
Zamora remained a coalition-partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy
(called the Dignity Plan).[40] The Banzer government basically continued the free-market and
privatization-policies of its predecessor. The relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s
continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic
factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil,
lower world prices for export commodities, and reduced employment in the coca sector
depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public sector
corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of
Banzer's term.

Between January 1999 and April 2000, large-scale protests erupted in Cochabamba, Bolivia's
third largest city, in response to the privatisation of water resources by foreign companies and a
subsequent doubling of water prices. On 6 August 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being
diagnosed with cancer. He died less than a year later. Vice President Jorge Fernando Quiroga
Ramírez completed the final year of his term.

In the June 2002 national elections, former President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MNR) placed
first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca-advocate and native peasant-leader Evo Morales
(Movement Toward Socialism, MAS) with 20.9%.

Current President, Evo Morales

A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the
election by former President Jaime Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de
Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on 6 August he was sworn in for the second time. The
MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation),
anti-corruption, and social inclusion.

In 2003 the Bolivian gas conflict broke out. On 12 October 2003 the government imposed
martial law in El Alto after 16 people were shot by the police and several dozen wounded in
violent clashes. Faced with the option of resigning or more bloodshed, Sanchez de Lozada
offered his resignation in a letter to an emergency session of Congress. After his resignation was
accepted and his vice president, Carlos Mesa, invested, he left on a commercially scheduled
flight for the United States.

The country's internal situation became unfavorable for such political action on the international
stage. After a resurgence of gas protests in 2005, Carlos Mesa attempted to resign in January
2005, but his offer was refused by Congress. On 22 March 2005, after weeks of new street
protests from organizations accusing Mesa of bowing to U.S. corporate interests, Mesa again
offered his resignation to Congress, which was accepted on 10 June. The chief justice of the
Supreme Court, Eduardo Rodríguez, was sworn as interim president to succeed the outgoing
Carlos Mesa.

2005 Morales Presidency and re-nationalization of petroleum assets[edit]

Evo Morales' inauguration as President

Evo Morales won the 2005 presidential election with 53.7% of the votes, an absolute majority,
unusual in Bolivian elections. On 1 May 2006, Morales caused controversy when he announced
his intent to re-nationalize Bolivian hydrocarbon assets. Fulfilling a campaign promise, on 6
August 2006, Morales opened the Bolivian Constituent Assembly to begin writing a new
constitution aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority.[41]

In August 2007, more conflicts arose in Sucre, as the city demanded the discussion of the seat of
government inside the assembly, hoping the executive and legislative branches could return to
the city, but the assembly and the government said this demand was overwhelmingly impractical
and politically undesirable. In May 2008, Evo Morales was a signatory to the UNASUR
Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations. In the 2009 national general
elections, Evo Morales was re-elected with 64.22% of the vote. His party, Movement for
Socialism, also won a two-thirds majority in both houses of the National Congress.

Geography[edit]
Main article: Geography of Bolivia

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Copacabana, in the Bolivian side of Lake Titicaca.

Satellite image of Bolivia

Bolivian Altiplano.
Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve.

Amazon river basin seen in Pando Department, Northern Bolivia.

Bolivia is located in the central zone of South America, between 57°26'–69°38'W and 9°38'–
22°53'S. With an area of 1,098,581 square kilometres (424,164 sq mi), Bolivia is the world's
28th-largest country, and the fifth largest country in South America,[42] extending from the
Central Andes through part of the Gran Chaco, Pantanal and as far as the Amazon. The
geographic center of the country is the so-called Puerto Estrella ("Star Port") on the Río Grande,
in Ñuflo de Chávez Province, Santa Cruz Department.

The geography of the country exhibits a great variety of terrain and climates. Bolivia has a high
level of biodiversity, considered one of the greatest in the world, as well as several ecoregions
with ecological sub-units such as the Altiplano, tropical rainforests (including Amazon
rainforest), dry valleys, and the Chiquitania, which is a tropical savanna. These areas feature
enormous variations in altitude, from an elevation of 6,542 metres (21,463 ft) above sea level in
Nevado Sajama to nearly 70 metres (230 ft) along the Paraguay River. Although a country of
great geographic diversity, Bolivia has remained a landlocked country since the War of the
Pacific. Puerto Suárez, San Matías and Puerto Quijarro are located in the Bolivian Pantanal.

Bolivia can be divided into three physiographic regions:

 The Andean region in the southwest spans 28% of the national territory, extending over
307,603 square kilometres (118,766 sq mi). This area is located above 3,000 metres
(9,800 ft) altitude and is located between two big Andean chains, the Cordillera
Occidental ("Western Range") and the Cordillera Central ("Central Range"), with some
of the highest spots in the Americas such as the Nevado Sajama, with an altitude of 6,542
metres (21,463 ft), and the Illimani, at 6,462 metres (21,201 ft). Also located in the
Cordillera Central is Lake Titicaca, the highest commercially navigable lake in the world
and the largest lake in South America;[43] the lake is shared with Peru. Also in this region
are the Altiplano and the Salar de Uyuni, which is the largest salt flat in the world and an
important source of lithium.
 The Sub-Andean region in the center and south of the country is an intermediate region
between the Altiplano and the eastern llanos (plain); this region comprises 13% of the
territory of Bolivia, extending over 142,815 km2 (55,141 sq mi), and encompassing the
Bolivian valleys and the Yungas region. It is distinguished by its farming activities and
its temperate climate.
 The Llanos region in the northeast comprises 59% of the territory, with 648,163 km2
(250,257 sq mi). It is located to the north of the Cordillera Central and extends from the
 Andean foothills to the Paraguay River. It is a region of flat land and small plateaus, all
covered by extensive rain forests containing enormous biodiversity. The region is below
400 metres (1,300 ft) above sea level.

