The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors on Social Entrepreneurship Start

Up Intentions
Author(s): Joyce Koe Hwee Nga and Gomathi Shamuganathan
Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 95, No. 2 (August 2010), pp. 259-282
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40785086
Accessed: 20-03-2015 10:48 UTC

REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40785086?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents

You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Business Ethics.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ofBusiness
Journal Ethics(2010)95:259-282 © Springer
2010
DOI 10.1007A10551-009-0358-8

The Influenceof Personality

Traits
and DemographicFactorson Social
JoyceKoe Hwee Nga
StartUp Intentions
Entrepreneurship GomathiShamuganathan

ABSTRACT. The sheerimpactof the recentglobal thatelementof appreciation of socialresponsibility,

sus-
financialturmoiland scandals (such as Enron and and character
tainability development needsto be inte-
WorldCom)hasdemonstrated thatunbridled commercial gratedwithin the businesseducationcurriculumto
entrepreneurs who areallowedto pursuetheirshort-term supportsocial entrepreneurs in realizinggenuinevalue
opportunities regardlessof theconsequences hasled to a and impactto the causesand communities theyserve.
massivedepreciationof the wealth of nations,social Futurebusinessleadersalso need to be equippedwith
livelihoodand environmental degradation. This article entrepreneurship skills,while exudingindependent and
suggeststhatthetimehascomeforentrepreneurs to adopt reflective
thinking in the pursuitlife-longlearning.The
a moreintegrative viewofbusiness thatblendseconomic, ofthisstudyliesin itsfocuson personality
originality traits
social and environmental values. Social entrepreneurs on socialratherthancommercial entrepreneurship.It is
presentsucha proposition throughtheirdeep commit- hoped that the will a
findings trigger paradigm shiftto-
menttowards thesocialvision,appreciation ofsustainable wardsgreatersocialentrepreneurship through education
practices,innovativeness, abilityto buildsocialnetworks by nurturing sustainable developmentvaluesin future
and also generateviable financialreturns.It could be businessgraduates.
expectedthatsocial entrepreneurs oftenpossesscertain
distinctpersonality characteristicswhich definetheir KEY WORDS: socialentrepreneurship, traits,
personality
behaviours/actions. traits
Personality arepartly developed socialresponsibility, education
entrepreneurship
by innatenurturing, socializationand education.These
tacittraitsarealsoformed values/beliefsheldand playan
important role in drivingsocial entrepreneurial deci-
sion making.Thus,personality traitsmayinfluencethe
intentions and themannerin whichtheindividualacts. Introduction
We holdthatifsocialentrepreneurship is to be effective
and impactful, businessand management educationcan Entrepreneurshipisoftendefined astheopportunistic
facilitate
the developmentof thesecriticalpersonality pursuitofeconomicwealthviacreativeinitiatives of
traits.Thus, thisstudyprimesat determining the per- the individualoperating withinan uncertain envi-
sonalitytraits that influencesocialentrepreneurs' start-up ronmentconstrained by limitedtangibleresources
intentions. It also reinforcesthefindings thatpersonality (Austinetal.,2006;Mitchelletal, 2002). The fram-
traits
do influence entrepreneurship in general.Thisstudy
ing of entrepreneurship withineconomic theory
examinestheinfluence of theBig Five personality traits assumesthe rationalisticmodel of man. Economic
on social entrepreneurship dimensions.The findings
rationale
neglectstheidiosyncratichumancapabilities
revealthatagreeableness positively influences all dimen-
sionsofsocialentrepreneurship,
thatpromoteflexibility and use of socialdiscretion
whereasopennessexerts
a positiveinfluenceon social vision,innovationand in derivingpracticalinnovative solutions(Baumöl,
financialreturns. Methodologically, thisstudydevelops 1968; Loasby,2007). Economictheoryalso ignores
validand reliablescalesforsocial entrepreneurship and thedifferences
inhumanvalues,capabilitiesandpower
verifiesthe adoptedBig Five personality measureof of the humanwill (Loasby,2007). Pastresearchers
Schmitet al. (PersPsychol53:153-193,2000) usingthe have mostlyfocussedon commercial entrepreneur-
five-point Likertscale. The implication of thisstudyis shipwith an emphasis offinancialreturnsoversocial

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
260 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and GomathiShamuganathan

returns.Theirrelianceon the'invisible hand'ofthe education curriculum.The quantitativesurvey

free-market has
system placed the responsibility of methodisadoptedas partofan initialinvestigation to
safeguarding thepublicand social goods within the obtainthe macro view concerningthe influence
ambitof governments. The bureaucratic, political betweenpersonality traits
andsocialentrepreneurship
andinflexible natureofgovernments, however,have basedon the conceptualframework developedfor
oftenrenderedimplementation of social policies thisstudy(Figure1). Similarstudieson commercial
ineffective(Dees, 2007). As a result, socialentrepre- entrepreneurship havealsoadoptedsuchquantitative
neurshaveoftensteppedto meetthesegapswhere surveymethods(Table I). Implicationsare then
governments havefailedbyemphasizing socialvalue derivedby employingtheoretical triangulation in
abovefinancial returns (Haughton, 2008). The sheer drawing inferences from the findingsof the study.
impactof the recentglobalfinancialturmoiland The authorsadopta technicaland situational para-
scandals(suchas Enronand WorldCom)has also digmstancewhichrecognizesthatquantitative and
demonstrated thatcommercial entrepreneurs whoare qualitative methods are interconnected but have
let freeto pursuetheirshort-term opportunities distinctive epistemological and ontologicalassump-
regardlessof theconsequenceshas led to a massive tions(Bryman andBell,2007). Thus,whilequanti-
depreciation ofthewealthofnations, sociallivelihood tativeand qualitativemethodsare not compatible
andenvironmental degradation. articlesuggests
This withinthe same phase of this study,qualitative
thatthe time has come forentrepreneurs to adopta methodscan be employedto drawtheoretical infer-
moreintegrative view of businessthatblendseco- encesand/orappliedwithindifferent studysituations
nomic,socialandenvironmental values.Socialentre- and contexts(Flick,2009; Miles and Huberman,
preneurs also adopt a wider viewpointon value 1994).
creationcomparedto theircommercial counterparts. As such,thisarticlestartsby firstreviewingthe
They uphold the synergistic derivationof social, underpinning literature concerning the conceptof
economicand environmental valueswithoutover- socialentrepreneurship and the Big Five modelof
emphasis on shareholders' wealth maximization personality traits(Costaand McCrae, 1992 citedin
(Kuruczetal.,2008). Llewellyn and Wilson,2003) to understand their
Personality traitshavebeen positedin explaining interconnections thatformthebasisforthe devel-
theindustrious behaviours andagileactionsofsocial opment of the conceptualframework and hypoth-
entrepreneurs (Llewellyn Wilson,2003). Social
and eses of thisstudy.Second,measurement scalesfor
entrepreneurs areoftendistinguished bytheirability socialentrepreneurship dimensions, namelysustain-
to envisage,engage,enableand enacttransforma- ability,vision,networking and returns orientation
tional change efficiently in the face of scarce are developedfromconceptsderivedfromextant
resources, risks and diverse contexts(Thompson, literature.The validityand reliabilityof social
2002; Thompsonet al, 2000). However,theinflu- entrepreneurship dimensions as wellas theBig Five
ence thatpersonality traitsplay in definingsocial personality traitmeasurement adaptedfromSchmit
entrepreneurs has remained controversial andunder- et al. (2000) are determined usingExploratory Fac-
explored and under-researched. torAnalysis(EFA) and Cronbach'sa, respectively.
Thisarticleendeavours toinvestigate theinfluence Third, hypothesestestingare conducted using
of the Big Five personality traitdimensions com- the MultipleLinearRegressionto substantiate the
prisingopenness,agreeableness, neuroticism and research The
questions. study foundthat agreeable-
conscientiousness on socialentrepreneurship. In light ness positivelyinfluences all dimensionsof social
ofthefindings thattheinfluence ofpersonality traitsis entrepreneurship, whereas opennessexertsa positive
the highestin determining businessstart-up inten- influence on socialvision,innovation and financial
tionsin buddingentrepreneurs, a sampleof college returns. These findings haveimportant implications
andundergraduates hasbeenemployed(Franket al., on the designof businesseducationcurriculum
In the
2007). addition, sampleconsisting ofbusiness particularly in developing traits
personality and val-
and management studentsfroma privatehigher ueswithinfuture businessleaders/entrepreneursthat
educationinstitution (HEI) hasalsobeenselectedin willenablethemto be transformative in integrating
viewoftheimplications ofthisstudyon thebusiness social,environmental and economicvalues.

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 The Influenceof PersonalityTraitsand DemographicFactors 261

Figure1. Conceptual
framework.

We maintain thatifsocialentrepreneurship is to psychology,sociologyand strategicmanagement

be effective
andimpactful, business
andmanagement (Mitchellet al., 2002). Entrepreneurial motivation
educationcan facilitatethe development of these the
represents blending ofsocial interaction,technical
criticalpersonality
traits.
Thus, thisstudyprimesat competence and emotional zeal of the individual
determining the personality traitsthat influence (Goss, 2008). The definition of entrepreneurship
socialentrepreneurs'start-upintentions.
It alsoaims remains broad.In general, theevolvingdefinition of
to reinforcethe findings thatpersonality traitsdo entrepreneurship involvesindividual(s) who are dri-
influence in
entrepreneurshipgeneral. ven to act on opportunities and/orenvironmental
catalysts
byemploying innovative processesintheface
of limitedresources(Handyet al, 2007; Mitchell
Theoretical background
etal.,2002;SchaperandVolery,2004).Pastresearch
pertaining to entrepreneurship can be classifiedinto
This sectionprovidesthe theoretical underpinning three
majorgenres, namelythefunctional, personality
surrounding thebroadconceptsofentrepreneurship
and behaviouralapproaches(Cope, 2005). The
andpersonality Itwillthenstreamline
traits. thefocus
functional approachis linkedto rationaloutcomes
ofthisstudyto socialentrepreneurship andBig Five
withineconomictheory.The personality approach
personalitytraitsand elaborateon theirrespective
concerns thecharacteristicsofindividual psychologi-
dimensions. The socialentrepreneurship dimensions
cal traitsthatdefinean entrepreneur. Finally,the
coveredare socialvision,sustainability, socialnet-
behavioural approach derives from strategicmanage-
works,innovation andfinancial returns.The BigFive
mentandinvolves theprocessofhowanentrepreneur
personalitytraitscomprises openness,extroversion,
perceives andactson opportunities presented.
conscientiousness
agreeableness, andneuroticism.
This studyis positionedfromthe personality
approach.Personality traitsare predictable charac-
Overviewof thefield of entrepreneurship teristicsof individual behaviour which assistin
explainingthe differences of individualactionsin
Entrepreneurship is a multi-dimensional discipline similarsituations (LlewellynandWilson,2003). We
with roots spanningthe fields of economics, adoptthestancethatindividual personality ofsocial

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
262 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and GomathiShamuganathan

lo. si á-a .s-il- ^ jLi

ìfli lililí §t ij
"sani siN § * a>J- fi
Mi
Sä ^^s

fil!îltiîîMiíJiiH
I
M.îili! liiJUíií
8sia S.
lagí-n-siil^^í 1|-2 I i,
Í/5

n ¡un fifiLU-1 iiiyi

mili Nfîtîî¡iniîïsîi
IS
im¡muni amimig
I IEIJ1.Iidilli 111111113
i
D
HèìiìtJ iilf!.
Ä--S i * S" a .s S :s «
°
ö ¡s -ri-tlif ili
a g ^ « g-.g 2 j§ | S
g ^SX) ^h ^u o g¿ -g
3 g ¿gg^gs^a^ìi
M Oh
Ä .S ÖH^-° rtH^ S Ho>a>H 5 ah 'S ^ eu

S i D
bß

IS§
cu

i 1 l'È-
o

I
«/i

3
C/5
îu !
g«
MU ¡¡is gI^ ,«
O
^aa^-g-g;
SU
8lS î:p:SS§?illS I
I

o ' 13 ' "c3 '^ '"3

^ (DC3<UC <U <UC3<L> 4>Ö
Î>O >O>O > >O> >O
êr > 'ö *ö "-ö-ö "ö 'ß -ö -ö -g -ö
h 11 I M I I IS I I I
3
a30 ö
3
a-aasab
S2 3O3O
a azo
30

1 I p § §-

1 1 "ï ï ^ ^ S
^ Ö O » ö -^ <Ç
^■g^o ^ o ë2
1 |S 8« % I^ § 2
2 £ ö-rf £ u <

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 TheInfluence TraitsandDemographic
ofPersonality Factors 263

entrepreneurs providesthe impetusto high will- valuecreation byuncovering innovative wayswhere

power thatdrivestheirpassions,
innovativenessand social,environmental and economicissuescan be
This sanctionstheirchoice and
socialinteractions. integrated andenhanced(Kuruczetal.,2008).
social,environmental
abilityto integrate and eco- The social entrepreneurship process involves
nomicaspectsin the enhancement of value (Goss, envisioning, engaging, enactingand enablingtrans-
2005, 2008; Kuruczet al., 2008; Rhee and White, formational changeto promotesocial,economicand
2007). environmental or triplebottomline performance
(Thompson,2002; Thompsonet al., 2000). Envi-
ofsocialentrepreneurship
Characteristics (SOC_ENT) sioninginvolvesidentifying a realsocialneed that
In contrastto commercialentrepreneurs, social presents both a gap and opportunity. The social
entrepreneurs are committed to serve basic human entrepreneur is committed to theirsocialvisionand
needs and to facilitateimpactfulqualityof life will findpragmatic, innovativesolutionsto social
improvement within society (Austin et al., 2006; problemsregardless ideologicalor resourcecon-
of
Elkington, 2006; Ridley-Duff, 2008). Social entre- straints.The socialentrepreneur is oftenunreason-
preneurs fillthe gaps in the of
provision publicgoods in
ablyostentatious fulfilling theirmissionto create/
wheregovernments havefailedand wherethepri- enhancesocialvalue(Elkington andHartigan, 2008,
vatesectorviewsthattheriskdo notcommensurate p. 5). The engaging process involves demonstrating
therewardsassociatedwithsuchventures(Haugh- commitment throughsocial networksto harness
ton,2002). Most citedcharacteristics of the social trust,transparency and credibility. Strategicpart-
entrepreneurs as innovativeness, achievement cen- nershipsare crucialin the not-for-profit sectorto
tred,independence, senseof destiny, low riskaver- garnergrass root and
support,participation legiti-
sion, tolerancefor ambiguityand social value mizationof the social mission(Gliedtand Parker,
creation(Brooks,2009).However,thesehighlighted 2007). Social networksare also an avenue for
aspectsofsocialentrepreneurs' confuseinnatechar- emotional,financialand human resources.The
acteristicswithpersonality traits.This studyfocuses enactingprocessinvolvesleading,directingand
on fourrelatedaspectsof social entrepreneurship, assigning purposeto the visionfrominceptionto
namelythe social vision,sustainability, social net- fruition. The enablingprocessincludestheacquiring
working, innovativeness andfinancial returns. Social offinanceandtraining ofhumanresources to sustain
visionencompassesthe sense of destiny.Sustain- thesocialvision.
abilityand financialreturninclinationcoversthe Thisstudystreamlines thecharacteristics ofsocial
aspectsof social value creation.Achievement ori- entrepreneurs' into fivedimensions, namelysocial
entation, independence, riskaversionandambiguity vision, sustainability, social networking, innova-
tolerancerelatesto personality traitsdimensions of tivenessand financialreturns. The followingsub-
conscientiousness and extroversion whichare dis- sectionsdetailsthesefurther.
cussedin thenextsection.
Social entrepreneurship transcends philanthropic Socialvision(SV). The socialentrepreneur is driven
and/orcharitablegivingas it promotesa more a
by compelling social vision that encapsulates a
and
enduring engaging solution to social problems. strong sense of and
obligation destiny towards ful-
Charitablegivingis oftenone-offto appeasethe fillinga basichumanneed (Barendsen and Gardner,
conscienceor seeksto promotea favourable corpo- 2004; Brooks,2009). The social visiondrivesthe
rateimage.However,itmaynotbe effective in per- abilityto see opportunities beyondthepresent with
social
petuating problems such as as
poverty recipients the of the
objective extending stewardship arm to be
oftenlagbyshrugging offinitiativeandresponsibility an agent of social and
change(Barendsen Gardner,
forprogress (Dees, 2007). Socialentrepreneurs pro- 2004; Dees, 2001; Keogh and Polonsky,1998).
motetheirmission forsocialchangebysupporting the Commitment forsocialissuesis usuallybornewitha
beneficiaries to realizetheirpotential and undertake senseof emotionalaffection and senseof responsi-
in
ownership improving qualitytheir of life (Elking- bilityto sustainan environmental and/orsocialcause
ton and Hartigan,2008, p. 33). As such, social (Keoghand Polonsky,1998). As such,socialentre-
entrepreneurs the
adopt enduring synergistic view of preneurs oftenact as advocatesin voicing and

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
264 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and GomathiShamuganathan

meeting gapsin socialneedswheregovernments and opportunities, visionand culturewithinthe social

privateenterpriseslag (London, 2008). Traumatic networksand actual availablecapabilities/compe-
eventsexperienced in earlychildhoodoftenact as tenciesresourcespromotesorganizational learning
in the developmentof beliefsof social
catalysts thatstimulates desireforsocialchange.They then
entrepreneurs (Barendsenand Gardner,2004). orchestratefurther transformational changethrough
Combinedwith an enduringcommitment, social in the
stewardship harmonizing legitimateeco-
entrepreneursarenot the
easilyswayedby pendulum nomic,socialandenvironmental concerns(Molteni,
of marketforcesin the questtowardssocial value 2006; Robins,2006). Sustainability practicesadopt
creation. entrenched responsibility and unityof purposein
judgements aimedatpromoting stakeholder account-
Sustainability is
(STB). Sustainability often triggered ability aimed at derivingtriple bottom line perfor-
byan engagedstateofsocialand moralcritical con- mance(Mortet al.,2003).
sciousness thatbusinesses andindividuals existas part In contrastwith corporatephilanthropy which
of an interconnected inter-generational, enduring ofteninvolvestargeted shortertermgivinglinkedto
global ecosystem(Cartwright and Craig, 2006; firms'commercial interests,
reciprocal strategiceco-
Mustakova-Possardt, 1998; Savitzand Weber,2006). nomic returnsand reputationalbenefits,social
Businessescan no longerelude thattheyare the entrepreneurship strivesat providing solutionsthat
majorcontributors towards socialandenvironmental enhancessocialvaluethrough long-term sustenance
As
degradations. such, they need to lead change of of
quality lifeand ecologicalbalance(Leisinger,
throughrestorative economicpractices(Hawken, 2007; Machan,1999). Social entrepreneurs empha-
1992).Sincebiologicalresources arenotsubstitutable size humanlifeas partof an interdependent, living
as capitalandlabourare,businesses needto embrace ecosystem. As such,anyactionundertaken needsto
naturalcapitalism wherebyvalue is assessedby the be guidedby authentic values,principles and com-
integrated ecologicalandeconomical impacts (Lovins mitment to preserve and protectthelong-term sur-
et al., 2007). Thisstudyadvancestheviewthatsus- vivalandrights ofthecommunity andenvironment.
tainabledevelopment vianaturalcapitalism practices By doing so, social entrepreneurs seek to create
enhancesthequalityoflifeofsociety. enduring socialvalueandto promotethebetterment
Sustainability complements theconventional eco- ofhumankind through thededicationtowardscon-
nomicwisdomwiththecommitment to do theright tinuous,responsible innovations (Machan,1999).
thingin improvingthe qualityof humanlifeby
including theEarthand societyas legitimate stake- Socialnetworks (SN). Social capitaltheorysuggests
holders(Shrivasta, 2000 in Cartwright and Craig, thatsocialcapitalexistin threedimensions, namely
2006; Hawken,1992). As such,strategies towards structural, relationaland cognitive(Nahapietand
sustainabilityaredeeplyentrenched withinthevalue, Ghoshal,1998). This studyholds thatsocial net-
cultureandvisionoftheentrepreneur and/ororga- works(formal and/orinformal) forman invaluable
nizationas they are affectively and normatively resourceto socialentrepreneurs foradvice,human
grounded(Anderson,1998; Keogh and Polonsky, resources, innovative financial
ideas/capabilities, and
1998). By embracing social
sustainability, entrepre- emotional support (Greve and Salaff,2003; Nahapiet
neursare determined to drive social change by and Ghoshal,1998).
servingthe needsof greaternumbersof people(s) Fromthe structural perspective, socialnetworks
including thebottomofthepyramid marketwhich provide a systemwherebythe missionof the
maynotbe feasible forcommercial entrepreneurs and entrepreneur is embeddedand disseminated. Net-
governments (Hart, 2005). Social value creation work tiesenable a rich sharing of information and
becomesan essential, integralcomponent of share- knowledge to create more innovative and relevant
holderwealthmaximization to socialentrepreneurs. solutionsto servicethe benefitof the widercom-
The questtowardssustainability requirescongru- munity(Chen and Wang, 2008; Nahapiet and
ency in thestrategic ofthe
management environment, Ghoshal,1998; Shaw and Carter,2007; Thompson
valuesand resources(Thompson,1998). The dex- and Doherty,2006). Personalsocial networkties
terityof the entrepreneur in properlyaligning established also bridgesthe information asymmetry