Bolivia has three drainage basins:

 The first is the Amazon Basin, also called the North Basin (724,000 km2
(280,000 sq mi)/66% of the territory). The rivers of this basin generally have big
meanders which form lakes such as Murillo Lake in Pando Department. The main
Bolivian tributary to the Amazon basin is the Mamoré River, with a length of 2,000 km
(1,200 mi) running north to the confluence with the Beni River, 1,113 km (692 mi) in
length and the second most important river of the country. The Beni River, along with the
Madeira River, forms the main tributary of the Amazon River. From east to west, the
basin is formed by other important rivers, such as the Madre de Dios River, the Orthon
River, the Abuna River, the Yata River, and the Guaporé River. The most important lakes
are Rogaguado Lake, Rogagua Lake, and Jara Lake.
 The second is the Río de la Plata Basin, also called the South Basin (229,500 km2
(88,600 sq mi)/21% of the territory). The tributaries in this basin are in general less
abundant than the ones forming the Amazon Basin. The Rio de la Plata Basin is mainly
formed by the Paraguay River, Pilcomayo River, and Bermejo River. The most important
lakes are Uberaba Lake and Mandioré Lake, both located in the Bolivian marshland.
 The third basin is the Central Basin, which is an endorheic basin (145,081 square
kilometres (56,016 sq mi)/13% of the territory). The Altiplano has large numbers of lakes
and rivers that do not run into any ocean because they are enclosed by the Andean
mountains. The most important river is the Desaguadero River, with a length of 436 km
(271 mi), the longest river of the Altiplano; it begins in Lake Titicaca and then runs in a
southeast direction to Poopó Lake. The basin is then formed by Lake Titicaca, Lake
Poopó, the Desaguadero River, and great salt flats, including the Salar de Uyuni and
Coipasa Lake.

Geology[edit]

Mean annual precipitation in Bolivia[44]

Bolivia map of Köppen climate classification.[45]

The geology of Bolivia comprises a variety of different lithologies as well as tectonic and
sedimentary environments. On a synoptic scale, geological units coincide with topographical
units. Most elementally, the country is divided into a mountainous western area affected by the
subduction processes in the Pacific and an eastern lowlands of stable platforms and shields.

Climate[edit]

Chacaltaya Ski Resort, La Paz Department

The climate of Bolivia varies drastically from one eco-region to the other, from the tropics in the
eastern llanos to a polar climate in the western Andes. The summers are warm, humid in the east
and dry in the west, with rains that often modify temperatures, humidity, winds, atmospheric
pressure and evaporation, yielding very different climates in different areas. When the
climatological phenomenon known as El Niño[46][47] takes place, it causes great alterations in the
weather. Winters are very cold in the west, and it snows in the mountain ranges, while in the
western regions, windy days are more common. The autumn is dry in the non-tropical regions.
  Llanos. A humid tropical climate with an average temperature of 25 °C (77 °F). The wind
coming from the Amazon rainforest causes significant rainfall. In May, there is low
precipitation because of dry winds, and most days have clear skies. Even so, winds from
the south, called surazos, can bring cooler temperatures lasting several days.
 Altiplano. Desert-Polar climates, with strong and cold winds. The average temperature
ranges from 15 to 20 °C. At night, temperatures descend drastically to slightly above
0 °C, while during the day, the weather is dry and solar radiation is high. Ground frosts
occur every month, and snow is frequent.
 Valleys and Yungas. Temperate climate. The humid northeastern winds are pushed to the
mountains, making this region very humid and rainy. Temperatures are cooler at higher
elevations. Snow occurs at altitudes of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft).
 Chaco. Subtropical semi-arid climate. Rainy and humid in January and the rest of the
year, with warm days and cold nights.

Issues with climate change[edit]

Bolivia is especially vulnerable to the negative consequences of climate change. Twenty percent
of the world's tropical glaciers are located within the country,[48] and are more sensitive to change
in temperature due to the tropical climate they are located in. Temperatures in the Andes increase
by 0.1 °C per decade from 1939 to 1998, and have begun to triple (0.33 °C) annually from 1980
to 2005,[49] causing glaciers to recede at an accelerated pace and create unforeseen water
shortages in Andean agricultural towns. Farmers have taken to temporary city jobs when there is
poor yield for their crops, while others have started permanently leaving the agricultural sector
and are migrating to nearby towns for other forms of work;[50] some view these migrants as the
first generation of climate refugees.[51] Cities that neighbor agricultural land, like El Alto, face the
challenge of providing services to the influx of new migrants; because there is no alternative
water source, the city's water source is now being constricted.