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 TheInfluence TraitsandDemographic
ofPersonality Factors 265

betweentheentrepreneur andthepotential investors real problemsfurther developingtrustand social

(Shane and Cable, 2002). This
capital. formsan important aspectof competi-
The relational perspective positsthatactivepar- tive advantagefor social entrepreneurs
(Hart and
ticipationin networksinducescollectivelearning London,2005).
andfostersbetter understanding ofsocialcommunity
norms.Trustis developedthrough a dynamicpro- Innovation(INV). Encumberedby uncertainty, en-
cess of open communication and renegotiations dowed with limitedresourcesand drivenby an
betweenstakeholders. Hence, credibility of social unwavering passionto be an agentofsocialchange,
endeavours is enhancedthrough theidentification of socialentrepreneurs needto be agileand creativein
fitbetweenopportunities and thesocialneed (Shaw shaping collective social solutions(Dees, 2001;
andCarter, 2007).Trusthasbeenfoundto moderate Elkington and Hartigan,2008, pp. 85-133; Shaw
the relationship between social networkingand and Carter,2007). Social innovation unlocksvalue
innovation(Chen and Wang, 2008). Social net- by creatinga platformfor sustainablesolutions
worksevolvethrough themotivation, planning and througha synergistic combinationof capabilities,
contracting stages(Greve and Salaff,2003). The products,processes and technology(Auersweld,
highestlevelof communication occursat theplan- 2009; Phillset al., 2008). The motivation to be an
ningphase. At the initial
stages,networking ismostly agentof socialchangemaygo againstthegrainof
associatedwithpartiesclosestto the entrepreneur. rationaland traditionaleconomicthoughts andpose
This setsthemomentum forlongertermworking as a forcefor'creativedestruction' to unlockvalue
relationshipsthatallowstimeformutualassessment (Hart,2005; Jayasinghe et al., 2008; Schumpeter,
of personalmotivations and commitments of par- 1971 citedin Pittaway, 2005).
ticipants
resulting in the development of social rep- Innovativecapabilitiesareenhancedas individuals
utationalcapital.Social entrepreneurs oftenrelyon developpersonal mastery throughout thenetworking
personalcontactsand pastexperienceto buildsup- processinvolvingcombinationand exchangeof
portfortheirmissionandrisklosingtheircredibility intellectualand social capital (Littunen,2000;
if theirventurefails (Shaw and Carter,2007). Nahapiet and Ghoshal. 1998). From the social
Reputationplaysan important mediating role and entrepreneurs perspective, this includesexploring
constitutesa non-substitutable social resourcein waysto penetrateunconventional 'bottomof the
contracting, networking and the survivalof the pyramid markets'. These markets havebeenneglected
socialenterprise and
(Schaper Volery,2004,pp. 64- by commercial entrepreneurs due to theperceived
65; Shaneand Cable,2002). high riskthatdo not justifyeconomicreturns (Hart,
Finally,the cognitivedimensionconcernsthe 2005). Innovativeprocessesand technologiesare
derivationofsharedmeanings in particular contexts employed bysocialentrepreneurs tocreatea socialand
(London,2008; Nahapiet Ghoshal,1998).Trust
and fit
strategic forproducts and servicesto tapintothese
and credibility deepensas the sharedmeaningsare underdeveloped, unchartered markets(Hart and
entrenched withintacitpersonalvaluesand beliefs Christensen, 1992; Pralahad2006, pp. 25-27). A
furtherstrengthening bondsof thenetworkpartici- more sustainablesocio-economicdevelopmentis
pants(De Carolisand Saparito,2006). The unity achievedas these innovativeinitiatives gradually
towardsa commonpurposeachievedthrough local empowertheseunderprivileged markets toparticipate
networks
enterprise comprising entrepreneurs, inves- in theactivities
ofmainstream markets.
tors, community,NGOs and governmentsin
developing countries hasbeenfoundto facilitate the Financialreturns
(FR). The financialperspective
generation of sustainable outcomes(Wheeleret al., from
originates the demandside view whichholds
2005). The proximity to the contextalso allows thatentrepreneursneed to seize opportunities
and
thesenetworks to developnativecapabilities, coor- competeforscarceresources to generateeconomic
dinate resourcesand share knowledge thereby returns.The economic perspectiveupholds the
maximizing theirlong-term impactin enhancing the shareholderprimacyviewpointwherebytheroleof
qualityof lifeand economicdevelopment. Native the entrepreneuras an agent to the principalis
also promotepractical
capabilities local solutionsto limitedto the maximization of financialwealth.

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
266 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and GomathiShamuganathan

Outcomesare quantifiable in termsof profitability Social entrepreneurs pursuea varietyof social

metrics. The 'invisiblehand' of freemarkets is as- causesrequiring high levelsof willpower,innova-
sumedto be able to producean efficient outcome tiveness, social interaction and sanctioning (Goss,
and absolvesthe responsibility of the entrepreneur 2005, 2008; Rhee and White,2007). This study
fromaddressing socialoutcomes(Friedman, 2004 in adopts the stand that personality traitsplay an
Schaefer,2008). In a less than perfectreality,the important role in moulding the individual'sper-
publicgoodproblem is not efficiently addressed bya ceptionsand behaviours whichare instrumental in
singlefirmand oftenleftto governments forreso- drivingthe social missionand legitimacy of the
lution. The
enterprise. following section discusses
the Big
Proponents oftheeconomicviewadopttheview Five personality traitsfactorsthatentrepreneurs are
thathumannatureis rationaland self-interested. likelyto possess.
They discounttheindividual abilityto initiatefree
will and exercisechoice (Baumöl,1968; Machan,
1999). The assumption of a perfectly laissez-faire Personalitytraits
economycapableof producing a morally justifiable
outcomeis farreaching.The rationaleof mecha- Personality traitsare enduring, predictable charac-
nisticindividuals devoid of morals,emotionsand teristics
of individualbehaviourthatexplaindiffer-
practicalreasoningis a fallacy.As such, a purely ences in individualactions in similarsituations
economicview would excludeemphasison sub- (Llewellyn andWilson,2003). Personality traitsmay
jective,intangible non-financial (forexamplesocial be influenced by the unique, tacit,
subjective per-
and environmental) and moraloutcomesof social sonal knowledge,values/beliefs, perceptionand
responsibility(Schaefer, 2008). experiencesof the individualthatare not easily
In practice,social entrepreneurship inclinesto- replicated(Kor et al., 2007). Personalitytraitsofan
wardsstakeholder theory that seeks to bridgethegap individualmayserveas a catalyst whichinfluences
in theprovisionof thepublicgood wheregovern- the risk perceptionof entrepreneurs in decision
mentsare unableto and/orwherethe commercial et et
making(Chaucin al., 2007; Naffziger al, 1994;
viabilitydefiescapabilities of corporations (Haugh- Rauch and Frese,2007). Proactivepersonality have
ton, 2008). Social entrepreneurship manifests in a beenfoundto be a significant predictor especially of
continuum of businessmodelsrangingfromlever- entrepreneurialstart-up but
intentions, the influence
aged non-profit ventures, hybridventures to social reducesin timeas the venturematurates (Crant,
businesses (Elkington and Hartigan,2008; Haugh- 1996; Franket al., 2007). Entrepreneurs havebeen
ton, 2008). Leveragednon-profits oftenrely on found to possesshigherscores of tolerancefor
of in
availability privatefunding servinga basic ambiguity, internal locus of control,proactiveper-
humanneed drivenby an enlightened socialvision. sonality,self-efficacy and need for achievement
Hybridventures partially recovertheircoststhrough comparedwith non-entrepreneurs in explaining
profitsgenerated fromgoodsand services(Pralahad, businesssuccess(Cools andVan Den Broeck,2008;
2006). Hybrid ventures mayalsorelyon grants from Crant,1996;D'Intinoet al, 2007; Ong and Ismail,
governments and corporations. The pricingmecha- 2008; Rauch and Frese, 2007). Most studies
nismadoptedmaybe basedon an equitable'payas involving therelationship betweenpersonality traits
you can afford' system, forexample,in the case of on entrepreneurship and in organizational settings
AravindEye Hospital,India. In contrast,social yieldedinconclusivefindings(Abu Elanain,2008;
businessesaresetup as forprofit ventures. However, Ong andIsmail,2008).Thisstudyattempts to fillthe
theydiffer fromcommercial venturesin thatthey lacunain studiesinvestigating the influence of the
emphasizesocialreturns as well as financial returns. Big Five personality traitdimensionson social
Shareholders may receive a return of their initial entrepreneurship (Costaand McCrae,1992 citedin
investment butarenotpaiddividends (Yunus,2007, Llewellyn Wilson,2003). The following
and section
pp. 21-40). Profits are reinvested in thebusinessto discussesthe Big Five traits,namelyopenness,
servesocialpolicyinitiatives (Gunnet al., 2008),for extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and
example,micro-financing by GrameenBank. neuroticism.