Bolivia's government and other agencies have acknowledged the need to instill new policies
battling the effects of climate change. The World Bank has provided funding through the
Climate Investment Funds (CIF) and are using the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR
II) to construct new irrigation systems, protect riverbanks and basins, and work on building water
resources with the help of indigenous communities.[52] Bolivia has also implemented the Bolivian
Strategy on Climate Change, which is based on taking action in these four areas:

1. Promoting clean development in Bolivia by introducing technological changes in the

agriculture, forestry, and industrial sectors, aimed to reduce GHG emissions with a
positive impact on development.
2. Contributing to carbon management in forests, wetlands and other managed natural
ecosystems.
3. Increasing effectiveness in energy supply and use to mitigate effects of GHG emissions
and risk of contingencies.
4. Focus on increased and efficient observations, and understanding of environmental
changes in Bolivia to develop effective and timely responses.[53]

Biodiversity[edit]
Bolivia, with an enormous variety of organisms and ecosystems, is part of the "Like-Minded
Megadiverse Countries".[54]

Bolivia's variable altitudes, ranging from 90–6,542 metres (295–21,463 ft) above sea level, allow
for a vast biologic diversity. The territory of Bolivia comprises four types of biomes, 32
ecological regions, and 199 ecosystems. Within this geographic area there are several natural
parks and reserves such as the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, the Madidi National Park,
the Tunari National Park, the Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve, and the Kaa-Iya
del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area, among others.

Bolivia boasts over 17,000 species of seed plants, including over 1,200 species of fern, 1,500
species of marchantiophyta and moss, and at least 800 species of fungus. In addition, there are
more than 3,000 species of medicinal plants. Bolivia is considered the place of origin for such
species as peppers and chili peppers, peanuts, the common beans, yucca, and several species of
palm. Bolivia also naturally produces over 4,000 kinds of potatoes.

Bolivia has more than 2,900 animal species, including 398 mammals, over 1,400 birds (about
14% of birds known in the world, being the sixth most diverse country in terms of bird
species)[55][unreliable source?], 204 amphibians, 277 reptiles, and 635 fish, all fresh water fish as Bolivia is
a landlocked country. In addition, there are more than 3,000 types of butterfly, and more than 60
domestic animals.

Bolivia has gained global attention for its 'Law of the Rights of Mother Earth', which accords
nature the same rights as humans.[56]

A view from the mountain in El Sauce overlooking Samaipata, Bolivia

Politics and government[edit]

Main articles: Politics of Bolivia and Foreign relations of Bolivia
The government building of the National Congress of Bolivia at the Plaza Murillo in central La
Paz

Bolivia has been governed by democratically elected governments since 1982; prior to that, it
was governed by various dictatorships. Presidents Hernán Siles Zuazo (1982–85) and Víctor Paz
Estenssoro (1985–89) began a tradition of ceding power peacefully which has continued,
although two presidents have stepped down in the face of popular protests: Gonzalo Sánchez de
Lozada in 2003 and Carlos Mesa in 2005.

Bolivia's multiparty democracy has seen a wide variety of parties in the presidency and
parliament, although the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement, Nationalist Democratic Action,
and the Revolutionary Left Movement predominated from 1985 to 2005. The current president is
Evo Morales, the first indigenous Bolivian to serve as head of state. Morales' Movement for
Socialism – Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the Peoples party was the first to win an
outright presidential majority in four decades, doing so both in 2005 and 2009.

The constitution, drafted in 2006–07 and approved in 2009, provides for balanced executive,
legislative, judicial, and electoral powers, as well as several levels of autonomy. The traditionally
strong executive branch tends to overshadow the Congress, whose role is generally limited to
debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the
Supreme Court and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and
inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government
has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system as well as increasing
decentralizing powers to departments, municipalities, and indigenous territories.

The executive branch is headed by a president and vice president, and consists of a variable
number (currently, 20) of government ministries. The president is elected to a five-year term by
popular vote, and governs from the Presidential Palace (popularly called the Burnt Palace,
Palacio Quemado) in La Paz. In the case that no candidate receives an absolute majority of the
popular vote or more than 40% of the vote with an advantage of more than 10% over the second-
place finisher, a run-off is to be held among the two candidates most voted.[57]

The Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional (Plurinational Legislative Assembly or National

Congress) has two chambers. The Cámara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies) has 130
members elected to five-year terms, seventy from single-member districts (circunscripciones),
sixty by proportional representation, and seven by the minority indigenous peoples of seven
departments. The Cámara de Senadores (Chamber of Senators) has 36 members (four per
department). Members of the Assembly are elected to five-year terms. The body has its
headquarters on the Plaza Murillo in La Paz, but also holds honorary sessions elsewhere in
Bolivia. The Vice President serves as titular head of the combined Assembly.

The Supreme Court Building in the capital of Bolivia, Sucre

The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Tribunal, the Judiciary Council,
Agrarian and Environmental Tribunal, and District (departmental) and lower courts. In October
2011, Bolivia held its first judicial elections to choose members of the national courts by popular
vote, a reform brought about by Evo Morales.

The Plurinational Electoral Organ is an independent branch of government which replaced the
National Electoral Court in 2010. The branch consists of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal, the
nine Departmental Electoral Tribunals, Electoral Judges, the anonymously selected Juries at
Election Tables, and Electoral Notaries.[58] Wilfredo Ovando presides over the seven-member
Supreme Electoral Tribunal. Its operations are mandated by the Constitution and regulated by the
Electoral Regime Law (Law 026, passed 2010). The Organ's first elections were the country's
first judicial election in October 2011, and five municipal special elections held in 2011.

Capital[edit]

Bolivia has its constitutionally recognized capital in Sucre, while La Paz is the seat of
government. La Plata (now Sucre) was proclaimed provisional capital of the newly independent
Alto Perú (later, Bolivia) on 1 July 1826.[59] On 12 July 1839, President José Miguel de Velasco
proclaimed a law naming the city as the capital of Bolivia, and renaming it in honor of the
revolutionary leader Antonio José de Sucre.[59] The Bolivian seat of government moved to La Paz
at the start of the twentieth century, as a consequence of Sucre's relative remoteness from
economic activity after the decline of Potosí and its silver industry and of the Liberal Party in the
War of 1899.

The 2009 Constitution assigns the role of national capital to Sucre, not referring to La Paz in the
text.[57] In addition to being the constitutional capital, the Supreme Court of Bolivia is located in
Sucre, making it the judicial capital. Nonetheless, the Palacio Quemado (the Presidential Palace
and seat of Bolivian executive power) is located in La Paz, as are the National Congress and
Plurinational Electoral Organ. La Paz thus continues to be the seat of government.

Law and crime[edit]

Main article: Crime in Bolivia

There are 53 prisons in Bolivia, which incarcerate around 8,700 people as of 2010. The prisons
are managed by the Penitentiary Regime Directorate (Spanish: Dirección de Régimen
Penintenciario). There are 17 prisons in departmental capital cities and 36 provincial prisons.[60]

Foreign relations[edit]

Main article: Foreign relations of Bolivia

Despite losing its maritime coast, the so-called Litoral Department, after the War of the Pacific,
Bolivia has historically maintained, as a state policy, a maritime claim to that part of Chile; the
claim asks for sovereign access to the Pacific Ocean and its maritime space. The issue has also
been presented before the Organization of American States; in 1979, the OAS passed the 426
Resolution,[61] which declared that the Bolivian problem is a hemispheric problem. On 4 April
1884, a truce was signed with Chile, whereby Chile gave facilities of access to Bolivian products
through Antofagasta, and freed the payment of export rights in the port of Arica. In October
1904, the Treaty of Peace and Friendship was signed, and Chile agreed to build a railway
between Arica and La Paz, to improve access of Bolivian products to the ports.

The Special Economical Zone for Bolivia in Ilo (ZEEBI) is a special economic area of 5
kilometres (3.1 miles) of maritime coast, and a total extension of 358 hectares (880 acres), called
Mar Bolivia ("Sea Bolivia"), where Bolivia may maintain a free port near Ilo, Peru under its
administration and operation[62][unreliable source?] for a period of 99 years starting in 1992; once that time
has passed, all the construction and territory revert to the Peruvian government. Since 1964,
Bolivia has had its own port facilities in the Bolivian Free Port in Rosario, Argentina. This port
is located on the Paraná River, which is directly connected to the Atlantic Ocean.

The dispute with Chile was taken to the International Court of Justice. The court ruled in support
of the Chilean position, and declared that although Chile may have held talks about a Bolivian
corridor to the sea, the country was not required to actually negotiate one or to surrender its
territory.[63]

Military[edit]

The Bolivian government annually spends $130 million on defence.[64] The Bolivian military
comprises three branches: Ejército (Army), Naval (Navy) and Fuerza Aérea (Air Force). The
legal age for voluntary admissions is 18; however, when numbers are small the government in
the past has recruited people as young as 14.[3] The tour of duty is generally 12 months.

The Bolivian army has around 31,500 men. There are six military regions (regiones militares—
RMs) in the army. The army is organized into ten divisions. Although it is landlocked Bolivia
keeps a navy. The Bolivian Naval Force (Fuerza Naval Boliviana in Spanish) is a naval force
about 5,000 strong in 2008.[65] The Bolivian Air Force ('Fuerza Aérea Boliviana' or 'FAB') has
nine air bases, located at La Paz, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Puerto Suárez, Tarija, Villamontes,
Cobija, Riberalta, and Roboré.
Administrative divisions[edit]
Main articles: Departments of Bolivia, Provinces of Bolivia, Municipalities of Bolivia, Cantons
of Bolivia, and Native Community Lands

Bolivia has nine departments—Pando, La Paz, Beni, Oruro, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Potosí,
Chuquisaca, Tarija.

According to what is established by the Bolivian Political Constitution, the Law of Autonomies
and Decentralization regulates de procedure for the elaboration of Statutes of Autonomy, the
transfer and distribution of direct competences between the central government and the
autonomous entities.[66]

There are four levels of decentralization: Departmental government, constituted by the

Departmental Assembly, with rights over the legislation of the department. The governor is
chosen by universal suffrage. Municipal government, constituted by a Municipal Council, with
rights over the legislation of the municipality. The mayor is chosen by universal suffrage.
Regional government, formed by several provinces or municipalities of geographical continuity
within a department. It is constituted by a Regional Assembly. Original indigenous government,
self-governance of original indigenous people on the ancient territories where they live.

No. Department Capital

1 Pando Cobija
2 La Paz La Paz
3 Beni Trinidad
4 Oruro Oruro
5 Cochabamba Cochabamba
Santa Cruz de la
6 Santa Cruz
Sierra
7 Potosí Potosí
8 Chuquisaca Sucre

9 Tarija Tarija
Territorial division of Bolivia

Economy[edit]
Main article: Economy of Bolivia
Graphical depiction of Bolivia's product exports in 28 color-coded categories

La Paz, Bolivia

Bolivia's estimated 2012 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled $27.43 billion at official
exchange rate and $56.14 billion at purchasing power parity. Despite a series of mostly political
setbacks, between 2006 and 2009 the Morales administration has spurred growth higher than at
any point in the preceding 30 years. The growth was accompanied by a moderate decrease in
inequality.[67] A surplus budget of 1.7% (GDP) was obtained by 2012, the government runs
surpluses since Morales administration reflecting a prudent economic management.