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 The Influenceof PersonalityTraitsand DemographicFactors
Openness(OPEN)
Openness is manifestedin a liberal value system
where individual intellectualcuriosityand affinity
towardsnoveltyof new experiencesare welcomed
(McCrae and Costa, 1986 cited in Abu Elanain,
2008). Individualswho are high on the openness
dimensionare not afraidof new challenges,versatile,
imaginativeand oftendisplayhigh degree of crea-
tivity(Yong, 2007, pp. 29-30; Llewellynand Wil-
son, 2003). However, they may appear to be
impulsive,overlyinquisitiveand maybe easilybored
with statusquo. As such, theyare oftenmisunder-
stood by others for their individualisticnature.
Entrepreneurshave been found to have greater
opennesscomparedto administrative personneldue
to their need to be creative in the utilizationof
scarce resources (Nordvik and Brovold, 1998).
Opennesshas also been foundto positivelyinfluence
citizenshipbehaviour (Abu Elanain, 2008). How-
ever, openness is found to be negativelyrelated
to the long-termsustainabilityof a businessventure
et
(Ciavarella al., 2004). As social entrepreneurship
is a relativelynew fieldthatmay requireindividuals
to go against conventional economic wisdom to
create social value, the following hypothesesare
posited:
H1(iJ): on theSV
OPEN havea positiveinfluence
dimension
ofsocialentrepreneurship
(SOCJENT).
on theINV
H' (i,yOPEN havea positiveinfluence
dimension
of SOC_ENT.
H1(f):OPEN havean influence on theFR dimension
ofSOC_ENT.
Extroversion(EXTROV)
Extrovertedindividualsare exemplifiedby sociable,
outgoing,positiveattitudeand assertivecharacteris-
tics (Ciavarella et al., 2004; Llewellynand Wilson,
2003; Moon et al., 2008; Yong, 2007, p. 8). Extro-
versioncontributes towardstheproactivepersonality
required in fuellingthe instinctand driving the
charismaticvision of the social entrepreneur (Crant,
1996). Social entrepreneurs are expected to possess
extroversionas theyhave to be willingand able to
communicatewell with a myriadof stakeholders.
Extroversion also createsa positiveperceivedlocus of
controlas theyare drivento fulfiltheirrisk-taking
propensityand need for achievement (McCarthy,
This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
267
2003). Entrepreneurshave been found to possess
higher extroversion than administrativeworkers
(Nordvik and Brovold, 1998), and thisassertiveness
positivelyinfluencesentrepreneurialsuccess (Cali-
endo and Kritikos, 2008). However, a detailed
analysis of extroversioncharacteristicscomprising
rewardsensitivity, sociabilityand positiveemotions
was found to off-setone another (Ciavarella et al.,
2004; Moon et al., 2008; Zhao and Seibert,2006).
This may explainwhy manystudiesinvestigating the
overall effectof extroversionon citizenshipbehav-
iour and entrepreneurship remain inconclusive.As
social entrepreneursare perceivedto be led by their
strong,albeit 'unreasonable'drive to achieve social
mission through social businesses, the following
hypothesesare posited:
EXTROV hasa positiveinfluence
H2(a)'- on theSV
dimensionof SOC_ENT.
H2{b):EXTROV hasan influence on theSTB
dimensionof SOC_ENT.
H2(f):EXTROV hasan influenceon FR dimension
of
SOC.ENT.
Agreeableness (AGREE)
Agreeablenessconcerns the abilityto fostersocial
consensus while upholding mutual understanding
and trust(Llewellynand Wilson, 2003; Yong, 2007,
p. 30). Agreeablenessin interpersonalrelationships
includes the ability to be good listeners,patient,
empathizeand promotingharmonyin social inter-
actions (Caliendo and Kritikos,2008). Trustingand
co-operativeenvironments establishgood rapportin
alliances which facilitatesexchange of technologies
and raisingcapitalforgrowth(Ciavarellaet al., 2004).
Nonetheless,overlyagreeable individualcharacter-
isticsmay lead to compromiseto gain acceptanceof
othersand lower risk-taking propensityforunpop-
ularventures.The followinghypothesesare posited.
AGREE hasa positiveinfluence
H3((J): on theSV
dimensionof SOC_ENT.
H^y. AGREE hasan influence on theINV dimension
of SOC _ENT.
H$(cy.AGREE hasan influenceon theSN dimension
of SOCJENT.
H^d)'.AGREE hasan influenceon theSTB dimension
ofSOC_ENT.;
AGREE hasan influence
H3(t,): on FR dimensionof
SOQ.ENT.
268 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and GomathiShamuganathan

Conscientiousness
(CONSC) favourablemanner(KingandBrunn er,2000).SDB is
The conscientious traitrelatesto an individual's especially in
prevalent self-report measures tapping
meticulousness, conformance withrules/procedures intovaluesandperceptions thatareconsidered socially
and the incessantobsessionin maintaining high sensitiveand/orundesirable research. While elimi-
standards of performance (Llewellyn and Wilson, natingSDB in totalis notpossible, therearemethods
2003;Yong,2007,p. 32). Conscientious individuals to reducethe occurrence(Randalland Fernandes,
are drivenby a strongsense of responsibility, 1991).Measuresincludephrasing questions in a non-
industriousness and need for achievementwhich threatening mannerusingfamiliar terms,obtaining
promotes theirdependability at work (Ciavarella priorinformed consentand throughassuranceof
et al., 2004). Need forachievement hasbeen found anonymity (Andanda,2005; Homan,2001; Vintén,
to positively relatedto competitiveadvantage ofthe 1997). In addition,wordingof questionsseekinga
firm(Ong and Ismail,2008). Conscientiousness has 'thirdparty'view may encourageindividualsto
alsobeenpositively linkedto long-term ofa
survival divulgetheirview morefreely behindthefacadeof
business venture(Ciavarellaetal.,2004).As suchthe impersonality. Nonetheless, SDB in desirable values
following hypotheses areposited. increaseratherthancontaminate the validity of re-
sponses(Sarros etal.,2006).Thisisbecause individuals
CONSC hasaninfluence
H4((I): ontheSTB dimension
ofSOC_ENT. mayfeelgreater easeandlessthreatened toaccentuate
CONSC hasaninfluence on FR dimension of or aspectsofactions.
positivetraits This studyhasad-
H4(/,)-.
SOC_ENT. dressedandtakenthenecessary precautions to reduce
SDB. The Strahan-Gerbasi SocialDesirability Scale
Neuroticism
(NEURO) (1972 cited in and
Thompson Phua,2005) has been
Neuroticism is the degreeof emotionalstability of includedto assessSDB.
the individual(Yong, 2007, p. 9; Llewellynand The conceptualframeworkof this study to
Wilson,2003). Individualswho are highlyneurotic investigatetheinfluence oftheBig Fivepersonality
oftendisplaymood swings,impulsiveness,self-con- factorson social entrepreneurship dimensionsis
low self-esteem
sciousness, and depression(Costa in Figure1.
illustrated
andMcCrae,1992citedin Zhao andSeibert, 2006).
In contrast,
entrepreneurs who are constantlychal-
of
lengedby diversity complex situations
involving Methodology
management of scarceresourcesin tandemwith
of illuminating
pressures legitimacy in the face of The authorsadopta technicaland situational para-
pressuresfrom stakeholders need to exhibithigh digm stancewhich that
recognizes quantitative and
degree of optimismand emotionalintelligence qualitativemethods are interconnected but have
(Craneand Crane,2007; D'Intinoet al., 2007). As distinctive
epistemologicaland ontologicalassump-
such,low neuroticism scoresareexpected.Thus,the tions(Bryman andBell,2007). As suchquantitative
following are
hypotheses posited: and qualitativemethodsare not compatible within
the samephaseof thisstudy.However,qualitative
NEURO hasaninfluence
H5(ay. on theSTB dimen-
sionofSOC_ENT. methodscan complement quantitativefindingsby
NEURO hasaninfluence ontheSN dimension drawingof theoreticalinferences and/orapplied
H5(/,):
ofSOC_ENT. withindifferent studysituationsand contextsin
NEURO hasaninfluence
H5(Cy. on theINV dimen- futurestudies(Flick,2009; Miles and Huberman,
sionofSOC_ENT. 1994).
NEURO hasaninfluence
H5(i/): on FR dimension of Thissectiondescribesthemethodology usedinthe
SOC_ENT. main studywhich adoptsthe quantitative survey
methodas partofan initialempirical to
investigation
bias
Social desirability obtain the macro view concerning the influence
betweenpersonality andsocialentrepreneurship.
traits
thetendency
bias(SDB) concerns
Socialdesirability of The hypotheses withinthe conceptualframework
individuals
to over-claim in a
or presentthemselves developed for study(Figure1) werederived
this from

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 TheInfluence TraitsandDemographic
ofPersonality Factors 269

reviewof extantliterature in the previoussection. observingthe Cronbacha (Cavana et al., 2000,

Similarstudieson commercial entrepreneurship have p. 211). As thisstudyformsa preliminaryresearch
alsooften the
adopted quantitative methodologytest
to intosocialentrepreneurship,theCronbacha of0.60
hypotheses triangulated fromextantliterature and/or and above will be consideredto be reliable(Hair
previous qualitativestudy propositions(Table I). et al., 2006, pp. 137-139; Nunnally,1967 p. 226
The following sectionalsodescribes thesampling citedin Peterson,1994).
design,measurement assessment and methods used
fordataanalysis.The sectionstarts byelucidating why
a sampleofstudents isselectedas wellas elaborateson Validity
thescalesusedforthequantitative survey conducted.
Itthenelaborates on theempirical testsusedtotestthe There is many genresof validity,namely,face,
hypotheses developedforthisstudybased on the contentandconstruct validities
(Cavanaet al.,2000,
conceptual framework in Figure1 above. The sta- pp. 212-215). Face and contentvalidities
areassessed
tistical
package used for thisstudywasSPSS 16. by an extant review and verification
from literature
as well as obtainingindependentexpertreview.
Constructvaliditycomprising convergent and dis-
Samplingdesign criminant validitiesof the measurements forsocial
entrepreneurship and personalitytraitsconstructsis
As the purposeof the studyis to investigate the evaluatedviaEFA usingthePrincipalComponents
theoretical ratherthanpopulationgeneralizability of Method.As theitemsmakingup theconstructs of
theconceptualmodelpositedin Figure1, a purpo- thisstudyare likelyto be correlated, the Direct
sivejudgemental sampling designis utilized(Cavana Obliminfactor rotation methodis employed.In line
et al., 2000,p. 263). The samplecomprised college withthesamplesizeofbetween150 and200, factor
studentsand undergraduates fromprivateHEI as
loadingsof 0.45 and above is considered significant
theyformthe futurehumancapitaland leadersin (Hairet al, 2006, p. 128).
nationdevelopment. Althoughthereis no prior
specificstudyrelating to socialentrepreneurship in
Malaysia, studentsampleshaveoftenbeenutilizedin Data analysis
entrepreneurship studiesas shownin Table I. Of a
totalof200 survey questionnaireswereadministered
Hypotheses H' to H5 seriesare testedby engaging
on individualstudents,181 were returned/com- the MultipleLinear Regression(MLR) method.
pletedand usedfordataanalysis. The relevantsocial entrepreneurship (SOC_ENT)
dimensions are the dependentvariables(SV, STB,
Measurement assessment SN and INV respectively) and thepersonality trait
variables(OPEN, EXTROV, AGREE, CONC
The questionnairefor social entrepreneurship and NEURO) as the independentvariables.In
dimensions was developedbased on the concepts adoptingthe95% confidence interval, thehypoth-
derivedfromextantliterature a methodo- esis will be consideredsignificantif the^-value is
forming
below 0.05.
logicalcontribution ofthisstudy.As forpersonality
theBig Fivepersonality
traits, measures advancedby
Schmitet al. (2000) areadoptedandadaptedforthe
contextof thisstudy.A five-point Likertscale is Findings
employedfortheabovementioned constructs.
Descriptivestatistics
The sampleof thisstudycomprisea totalof 181
Reliability respondents
comprisingstudents fromprivateHEI in
KlangValley,Malaysia.Table II displays
thesample
Reliabilityor internalconsistencyof the items demographic characteristics
of the respondents.In
withineach constructof thisstudyis assessedby termsofage,therespondents havebeenfoundto be