A major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a drastic fall in the price of tin during the early
1980s, which impacted one of Bolivia's main sources of income and one of its major mining
industries.[68] Since 1985, the government of Bolivia has implemented a far-reaching program of
macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating
conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating scarcity. A major reform of the customs service
has significantly improved transparency in this area. Parallel legislative reforms have locked into
place market-liberal policies, especially in the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors, that
have encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment.[69]
Young miners at work in Potosí

In April 2000, Hugo Banzer, the former president of Bolivia, signed a contract with Aguas del
Tunari, a private consortium, to operate and improve the water supply in Bolivia's third-largest
city, Cochabamba. Shortly thereafter, the company tripled the water rates in that city, an action
which resulted in protests and rioting among those who could no longer afford clean water.[70][71]
Amidst Bolivia's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the
economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract.

Bolivia has the second largest natural gas reserves in South America.[72] The government has a
long-term sales agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil through 2019. The government held a
binding referendum in 2005 on the Hydrocarbon Law.

The US Geological Service estimates that Bolivia has 5.4 million cubic tonnes of lithium, which
represent 50%–70% of world reserves. However, to mine for it would involve disturbing the
country's salt flats (called Salar de Uyuni), an important natural feature which boosts tourism in
the region. The government does not want to destroy this unique natural landscape to meet the
rising world demand for lithium.[73] On the other hand, sustainable extraction of lithium is
attempted by the government. This project is carried out by the public company "Recursos
Evaporíticos" subsidiary of COMIBOL.

Once Bolivia's government depended heavily on foreign assistance to finance development

projects and to pay the public staff. At the end of 2002, the government owed $4.5 billion to its
foreign creditors, with $1.6 billion of this amount owed to other governments and most of the
balance owed to multilateral development banks. Most payments to other governments have
been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the Paris Club mechanism. External
creditors have been willing to do this because the Bolivian government has generally achieved
the monetary and fiscal targets set by IMF programs since 1987, though economic crises have
undercut Bolivia's normally good record. However, by 2013 the foreign assistance is just a
fraction of the government budget thanks to tax collection mainly from the profitable exports to
Brazil and Argentina of natural gas.

The income from tourism has become increasingly important. Bolivia's tourist industry has
grown gradually since about 1990.

Foreign-exchange reserves[edit]
The amount in reserve currencies and gold held by Bolivia's Central Bank advanced from 1.085
billion US dollars in 2000, under Hugo Banzer Suarez's government, to 15.282 billion US dollars
in 2014 under Evo Morales' government.

Foreign-exchange reserves 2000–2014 (MM US$) [74]

Fuente: Banco Central de Bolivia, Gráfica elaborada por: Wikipedia.

Transport[edit]
Air traffic[edit]

See also: List of airlines of Bolivia and List of airports in Bolivia

Boliviana de Aviación (BoA) is a state-owned company and the country's largest airline. Two
BoA Boeing 737-300s parked at Jorge Wilstermann International Airport.

The General Directorate of Civil Aeronautics (Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil—DGAC)

formerly part of the FAB, administers a civil aeronautics school called the National Institute of
Civil Aeronautics (Instituto Nacional de Aeronáutica Civil—INAC), and two commercial air
transport services TAM and TAB.

TAM – Transporte Aéreo Militar (the Bolivian Military Airline) is an airline based in La Paz,
Bolivia. It is the civilian wing of the 'Fuerza Aérea Boliviana' (the Bolivian Air Force), operating
passenger services to remote towns and communities in the North and Northeast of Bolivia.
TAM (a.k.a. TAM Group 71) has been a part of the FAB since 1945.

A similar airline serving the Beni Department with small planes is Línea Aérea Amaszonas,[75]
using smaller planes than TAM.

Although a civil transport airline, TAB – Transportes Aéreos Bolivianos, was created as a
subsidiary company of the FAB in 1977. It is subordinate to the Air Transport Management
(Gerencia de Transportes Aéreos) and is headed by an FAB general. TAB, a charter heavy cargo
airline, links Bolivia with most countries of the Western Hemisphere; its inventory includes a
fleet of Hercules C130 aircraft. TAB is headquartered adjacent to El Alto International Airport.
TAB flies to Miami and Houston, with a stop in Panama.

The three largest, and main international airports in Bolivia are El Alto International Airport in
La Paz, Viru Viru International Airport in Santa Cruz, and Jorge Wilstermann International
Airport in Cochabamba.

Railways[edit]

See also: Rail transport in Bolivia

Railways in Bolivia (interactive map)

━━━ Routes with passenger traffic
━━━ Routes in usable state
·········· Unusable or dismantled routes

Bolivia possesses an extensive but aged rail system, all in 1000 mm gauge, consisting of two
disconnected networks.
Technology[edit]

Bolivia owns a communications satellite which was offshored/outsourced and launched by

China, named Túpac Katari 1.[76] In 2015, it was announced that electrical power advancements
include a planned $300 million nuclear reactor developed by the Russian nuclear company
Rosatom.[77]

Water supply and sanitation[edit]

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Bolivia

Bolivias's drinking water and sanitation coverage has greatly improved since 1990 due to a
considerable increase in sectoral investment. However, the country has the continent's lowest
coverage levels and services are of low quality. Political and institutional instability have
contributed to the weakening of the sector's institutions at the national and local levels.

Two concessions to foreign private companies in two of the three largest cities – Cochabamba
and La Paz/El Alto – were prematurely ended in 2000 and 2006 respectively. The country's
second largest city, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, manages its own water and sanitation system
relatively successfully by way of cooperatives. The government of Evo Morales intends to
strengthen citizen participation within the sector. Increasing coverage requires a substantial
increase of investment financing.

According to the government the main problems in the sector are low access to sanitation
throughout the country; low access to water in rural areas; insufficient and ineffective
investments; a low visibility of community service providers; a lack of respect of indigenous
customs; "technical and institutional difficulties in the design and implementation of projects"; a
lack of capacity to operate and maintain infrastructure; an institutional framework that is "not
consistent with the political change in the country"; "ambiguities in the social participation
schemes"; a reduction in the quantity and quality of water due to climate change; pollution and a
lack of integrated water resources management; and the lack of policies and programs for the
reuse of wastewater.[78]

Only 27% of the population has access to improved sanitation, 80 to 88% has access to improved
water sources. Coverage in urban areas is bigger than in rural ones.[79]

Demographics[edit]
Main article: Demographics of Bolivia
Population[80]
Year Million
1950 3.1
2000 8.3
2016 10.9
People in La Paz city centre

According to the last two censuses carried out by the Bolivian National Statistics Institute
(Instituto Nacional de Estadística, INE), the population increased from 8,274,325 (from which
4,123,850 were men and 4,150,475 were women) in 2001 to 10,027,254 in 2012.[81]

In the last fifty years the Bolivian population has tripled, reaching a population growth rate of
2.25%. The growth of the population in the inter-census periods (1950–1976 and 1976–1992)
was approximately 2.05%, while between the last period, 1992–2001, it reached 2.74% annually.

Some 62.43% of Bolivians live in urban areas, while the remaining 37.57% in rural areas. The
most part of the population (70%) is concentrated in the departments of La Paz, Santa Cruz and
Cochabamba. In the Andean Altiplano region the departments of La Paz and Oruro hold the
largest percentage of population, in the valley region the largest percentage is held by the
departments of Cochabamba and Chuquisaca, while in the Llanos region by Santa Cruz and
Beni. At national level, the population density is 8.49, with variations marked between 0.8
(Pando Department) and 26.2 (Cochabamba Department).

The largest population center is located in the so-called "central axis" and in the Llanos region.
Bolivia has a young population. According to the 2011 census, 59% of the population is between
15 and 59 years old, 39% is less than 15 years old. Almost 60% of the population is younger than
25 years of age.

Genetics[edit]

According to a genetic study done on Bolivians, average values of Native American, European
and African ancestry are 86%, 12.5%, and 1.5%, in individuals from La Paz and 76.8%, 21.4%,
and 1.8% in individuals from Chuquisaca; respectively.[82]

Ethnic and racial classifications[edit]

Bolivian Macheteros

The vast majority of Bolivians are mestizo (with the indigenous component higher than the
European one), although the government has not included cultural self-identification "mestizo"
in the November 2012 census.[83] There are approximately three dozen native groups totaling
approximately half of the Bolivian population – the largest proportion of indigenous people in
Latin America. Exact numbers vary based on the wording of the ethnicity question and the
available response choices. For example, the 2001 census did not provide the racial category
"mestizo" as a response choice, resulting in a much higher proportion of respondents identifying
themselves as belonging to one of the available indigenous ethnicity choices. Mestizos are
distributed throughout the entire country and make up 26% of the Bolivian population. Most
people assume their mestizo identity while at the same time identifying themselves with one or
more indigenous cultures. A 2018 estimate of racial classification put mestizo (mixed white and
Amerindian) at 68%, indigenous at 20%, white at 5%, cholo at 2%, black at 1%, other at 4%,
while 2% were unspecified; 44% attributed themselves to some indigenous group, predominantly
the linguistic categories of Quechuas or Aymaras.[3] Whites comprised about 14% of the
population in 2006, and are usually concentrated in the largest cities: La Paz, Santa Cruz de la
Sierra and Cochabamba, but as well in some minor cities like Tarija and Sucre. The ancestry of
Whites and the White ancestry of Mestizos lies within the continents of Europe and Middle East,
most notably Spain, Italy, Germany, Croatia, Lebanon and Syria. In the Santa Cruz Department,
there are several dozen colonies of German-speaking Mennonites from Russia totaling around
40,000 inhabitants (as of 2012).[84]

Afro-Bolivians, descendants of African slaves who arrived in the time of the Spanish Empire,
inhabit the department of La Paz, and are located mainly in the provinces of Nor Yungas and Sud
Yungas. Slavery was abolished in Bolivia in 1831.[85] There are also important communities of
Japanese (14.000[86]) and Lebanese (12.900[87]).

Indigenous peoples, also called "originarios" ("native" or "original") and less frequently,
Amerindians, could be categorized by geographic area, such as Andean, like the Aymaras and
Quechuas (who formed the ancient Inca Empire), who are concentrated in the western
departments of La Paz, Potosí, Oruro, Cochabamba and Chuquisaca. There also are ethnic
populations in the east, composed of the Chiquitano, Chané, Guaraní and Moxos, among others,
who inhabit the departments of Santa Cruz, Beni, Tarija and Pando.

There are small numbers of European citizens from Germany, France, Italy and Portugal, as well
as from other American countries, as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, the
United States, Paraguay, Peru, Mexico and Venezuela, among others. There are important
Peruvian colonies in La Paz, El Alto and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.

Indigenous peoples[edit]

The Indigenous peoples of Bolivia can be divided into two categories of ethnic groups: the
Andeans, who are located in the Andean Altiplano and the valley region; and the lowland
groups, who inhabit the warm regions of central and eastern Bolivia, including the valleys of
Cochabamba Department, the Amazon Basin areas of northern La Paz Department, and the
lowland departments of Beni, Pando, Santa Cruz, and Tarija (including the Gran Chaco region in
the southeast of the country). Large numbers of Andean peoples have also migrated to form
Quechua, Aymara, and intercultural communities in the lowlands.