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
270 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and Gomathi Shamuganathan

TABLE II
statistics
Descriptive

Frequency Percent Validpercent Cumulativepercent

Age
20 andbelow 92 50.8 51.1 51.1
21-23 86 47.5 47.8 98.9
24-26 2 1.1 1.1 100
Total 180 99.4 100
Missingsystem 1 0.6
Total 181 100
Race
Malay 3 1.7 1.7 1.7
Chinese 170 93.9 94.4 96.1
Indian 3 1.7 1.7 97.8
Others 4 2.2 2.2 100
Total 180 99.4 100
Missingsystem 1 0.6
Total 181 100
EDUC_LVL
Foundationstudies 86 47.6 48.3 48.3
Diploma 6 3.3 3.4 51.7
Undergraduatedegree 82 45.3 46.1 97.8
Others 4 2.2 2.2 100
Total 178 98.3 100
Missingsystem 3 1.7
Total 181 100 100

almostevenlydistributedbetween the categoriesof adequacyandtheassumption ofnon-identity matrix

below 20 (51.1%) and between 21 and 23 (47.8%). havenotbeenviolated.The Eigenvalues foreachof
The majorityrace is Chinese and mostlypursuing the five personality traitcomponentswere also
foundationstudies(47.6%) or undergraduate
degrees greaterthanone (1) indicating thattheyconstitute
(45.3%). valid and importantexplanatory variables(Field,
2009, p. 660). The cumulativepercentageof
Measurementassessment explainedvarianceis 56.69%.
TablesIII and IV represent thefinalpattern matrix Based on Table IV, the social entrepreneurship
results oftheEFA fortheBig Fivepersonality factors components,the Cronbach a values for social
andsocialentrepreneurship dimensions,respectively. entrepreneurship dimensionsof social vision and
Based on Table III, thefinalpattern matrixforthe innovationare 0.89, sustainability and social net-
Big Five personalityfactorswas 0.77 foragreeable- works is 0.87 while returns
financial is 0.82. The
nessandextroversion, 0.69 forneuroticism, 0.73 for Cronbacha valuesof above 0.7 indicates thatthe
opennessand 0.75 forconscientiousness. Since the constructed scaleshave highreliability.The KMO
Cronbacha valueswerebetween0.60 and0.70 with testshowsa valueof 0.89, and theBartlett's testof
lessthan10 itemsconstituting eachoftheconstructs, sphericityhas a chi-squaredvalue of 3,584
thereliability ofthescalehasbeen established (Hair (df= 528; p value= 0.01) indicating thatsampleis
et al., 2006, pp. 137-139). The Kaiser-Meyer-Ol- adequate and suitablefor conductingEFA. The
kin test(KMO) shows a figureof 0.77 and the Eigenvalues ofaboveone (1) alsoindicates thatthe5
Bartlett's testreturnsa chi-squared value of 1,364 five-dimensions ofsocialentrepreneurship extracted
= = that
(df 253; p 0.01) indicating good sampling arevalid factors.As the
such, accompanying findings

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 The Influence Traitsand Demographic
ofPersonality Factors 271

U
OÖOÖOt-h'vu'0Ö00(N
U

Z o x in r-t fo (NONLnc^cNr^
(jq h; h VÛ '£) I« h; ^ 'O h (N Vß
^ ööööö h jN d o od ri
O m th

s<L> o-V (M h vu 'OrOi/*5Cvm00

G r? ^ ^ ^ on in T-i vq rs. i^.
SH dod T-íoorodKr-H*

¡ z
u
y CMOOr-Hrj-av OOrOcOI^vOOO
ä h» h; r^ no in ^t in (N 'C Is; rt; in
H Ó Ó Ö Ó Ó Ó CN t-h' ^ d t-h' cO
^ CO CM
X lililí
w

2 w
<D
puONt^ocN oooor^mro
J Is, Is: i^ ^ ^^t^1^:^^
O 7* Ó ó ö Ó in cS có d in c4
Cu

O
o

1 o

'S 2
feo SC

3 i. If Ji S
H E ¡ 8. ¡ ^ I 1 &i
S: r I« §-â .S3 a -g fis.
ÖD
S
I s í S .« s:-a sE-2 í -s
•a

E
«
i!*ï Mili .iHÍÍiii.811 !
lu* -is rij sie i si-ili ni ?
<w

1
EU

ili Hillif!I! PU! .

UHmiuñm ¡ «tfi i i
.¡I I!
UMîillflîîîïlifîïfîu
111!
jlj fîflÎlll!!f!Hl i iff
iiii« , ' ' ! ' -3 3a "è
^^4S -S S S c"

ëg88iBfiÊfigÊlll8i11îagggg|S|l-â-a
a S) a Si S xx
xx x M îi ï fr fr fr & ^ o o o o o ;h « f^ r^ u u 11
q «

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
272 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and GomathiShamuganathan

C/D

í
i
1
OD

¿2 I g
<D Ort> r^r^r^r^r^
O U££ doddo
g e, I I I I I
I-
o

*I
sI Ö
c
S S
00 00 h;
oooooo
h; r^ 'D

O
c/5

I
X

^> 00 t^ vO nO ^O ^ vO in
'rt SÛ do d d do d d
ë 'S
c^
CU

iS I s i| ^ li - .g i §• „11 58
5| I t ¡5 I :-g 5Î2 aî I |î| 11
Ils ;j 2 U »|1 } " ïisil
■gg tï| g¡ 'S 'S-55 9 I ^ f iá^^ls jjo|S
¿? îît !§ I Si. Ifï |i- 8¡ 6 6 8| &l
i3^ «*§«* ^á|^ ^iiSIIbIií*; fililí i
Si fe-5 ao fe c S S g fe-6 ^S-fíSSS.sSS g.SS.S.S.S S.S>

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 TheInfluence TraitsandDemographic
ofPersonality Factors 273

C/3
vi r^ r^m lo in (N| h ; ^ oq in ^-j
m ©OOÒÓ^fi^OONeO
I I I I I *> -
^ g
on e

2s
H

2 OOÓOOÒ rn' iri K O ^ H

« m (M
'rt

c
•Sr^^c^t oooroavvccN
aJ 'C 'C vO h vC in 00 c^ vO
>OÖ O O (NvCCNOO^f

nSè

> 1 •2^^ rt; in On » rn en

w i eg rnoin'oooco
" ^ "
S 3

« 2 OOGNONONrOr^
1
C .3
Q > vD en CO 00 00 vu ||
cl -i th iri iri o ^' ^t a
S y > e»

II
'-M

G ^ • OC

«^
ü S -H ^ in
1 » -go -e 1 s I
y Já
1 -o I

11 |l|!til]l|ll li il il il!

HÜllülillililíiilillJá!! ¡1

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
274 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and GomathiShamuganathan

supportthe establishment of the social entrepre- ^ a * * *

Ä
neurship scaleas a validand reliablescale. fe, >
C3 ('J ^
© <O © ^ © ©
Tt T-l tJ" *-H

„ X Ö Ö Ö Ò Ó Ö
The final Strahan- Gerbasi Social Desirability g
Scale (1972 cited in Thompsonand Phua, 2005) D
■»r»
00 lo
r- o' oo m m *-■
On On 00 m
Ü ^ (N q N h (vi ri
seven(7) itemsrecordeda Cronbacha
comprising
reliability 0.63 witha scale mean of 22.80 and
of 1
--J O O O O O O
'
S<^ _ _ _ ^ ^ (N
standard deviationof 3.57. As the Cronbacha lies ö u ^ ¿ ^ 3 6 <N
* * uní d
betweentherangeof 0.60 and 0.70, reliability can
alsobe assumed(Hairet al., 2006,pp. 137-139). s
^2
*
^h
*
o r^ <N
£- v O O ^ ON
q in
JTO
^ > p oq
Z ¿, ö do o
testing
Hypothesis
The 17 hypotheses (denotedbytheH¡ to H5 series) -i (N en 'o o
•2 ^ -t i>: -¡ -¡
have been testedby employingmultiplelinear rt O O O O

regression(MLR) method.The social entrepre-

neurshipdimensions of socialvision(SV), sustain- tí f.. s-^ ^-^ LO

social networks(SN), innovation * X XX d

ability (STB),
(INV) and financial returns(FR) are treatedas í^ ^ r^ <n on
dependent variables.The independent variablesare c>o > q q ^
represented bytheBig Fivepersonality factors.
SDB
has been includedas an independent controlvari- >
O (N On
<n r^
^t
oo

I C -a ™ ^ P
able. Table V below tabulatesthe resultsof the o o o
g
hypothesis testing.Assumptions of normality of the
residualsof the dependentvariableshave been sat- o ^ Se on
isfiedforall thehypotheses.
Based on Table V, hypotheses H1(a)to H1(c)are
supportedat the 0.05 significance level. As such, H > vq q h q i^
openness(OPEN) exertsan influence on SV, STB 52. ¿^ d d d d d
and FR. Similarly,for agreeableness(AGREE), §rä _ m m r^ r^ (N
en ^ m
vo
-^ o
•ß q en q io q
hypothesesH3(a) to H3(e) are supported.Thus, S o o o o o
AGREE exertsa significant influenceon all four S . _ _ <N
a v e e 3 3 no
dimensions ofsocialentrepreneurship. The relevant 5/3 «
I DC I DC d
hypotheses related to conscientiousness (CONSC),
s * *
H4(a) and H4(b)are also supportedindicatingthat ¿r>.
,3
co
T-H Tj-
moo
O ON
r^
CONSC hasa significant influenceon STB andFR. > > q vq q r^
^,¿^000 0
As forneuroticism (NEURO), only H5(b)is sup-
•g
portedimplying that NEURO exertsa negative ■g
on m nû
<n q lo
o
T-H
> „a
odd d
relationship on the fostering of social networks. I
3
Table V also showsthatthe controlvariableSDB
^ a¿ 3 2 3 íN
didnotexertanystatistically significantinfluenceon *
theresponses in thisstudyexceptforFR. The ad-
XX X o
justedR2 in all the regression modelsrangefrom Q
0.096 to 0.262 indicating thatthepopulationeffect
sizeis mediumto large(Cohen,1992).