 Andean ethnicities
o Aymara people. They live on the high plateau of the departments of La Paz, Oruro
and Potosí, as well as some small regions near the tropical flatlands.
o Quechua people. They mostly inhabit the valleys in Cochabamba and Chuquisaca.
They also inhabit some mountain regions in Potosí and Oruro. They divide
themselves into different Quechua nations, as the Tarabucos, Ucumaris, Chalchas,
Chaquies, Yralipes, Tirinas, among others.
o Uru people
 Ethnicities of the Eastern Lowlands
o Guaraníes: made up of Guarayos, Pausernas, Sirionós, Chiriguanos, Wichí,
Chulipis, Taipetes, Tobas, and Yuquis.
o Tacanas: made up of Lecos, Chimanes, Araonas, and Maropas.
o Panos: made up of Chacobos, Caripunas, Sinabos, Capuibos, and Guacanaguas.
o Aruacos: made up of Apolistas, Baures, Moxos, Chané, Movimas, Cayabayas,
Carabecas, and Paiconecas (Paucanacas).
o Chapacuras: made up of Itenez (More), Chapacuras, Sansinonianos, Canichanas,
Itonamas, Yuracares, Guatoses, and Chiquitanos.
o Botocudos: made up of Bororos and Otuquis.
o Zamucos: made up of Ayoreos.

Language[edit]

Main article: Languages of Bolivia

Geographic distribution of the indigenous languages of Bolivia

Bolivia has great linguistic diversity as a result of its multiculturalism. The Constitution of
Bolivia recognizes 36 official languages besides Spanish: Aymara, Araona, Baure, Bésiro,
Canichana, Cavineño, Cayubaba, Chácobo, Chimán, Ese Ejja, Guaraní, Guarasu'we, Guarayu,
Itonama, Leco, Machajuyai-Kallawaya, Machineri, Maropa, Mojeño-Ignaciano, Mojeño-
Trinitario, Moré, Mosetén, Movima, Pacawara, Puquina, Quechua, Sirionó, Tacana, Tapieté,
Toromona, Uru-Chipaya, Weenhayek, Yaminawa, Yuki, Yuracaré, and Zamuco.[2]

Spanish is the most spoken official language in the country, according to the 2001 census; as it is
spoken by two-thirds of the population. All legal and official documents issued by the State,
including the Constitution, the main private and public institutions, the media, and commercial
activities, are in Spanish.

The main indigenous languages are: Quechua (21.2% of the population in the 2001 census),
Aymara (14.6%), Guarani (0.6%) and others (0.4%) including the Moxos in the department of
Beni.[3]

Plautdietsch, a German dialect, is spoken by about 70,000 Mennonites in Santa Cruz. Portuguese
is spoken mainly in the areas close to Brazil.

Religion[edit]

Main article: Religion in Bolivia

Bolivia is a constitutionally secular state that guarantees the freedom of religion and the
independence of government from religion.[88]

According to the 2001 census conducted by the National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia, 78% of
the population is Roman Catholic, followed by 19% that are Protestant, as well as a small
number of Bolivians that are Orthodox, and 3% non-religious.[89][90]
The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on the World Christian Database) records
that in 2010, 92.5% of Bolivians identified as Christian (of any denomination), 3.1% identified
with indigenous religion, 2.2% identified as Bahá'í, 1.9% identified as agnostic, and all other
groups constituted 0.1% or less.[91]

Much of the indigenous population adheres to different traditional beliefs marked by

inculturation or syncretisim with Christianity. The cult of Pachamama,[92] or "Mother Earth", is
notable. The veneration of the Virgin of Copacabana, Virgin of Urkupiña and Virgin of Socavón,
is also an important feature. There also are important Aymaran communities near Lake Titicaca
that have a strong devotion to James the Apostle.[93] Deities worshiped in Bolivia include Ekeko,
the Aymaran god of abundance and prosperity, whose day is celebrated every 24 January, and
Tupá, a god of the Guaraní people.

Largest cities and towns[edit]

Approximately 67% of Bolivians live in urban areas,[94] among the lowest proportion in South
America. Nevertheless, the rate of urbanization is growing steadily, at around 2.5% annually.
According to the 2012 census, there are total of 3,158,691 households in Bolivia – an increase of
887,960 from 2001.[95] In 2009, 75.4% of homes were classified as a house, hut, or Pahuichi;
3.3% were apartments; 21.1% were rental residences; and 0.1% were mobile homes.[96] Most of
the country's largest cities are located in the highlands of the west and central regions.

 v
 t
 e

Largest cities or towns in Bolivia

Census 2012, INE
Ran Departm Ran Departm
Name Pop. Name Pop.
k ent k ent
Santa
Santa 1,453,5 Monter Santa 109,5
1 Cruz de 11
Cruz 49 o Cruz 18
la Sierra
848,84 Trinida 106,4
2 El Alto La Paz 12 Beni
0 d 22
Santa Cruz de
764,61 Santa 96,40 La Paz
la Sierra 3 La Paz La Paz 13 Warnes
7 Cruz 6
Cochaba Cochaba 630,58 Yacuíb 91,99
4 14 Tarija
mba mba 7 a 8
La
264,68 Santa 89,08 Cochabamba
5 Oruro Oruro 15 Guardi
3 Cruz 0
El Alto a
 Chuquisa 259,38 Riberal 89,00
6 Sucre 16 Beni
ca 8 ta 3
205,34 80,38
7 Tarija Tarija 17 Viacha La Paz
6 8
189,65 Villa Cochaba 72,62
8 Potosí Potosí 18
2 Tunari mba 3
Cochaba 169,49 55,69
9 Sacaba 19 Cobija Pando
mba 4 2
Quillacoll Cochaba 137,02 Tiquipa Cochaba 53,06
10 20
o mba 9 ya mba 2

[97]

Culture[edit]
Main article: Culture of Bolivia
See also: Music of Bolivia and Public holidays in Bolivia

Bolivian children playing tarka

Bolivian culture has been heavily influenced by the Quechua, the Aymara, as well as the popular
cultures of Latin America as a whole.