Discussionand implications

The findings
of thisstudysuggestthatcertainper- z^ 53e^g ? S
tì h » P í -2 s
traits
sonality such as agreeableness,
opennessand O W < Z U C/5<

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 TheInfluence TraitsandDemographic
ofPersonality Factors 275

conscientiousness exert an influenceon social mutualgoals of the entrepreneur are inseparable

entrepreneurship dimensions. The followingsec- (London, 2008; Rae, 2009). Thus, the education
tion discusseshow we can develop the business curriculum needs to be robustin nourishing the
and management educationcurriculum further to desireto createa moresustainable, just and com-
enhanceawareness, and development
understanding passionateworld (Johnson, 2005). Engagement of
and therequisitepersonality
of socialresponsibility studentsinsocialissuescanbe encouraged toenhance
traitsabove throughcharactereducation. The motivation, increasecriticalawareness(Warbuton,
implication ofhowthedevelopment ofcharacter and 2003) and relevanceof social entrepreneurship.
social entrepreneurshipcan be inculcatedthrough Fostering awarenessand nurturing themin recog-
student-centredlearningandlife-long
learningis also nizing their as
place global citizensare necessary to
further below.
discussed equip them to cope with globalpressures for sus-
tainabledevelopment (Newportet al., 2003). The
role of studentsas empoweredfuturecatalystfor
Social responsibility social change has to be continuallyreinforced
throughout the curricula(Henle, 2006; Johnson,
The studyfindings revealthatagreeableness is the 2005).
onlypersonality traitthatexertssignificant influence Highereducationinstitutions in Malaysianeedto
acrossall dimensions of socialentrepreneurship. As lead in developingcogent global sustainability
suchin a multi-racial nationsuchas Malaysia,the practicesand principles givinga balancedemphasis
educationcurriculum needsto promoteconstructive to theeconomic,environmental andsocialconcerns
dialogue to encourage better understanding on (Newport et al., 2003). The appreciation andstance
multicultural valuesand perspectives. Students have of the academiatowardsdoing its partalleviating
to appreciate theirrole as futureleaderswithinan global issues such as global warming,security,
ecosystemcomprising businesses, society and the humanrights, poverty and othersustainability con-
environment. Internalization of the interconnec- cernsare crucialin bridgingthe gap in academic
tednessof economic, social and environmental contentand extracting globalrelevance.
concernsrequirescontinualreflective learning rein-
forcements acrossdifferent of
disciplines academia to
promote holistic grasps of the principles of sustain- Studentcentredlearning
ability(Warburton,2003). Within this context,
collaborative efforts betweenacademicinstitutions, This studyalso found that personality traitsof
and
corporations society are to
required provide openness and agreeableness exerted a positive
input towardsa more comprehensive education influenceon socialvisionconstruction. Agreeable-
systemthataddressesthe relevantmodusoperandi nessand conscientiousness also had a significant
and
forsustainable development (Springettand Kearins, positiveinfluenceon the sustainability dimension.
2001). Agreeableness throughsocial consensusbe- Developmentof sustainability and entrepreneurial
tweentheEducationMinistry, NGOs and thepri- traitsare drivenby personalvalues/beliefs, experi-
vate sector may fosterhealthyappreciationfor encesand interest beliefs(Barendsenand Gardner,
differing stakeholder viewsand in derivinga more 2004; KruegerJr.,2007; Warbuton,2003). Thus,
holistic,dynamicand relevantbusinesseducation the competenceof students to learnhow to learn
curriculum (Rae, 2009). and identify their potentialrole and contribution
The studyalso foundthatopennessexertedsig- towards society(Krueger Jr.,2007) isbotha personal
nificant positiveinfluenceon financial returns and and corporate journey.The social entrepreneurial
socialvision.Conscientiousness wasfoundto exerta mindsetinvokestheneed foropennessin thecon-
positive influence on sustainabilityand financial struction of meaningwithinthe complexbusiness
returns.The findingsimplythatsocial entrepre- environment involvingthe internaldeliberation of
neurship upholdsthe compelling valueswithinthe personalvalues/beliefs and social concernswhile
socialmissionin thequesttowardslong-term social makingbusinesssense.As such, entrepreneurship
value.In manyinstances, thepersonalandcorporate/ educationcurriculumin HEI need to nurture

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
276 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and GomathiShamuganathan

independent learnerswho are able to developthe engagementstaringfromparents,educatorsand

competence construct
to meaningthrough concepts,
discoveryand reflection.Personalitytraitsof open-
ness and agreeableness can also be inculcatedvia
active,problem-based and cooperativelearningas
studentsgrapplewithreal-life exampleswithindif-
ferentsocialcontext(Richardson and Hynes,2008).
organizational leadersare necessary(Packer and
Sharrar,2003). Citizenshipwithinthe contextof
social entrepreneurship, the individualmay, as a
response to life-longlearning,consider social
responsibility a good opportunity
as to ameliorate
one's intrinsicsocial visionwithinotherpersonal
goals.

Life-longlearning
Charactereducation
An individual'saspirations and values/beliefs may
evolvethrough socializationandpersonal experience Charactereducationmay have a bearingin the
gainedin thejourneyof one's career.Thus, per- development of conscientiousness whichhas been
sonalitytraitsmay also be transformed over time found to positivelyinfluencesustainability and
(Mezirow, 2008). Life-longlearninginvolvesa financialreturns in thisstudy.The twofoldthrust of
combinationof tacitand explicitknowledgeand character educationrelatesto the development of
recognizesthe individualas an active creatorof personal and relationship virtues et
(Benninga, al.,
meaningin bridging theory andpractice(Jorgensen, 2006). Personalvirtuesinclude developmentof
2004). Continuous learningtakesplaceas one con- conscientiousness, self-resolve, courage to exert
stantlyappliesacquiredskills,social networksand one's intellectual voice, exercise of responsibility,
experience as practicalreinforcements to createand/ honesty, hope and humility (Rivers,2004). On the
or capitalize
on opportunities in a competitive busi- otherhand,relationship virtuesrelateto issuessur-
ness environment. Older individualshave been rounding social interaction and integration, for
foundto have a greaterpropensity to embarkon instance,respect,tolerance,equitablepractices and
entrepreneurship comparedto youngerindividu- tolerance.As such,relationship virtues maypromote
als (Areniusand Minniti,2005; Beugelsdijkand practicalagreement through reasonable compromise
Noorderhaven, 2005; Walkerand Webster,2007; withinlegaland moralconfines.
Weber and Schaper,2004). Entrepreneurial ten- Charactereducationmayalso mitigate theresis-
denciesarehigher amongolderindividuals astheyare tanceto changearising fromfalsesocialperceptions
financiallystablein termsof resources,and have betweendifferent groupsof peoples.Studentsare
greaterexperience butmaybe lesseducatedandhave continually challenged to evaluateand deliberate on
lesschoiceofemployment. Thus,theymaybe 'pu- the essenceof a decisionor situationon its own
shed'intoself-employment due to lack of alterna- meritsratherthanpassingsimple'right'or 'wrong'
tives. However, youngerindividualsare often judgement.In so doing,students learnto develop
'pulled'or luredby greater choicesof employment openness viatolerate a diversity of views andlearnto
due to theirhigherfinancial, familycommitments act responsibly the
despite contingencies in thesit-
andeducational As such,theremaybe
qualifications. uation(Benningaetal, 2006; Polan,1991).As such,
a placeforadultentrepreneurship educationto but- charactereducationprovidesthe foundations for
tresstheknowledgecompetence in bridging thegap citizenship education which attempts developa
to
betweenthecurrent employment statusand identity senseof moraland social/civic convictions through
withlong-term personalaspiration in makingmid- criticalreflection and engagement (Gilness,2003;
lifeself-employment transitions
(Rae, 2005). Josephand Efron,2005; Polan, 1991). Character
Besidestechnicalknow-how,life-longlearning educationmay indirectly contributetowardsthe
also incorporatesactivecitizenship whichincludes inculcationof one's moraland social intelligence
thereflection on how an individual seesone's role (Landy, 2005; Lennick and Kiel, 2005, p. 7;
withinthelargersociety(Leader,2003). Thus,for Silberman,2001; Strang,1930). In certaininstances,
life-longbusinesscurricula to be relevant in devel- character educationhasalsobeenfoundto improve
oping responsible a
citizens, closely knit chainof academicachievement (Benningaet al., 2006). As

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 TheInfluence TraitsandDemographic
ofPersonality Factors 277

moralandsocialvirtues permeate humaninteraction executives

business needmoralcourageto be leaders
in all areas of business,charactereducationpro- oftransformation
byembracing intothe
sustainability
mulgationrequiresinterdisciplinary reinforcements soulofthebusiness bycommitting globalciti-
to be
(Josephand Efron,2005; Polan, 1991; Rivers, zens(Birch,2008).
2004).

Limitations and furtherresearch

education
Entrepreneurship
Social and commercialentrepreneurs sharecertain
such as affinity
similarcharacteristics towardsrisk-
taking,creativityand opportunism (Kirby,2004;
Mortet al., 2003). As such,entrepreneurship edu-
cationneedsto promotea properbalanceofrational
thoughtrootedin technicalknowledgebase and
intuitivethinking(Kirby,2004). Student-centred
learningapproachessuchas cooperativeand prob-
lem-based learningcan be employedto increasethe
relevanceof the curriculum and to encouragestu-
dentsto take ownershipof theirlearning.The
experience gainedbyinvolving studentsworkingin
teamsin solvingsimulations issueswill
of real-life
developthe abilityto endurethe uncertainty in a
businessenvironment envelopedby constant change.
Teamworkalsoestablishes potentialsocialandbusi-
nessnetworking opportunities (Collinset al., 2004).
Sustainabilityeducation
Socialentrepreneurship educationneedsto includea
firmgrounding on ethicsand sustainable practices.
A sustainability education curriculumneeds to
encouragegreater research, deep reflectionand dis-
cussionson waysto betterachieveequitablebalance
ofeconomic,socialandenvironmental development
(Campbelland Dealtry,2003). Humanexploitation
oftheenvironmental resourcesneedsto be carefully
the
weighedagainst regenerative capabilityof the
ecosystem(Birch,2008). Future leaders need to
consciously considerthe pivotalrole corporations Social entrepreneurship
play in preserving the equilibriumof the socio-
economicand environmental ecosystem.Sustain- and socialvalue.Thisunityofpurposeis upheldby
abilityneeds to be treatedas an interdisciplinary the overarching
discipline which is requiredintegratedemphasis
acrossallcorebusinesscoursestaught atinstitutions
of
higher toreinforce
learning itsmulti-faceted
meaning and conscientiousness
andapplications(StubbsandCocklin,2008;Thomas,
et
2004; Velazquez al, 2005). In addition, future particular,
Thisstudyis an initialstudyon personality traits
and
social entrepreneurship based on conceptsderived
fromliterature. The studywas undertaken withan
understanding thatundergraduate studentscan be
trained
skilfully and motivated to engagein socially
entrepreneurialactivities(Bull,2008). The objective
aim is to highlightareaswheresocialentrepreneur-
ship and associatedpersonalitytraitscould be
incorporated in businessandmanagement education
curriculum.
However,the scope of thisstudyis limitedto
undergraduate students.The quantitative survey
methodmayalsolackthedepthin explanation ofthe
dilemmasand challengesthatsocial entrepreneurs
facein reality.As such,separatequalitative research
on the practitioners' viewpointusing case study
methodsto understandis suggested.Qualitative
findingsmay also complementand deepen our
understanding ofhow personalities cumcharacter of
socialentrepreneurs aremoulded.The insight gained
canthenbe usedto refine theconceptual framework
thatappliesto workingadultsas well as further
reinforcerelevanceof businessand management
educationcurricula.
Futurestudiesmayalsoneedto controltheeffect
ofsocio-economic factorsanddemographics beyond
personality traitson the intention to pursuesocial
entrepreneurship .
Conclusion
is emergingas a sustainable
solutionin integrating financial/economic interest
vision that commitsto a social
dimension to business Thisstudyhasfound
decisions.
thatpersonality suchas agreeableness,
traits openness
have generallya positive
influenceon socialentrepreneurship dimensions. In
agreeableness has been found to have a

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
278 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and GomathiShamuganathan

positiveinfluenceacross all social entrepreneurship Birch,D.: 2008, 'Workingand Fighting forProgress,for

dimensionsinvestigated, namelysocial vision,inno- Prosperity, forSociety:BraveNew BusinessWorlds
vation,sustainability,social networkingand financial Beforeand BeyondCorporateCitizenship', Journal
of
returns.As such, thereis a need to inculcate these Corporate Citizenship 29, 25-32.
traitsamongbusinessstudentsto promote Brooks,A. C: 2009,SocialEntrepreneurship: A Modern
personality
social Approachto Social VentureCreation,PersonInter-
greater entrepreneurial spiritthroughengage- nationalEdition,New Jersey.
ment, awareness of social responsibility, creativity A. and E. Bell: 2007, Business Research
Bryman, Methods,
reflectivelearningand good characterdevelopment. 2nd Edition(OxfordUniversity Press,New York).
Social entrepreneurship requiresthe combinationof Bull, M.: 2008, 'ChallengingTensions:Critical,Theo-
head knowledge and heart virtuesthat fostersthe reticaland EmpiricalPerspectives on Social Enter-
courage to become catalysts of change while under- prise', InternationalJournal of Behaviour
Entrepreneurial
takingopportunities that offer an enhancedblend of andResearch 14(5), 268-275.
economic, social cum environmental value. Caliendo,M. andA. S. Kritikos: 2008,'Is Entrepreneurial
Success Predictable?An Ex-ante Analysisof the
Character-Based Approach',Kyklos61(2), 189-214.
Campbell, I. and R. Dealtry:2003, 'The New Genera-
References tionof CorporateUniversities: Co-CreatingSustain-
able Enterprise and BusinessDevelopmentSolutions',
Abd Moen, J., I. Abd Rahman,M. F. Md Sallehand Journal ofWorkplace Learning13(7/8),368-381.
R. Ibrahim:2004, 'A Studyon Entrepreneurial Atti- Cartwright, W. and J. L. Craig: 2006, 'Sustainability:
tudesAmongYouthsinMalaysia.Case Study:Institute AligningCorporate Governance, Strategyand Oper-
Kemahiran Belia NegaraMalaysia', Journal ofAmerican ationswith the Planet',BusinessProcess Management
Academy of Business4(1/2), 192-197. 12(6), 741-750.
Abu Elanain,H. M.: 2008, 'An Investigation of Rela- Cavana,R. Y., B. L. Delahayeand U. Sekaran:2000,
of to
tionship Openness Experience and Organiza- AppliedBusiness Research:Quantitative and Qualitative
tional CitizenshipBehaviour',Journalof American Methods &
(JohnWiley Sons,Australia).
Academy ofBusiness 13(1), 72-78. Chaucin,B., D. Hermandand E. Mullet:2007, 'Risk
P.:
Andanda, 2005, 'Module Two: Informed Consent', Perception andPersonality Facets',RiskAnalysis
27(1),
Developing World Bioethics
5(1), 14-29. 171-185.
Anderson, A. R.: 1998,'Cultivating theGardenofEden: Chen, M. and M. Wang: 2008, 'Social Networksand a
Environmental Entrepreneuring', Journalof Organiza- New Venture'sInnovativeCapability:The Role of
tionalChangeManagement 11(2), 135-144. TrustWithinEntrepreneurial Teams',R&D Manage-
Arenius,P. and M. Minniti:2005, 'Perceptual Variables ment 38(3), 253-263.
amd Nascent Entrepreneurship', Small Business Ciavarella,M. A., A. K. Buchholtz, C. M. Riodan,R. D.
Economics 24, 233-247. Gatewoodand G. S. Stokes:2004, 'The Big Fiveand
Auersweld, 2009, 'CreatingSocial Value', Stanford
P.: VentureCapitalSurvival', Journal ofBusinessVenturing
SocialInnovationReview7(2), 51-55. 19, 465-483.
Austin,
J.,H. Stevenson andJ.Wei-Skillern: 2006,'Social Cohen,J.: 1992, 'Quantitative Methodsin Psychology:
andCommercial Entrepreneurship: Same,Different or A Power Primer',Psychological Bulletin112(1), 155-
Both?'.EntrevreneurshivTlteorvandPractice30(1), 1-22. 159.
Barendsen, L. and H. Gardner:2004, 'Is the Social En- Collins,L., P. D. HannonandA. Smith:2004, 'Enacting
trepreneur a New Type of Leader?',Leaderto Leader Entrepreneurial Intent:The Gaps BetweenStudent
34, 43-50. Needs and Higher Education Capability',Educa-
Baumöl,W. J.: 1968, 'Entrepreneurship in Economic tion+ Training 46(8/9),454-463.
Theory',TheAmerican Economic Review58(2), 64-71. Cools, E. and H. Van den Broeck:2008, 'The Huntfor
Benninga,J. S., M. W. Berkowitz,P. Kuehn and the Heffalump Continues:Can Traitand Cognitive
K. Smith:2006, 'Characterand Academics:What Characteristics PredictEntrepreneurial Orientation?',
Good SchoolsDo', PhiDeltaKappan87(6), 448-452. Journal of Small Business Strategy18(2), 23-41.
Beugelsdijk,S. andN. Noorderhaven: 2005, 'Personality Cope,J.:2005,'Towarda DynamicLearning Perspective
Characteristics of Self-Employed:An Empirical ofEntrepreneurship', EntrepreneurshipTheoryandPrac-
Study',SmallBusiness Economics 35, 159-167. tice27(2), 93-104.

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 The Influence Traitsand Demographic
ofPersonality Factors 279

Crane, F. G. and E. C. Crane: 2007, 'Sispositional Handy,F., B. Ranade and M. Kassam:2007, 'To Profit
Optimismand Entrepreneurial Success',TltePsycholo- or Not to Profit:Women Entrepreneurs in India',
gist-Manager Journal10(1), 13-25. Nonprofit Management andLeadership 17(4), 383-401.
Crant,J.M.: 1996,The ProactivePersonality Scale as a Hart,S. L.: 2005, 'Innovation, CreativeDestruction and
Predictorof Entrepreneurial Intentions', Journalof Sustainability',Research Technology Management 45(5),
SmallBusiness Management 34(1), 42-49. 21-33.
D'Intino,R. S., M. G. Goldsby,J. D. Houghtonand Hart,S. L. and C. M. Christensen: 1992, 'The Great
C. P. Neck: 2007, 'Self Leadership:A Processfor Leap: DrivingInnovationFromtheBase of the Pyr-
Entrepreneurial Success',Journal ofLeadership & Orga- amid',MIT SloanManagement Review44(1), 51-56.
nizationalStudies 13(4), 105-120. Hart,S. L. and T. London: 2005, 'DevelopingNative
De Carolis,D. M. andP. Saparito:2006, 'SocialCapital, Capability:What MultinationalCorporationsCan
Cognition and Entrepreneurial Opportunities:A LearnFromtheBase of the Pyramid',Stanford Social
TheoreticalFramework', Entrepreneurship Theory and Innovation Review3(2), 28-33.
Practice30(1), 41-56. Haughton,C: 2008, 'The Edge of Reason', Director
Dees, J. G.: 2001, The Meaningof Social Entrepre- 61(7). 70-74.
neurship.http://www.fuqua.duke.edu/centers/case/ Hawken,P.: 1992, 'The Ecology ofCommerce, Inc.,Vol.
documents/dees_SE.pdf. Accessed25 June2008. 14(4),pp. 93-100.
Dees,J. G.: 2007, 'TakingSocialEntrepreneurship Seri- Henle,C. A.: 2006, 'Bad Applesor Bad Barrels? A For-
ously',Society 44(3), 24-31. merCEO Discussesthe Interplay of Personand Sit-
Elkington,P.: 2006, 'It's About People, Not Profits', uation with Implicationsfor BusinessEducation',
Business Strategy ReviewWinterissue,43-45. Academy ofManagement Learning & Education 5(3), 346-
Elkington, J. and P. Hartigan:2008, ThePowerofUnrea- 355.
sonable People(HarvardBusinessPress,USA). Homan,R.: 2001, lhe Principleot AssumedConsent:
Field, A.: 2009, Discovering StatisticsUsingSPSS, 3rd The Ethicsof Gatekeeping', Journal of Philosophy of
Edition(Sage Publication, London). Education 35(3), 329-343.
Flick,U.: 2009,An Introduction toQualitative Research,4th Jayasinghe, K., D. Thomas and D. Wickramasinghe:
Edition(Sage Publication, London). 2008,'BoundedEmotionality in Entrepreneurship: An
Frank,H., M. Luegerand C. Korunka:2007, 'The Sig- Alternative Framework', InternationalJournal of Entre-
nificanceof Personality in BusinessStart-upInten- preneurialBehaviour & Research 14(4), 242-258.
tions, Start-upRealizationand BusinessSuccess', Johnson,B.: 2005, 'Overcoming"Doom and Gloom":
Entrepreneurship & Regional Development 19, 227-251. Empowering Students in Courseson SocialProblems,
Gilness,J.: 2003, 'How to IntegrateCharacter Education and
Injustice Inequality', Teaching Sociology33(1), 44-
into the Curriculum', Phi Delta Kappan85(3), 243- 58.
245. Jorgensen, C. H.: 2004, 'ConnectingWorkand Educa-
Gliedt,T. and P. Parker:2007, 'Green Community tion: ShouldLearningbe Useful,Corrector Mean-
Entrepreneurship: CreativeDestruction in the Social ingful?',TheJournal of Workplace Learning 16(8), 455-
Economy', International
Journal ofSocialEconomics 34(8), 465.
538-553. Joseph,P. B. andS. Efron:2005,'SevenWorldsofMoral
Goss,D.: 2005, 'Schumpeter's Legacy?: Interaction and Education',PhiDeltaKappan86(7), 525-533.
Emotionsin the Sociology of Entrepreneurship', Keogh,P. D. and M. J. Polonsky:1998,'Environmental
Entrepreneurship andPractice
Tlteory 29(2), 205-218. Commitment: A Basis forEnvironmental Entrepre-
Goss,D.: 2008, 'Enterprise Ritual:A Theoryof Entre- neurship?', Journal ofOrganizational Change Management
preneurial Emotionand Exchange',British Journal of 11(1), 38-49.
Management 19, 120-137. King,M. F. andG. C. Brunner: 2000,'SocialDesirability
Greve,A. andJ. W. Salaff:2003, 'Social Networksand Bias: A NeglectedAspectof ValidityTesting',Psy-
Entrepreneurship', Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice chology andMarketing 17(2), 79-103.
28(1), 1-22. Kirby, D. A.: 2004, 'Entrepreneurship Education:Can
Gunn,R., C. Durkin,G. Singhand J. Brown: 2008, BusinessSchools Meet the Challenge?',Education
'Social Entrepreneurship in theSocial PolicyCurric- Trainino 46(8/9),510-519.
ulum',SocialEnterprise Journal 4(1), 74-80. Kor, Y. Y., J. T. Mahoneyand S. C. Micheal:2007,
Hair,J.F., W. C. Black,B. J.Babin,R. E. Anderson and 'Resources, Capabilitiesand Entrepreneurial Per-
R. L. Tatham:2006, Multivariate Data Analysis, 6th ception',Journal of Management Studies 44(7), 1187-
Edition(PearsonEducationInternational, USA). 1212.