The cultural development is divided into three distinct periods: precolumbian, colonial, and
republican. Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments,
ceramics, and weavings remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins
include Tiwanaku, El Fuerte de Samaipata, Inkallaqta and Iskanawaya. The country abounds in
other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.[98]
The Diablada, dance primeval, typical and main of Carnival of Oruro a Masterpiece of the Oral
and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2001 in Bolivia (File: Fraternidad Artística y
Cultural "La Diablada")

The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local native and
mestizo builders and artisans, developed into a rich and distinctive style of architecture, painting,
and sculpture known as "Mestizo Baroque". The colonial period produced not only the paintings
of Pérez de Holguín, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown
stonecutters, woodcarvers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths. An important body of Native Baroque
religious music of the colonial period was recovered and has been performed internationally to
wide acclaim since 1994.[98]

Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include María Luisa Pacheco, Roberto Mamani
Mamani, Alejandro Mario Yllanes, Alfredo Da Silva, and Marina Núñez del Prado.

Bolivia has a rich folklore. Its regional folk music is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at
the annual carnival of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the
lesser known carnival at Tarabuco.[98] The best known of the various festivals found in the
country is the "Carnaval de Oruro", which was among the first 19 "Masterpieces of the Oral and
Intangible Heritage of Humanity", as proclaimed by UNESCO in May 2001.

Entertainment includes football.[citation needed]

Education[edit]
Main article: Education in Bolivia

In 2008, following UNESCO standards, Bolivia was declared free of illiteracy, making it the
fourth country in South America to attain this status.[99]

Bolivia has public and private universities. Among them: Universidad Mayor, Real y Pontificia
de San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca USFX – Sucre, founded in 1624; Universidad Mayor de
San Andrés UMSA – La Paz, founded in 1830; Universidad Mayor de San Simon UMSS –
Cochabamba, founded in 1832; Universidad Autónoma Gabriel René Moreno UAGRM – Santa
Cruz de la Sierra, founded in 1880; Universidad Técnica de Oruro UTO – Oruro, founded in
1892; and Universidad Autónoma Tomás Frías UATF – Potosi, founded in 1892.
In 2017, Bolivia is the first country in South America in terms of funds dedicated to public
education and is the second in Latin America, after Cuba.[citation needed]

Health[edit]
Main article: Health in Bolivia
See also: Refresh Bolivia

Based on 2013 The World Factbook estimates, Bolivia is ranked 161st in life expectancy with a
number of 68.2 years.[94] Life expectancy for men is 65.4 and for women is 71.1.[94] A study by the
United Nations Development Programme and United Nations International Emergency
Children's Fund reported over 230 babies died per day in Bolivia through lack of proper care.[100]
The majority of the population has no health insurance or access to healthcare.[101] Demographic
and Health Surveys has completed five surveys in Bolivia since 1989 on a wide range of
topics.[102]

Between 2006 and 2016, extreme poverty in Bolivia fell from 38.2% to 16.8%. Chronic
malnutrition in children under five years of age also went down by 14% and the child mortality
rate was reduced by more than 50%, according to World Health Organization.[citation needed]

Sports[edit]
Football (Spanish: Fútbol, US English: Soccer) is widespread. The national team is the Bolivia
national football team.

Racquetball is the second most popular sport in Bolivia as for the results in the Odesur 2018
Games held in Cochabamba.[103][104]

See also[edit]
 Bolivia portal



 Index of Bolivia-related articles
 Outline of Bolivia

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Bibliography[edit]
 Constitute Assembly of Bolivia (2007). "Nueva Constitucion Politica del Estatdo" [New State
Constitution] (PDF) (in Spanish). Government of Bolivia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3
March 2009. Retrieved 28 January 2014.
 Fagan, Brian (2001). The Seventy Great Mysteries of the Ancient World: Unlocking the Secrets of
Past Civilizations. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780500510506.
 Kolata, Alan (1993). The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization. Wiley.
ISBN 9781557861832.
 Kolata, Alan (1996). Valley of the Spirits: A Journey into the Lost Realm of the Aymara. Wiley.
ISBN 9780471575078.

External links[edit]

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 GND: 4007607-6
 HDS: 3392
 LCCN: n79066590
 MusicBrainz: a5aed4a3-8ce1-3ab3-bfee-b008cff6b857
 NARA: 10035703
Authority control  NDL: 00560869
 NKC: ge128785
 SELIBR: 141397
 VIAF: 130756130
 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 130756130
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bolivia&oldid=890413052"
Categories:

 Bolivia
 Andean Community
 Former Spanish colonies
 Landlocked countries
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 Spanish-speaking countries and territories
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 Member states of the United Nations

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 This page was last edited on 1 April 2019, at 05:47 (UTC).

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