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
280 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and GomathiShamuganathan
Krueger, N. F. Jr: 2007, 'What Lies Beneath? The
Experiential Essence of EntrepreneurialThinking',
Entrepreneurship Theory& Practice31(3), 123-137.
Kurucz, E. C, B. A. Colbert and D. C. Wheeler: 2008,
'The Business Case for Corporate Social Responsi-
bility', in A. Crane, A. McWilliams, D. Matten,
J. Moon and D. Seigel (eds.), T)'e OxfordHandbookon
Corporate SocialResponsibility
(Oxford UniversityPress,
Oxford, In Press:March 2008).
Landy, F. J.: 2005, 'Some Historicaland ScientificIssues
Related to Research on Emotional Intelligence',
Journalof Organizational Behaviour26, 411-424.
Leader, G.: 2003, 'LifelongLearning:Policy and Practice
in Further Education', Education+ Training45(7),
361-370.
Leisinger,K. M.: 2007, 'Corporate Philanthropy:The
"Top of the Pyramid'", Businessand SocietyReview
112(3), 315-342.
Lennick, D. and F. Kiel: 2005, Moral Intelligence:
EnhancingBusiness Performance & LeadershipSuccess
(Wharton School Publishing, USA).
Littunen,H.: 2000, Entrepreneurship and the Charac-
teristicsof the EntrepreneurialPersonality',Interna-
tionaljournal Behaviour& Research
ofEntrepreneurial 6(6),
295-309.
Llewellyn,D. J. and K. M. Wilson: 2003, 'The Con-
troversialRole of PersonalityTraitsin Entrepreneurial
Psychology',Education+ Training45(6), 341-345.
Loasby, B. J.: 2007, 'A Cognitive Perspectiveon Entre-
preneurship and the Firm', Journalof Management
Studies44(7), 1078-1106.
London, M.: 2008, 'Dual Roles for Corporate Social
Responsibilityand Social Entrepreneurship',Organi-
zationalDynamics37(4), 313-326.
Lovins, A. B., L. H. Lovins and P. Hawken: 2007, 'A
Road to Natural Capitalism',HarvardBusinessReview,
Jul/Aug,172-183.
Machan, T. R.: 1999, 'Entrepreneurshipand Ethics',
InternationalJournalofSocialEconomics 26(5), 596-608.
Matlay, H.: 2008, 'The Impact of Entrepreneurship
Education on EntrepreneurialOutcomes', Journalof
Small Businessand Enterprise Development 15(2), 382-
396.
McCarthy, B.: 2003, 'Strategyis PersonalityDriven,
Strategyis Crisis Driven: Insights From Entrepre-
neurialFirms',Management Decisions41(4), 327-339.
Mezirow, J.: 2008, 'An Overview of Transformative
Learning', in P. Sutherlandand J. Crowther (eds.),
LifelongLearning:Conceptsand Contexts(Routledge,
London), dd. 24-38.
Miles, M. B. and A. M. Huberman: 1994, An Expanded
Sourcebook: Data Analysis,2nd Edition (Sage
Qualitative
Publication,Thousand Oaks, CA).
This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Mitchell,R. K., L. Busenitz,T. Lant, P. P. McDougall,
E. A. Morse and J. B. Smith:2002, 'Toward a Theory
of EntrepreneurialCognition: Rethinkingthe People
Side of EntrepreneurialResearch', Entrepreneurship
Theoryand Practice 27(2), 93-104.
Molteni, M.: 2006, 'The Social-CompetitiveInnovation
Pyramid',Corporate Governance 6(4), 516-526.
Mort, G. S., J. Weerawardena and K. Carnegie: 2003,
'Social Entrepreneurship: Towards Conceptualisation',
International
Journalof Nonprofit and VoluntarySector
Marketing 8(1), 76-88.
Mustakova-Possardt,E.: 1998, 'Critical Consciousness:
An AlternativePathway for Positive Personal and
Social Development',JournalofAdultDevelopment 5(1),
13-30.
Naffziger,D. W., J. S. Hornsbyand D. F. Kuratko: 1994,
'A Proposed Research Model of Entrepreneurial
Motivation', Entrepreneurship Tlieory& Practice18(3),
29-42.
Nahapiet, J. and S. Ghoshal: 1998, 'Social Capital,
IntellectualCapital and the OrganizationalAdvantage',
The AcademyofManagement Review23(2), 242-266.
Newport, D., T. Chesnes and A. Lindner: 2003, 'The
"Environmental" SustainabilityProblem: Ensuring
That Sustainability Standson Three Legs', International
Journalof Sustainability in HigherEducation4(4), 357-
363.
Nordvik,H. and H. Brovold: 1998, 'PersonalityTraitsin
LeadershipTasks', Scandinavian 39,
JournalofPsychology
61-64.
Ong, J. W. and H. Ismail: 2008, 'Revisiting Personality
Traits in EntrepreneurshipStudy From a Resource
Based Perspective',BusinessRenaissanceQuarterly 3(1),
97-114.
Packer,A. H. and G. K. Sharrar:2003, 'LinkingLifelong
Learning, Corporate Social Responsibility and the
Changing Nature of Work', Advancesin Developing
Human Resources 5(3), 332-340.
Peterson,R. A.: 1994, 'A Meta-Analysisof Cronbach's
CoefficientAlpha',Journalof ConsumerResearch21(2),
381-391.
Phills, J. A., K. Deiglmeier and D. T. Miller: 2008,
'Rediscovering Social Innovation', StanfordSocial
Innovation Review6(4), 34-43.
Pittaway,L.: 2005, 'Philosophiesin Entrepreneurship: A
Focus on Economic Theories', International Journalof
EntrepreneurialBehaviour& Research11(3), 201-221.
Polan, A. J.: 1991, 'Personal and Social Education: Citi-
zenship and Biography',Journalof Moral Education
20(1), 13-32.
Pralahad, C. K.: 2006, The Fortuneat the Bottomoj the
Pyramid:EradicatingPovertyThroughProfits(Wharton
Business School Publishing,USA).
 The Influence
Traitsand Demographic
ofPersonality
Rae, D.: 2005, 'Mid-career EntrepreneurialLearning',
Education+ Training47(8/9), 562-574.
Rae, D.: 2009, 'Entrepreneurship:Too Risky to Let
Loose in a Stormy Climate?', Entrepreneurship and
Innovation 10(2), 137-147.
Randall, D. M. and M. F. Fernandes:1991, 'The Social
DesirabilityBias in EthicsResearch',JournalofBusiness
Ethics10, 805-817.
Raposo, M., A. do Paco and J. Farreira: 2008,
'Entrepreneur'sProfile: A Taxonomy of Attributes
and Motivations of UniversityStudents',Journalof
Small Businessand Enterprise Development 15(2), 405-
418.
Rauch, A. and M. Frese:2007, 'Let's Put the PersonBack
into Entrepreneurship Research: A Meta-Analysison
the RelationshipBetween Business Owners' Person-
alityTraits,Business Creation and Business Success',
EuropeanJournalof Workand Organizational Psychology
16(4), 353-385.
Rhee, K. S. and R. J. White: 2007, 'The Emotional
Intelligenceof Entrepreneurs', JournalofSmall Business
Entrepreneurship 20(4), 409-426.
Richardson,I. and B. And Hynes: 2008, 'Entrepreneur-
ship Education: Towards and Industry Sector
Approach', Education+ Training50(3), 188-198.
Ridley-Duff,R.: 2008, 'Social Enterpriseas a Socially
Rational Business',International
JournalofEntrepreneurial
Behaviour& Research14(5), 291-312.
Rivers, T. M.: 2004, 'Ten EssentialsforCharacterEdu-
cation', TheJournalof GeneralEducation3/4(53), 247-
260.
Robin, F.: 2006, 'The Challenge of TBL: A Responsi-
bilityto Whom?', Businessand Society111(1), 1-14.
Sarros,J. C, B. K. Cooper and A. M. Hartican: 2006,
'Leadershipand Character',Leadership and Organization
Development Journal27(8), 682-699.
Savitz,A. W. and K. Weber: 2006, The TripleBottomLine
(Jossey-Bass,USA).
Schaefer,B. P.: 2008, 'Shareholdersand Social Respon-
JournalofBusinessEthics81, 297-312.
sibility',
Schaper, M. and T. Volery: 2004, Entrepreneurship and
SmallBusiness:A Pacific Rim Perspective
(JohnWiley and
Sons, Australia).
Schmit,M. J.,J. A. Kihm and C. Robie: 2000, 'Devel-
opment of a Global Measure of Personality',Personnel
Psychology 53, 153-193.
Schmitt-Rodermund,E.: 2004, 'Pathwaysto Successful
Entrepreneurship: Parenting,Personality,EarlyEntre-
preneurialCompetence and Interest',Journalof Voca-
tionalBehaviour65, 498-518.
Shane, S. and D. Cable: 2002, 'Network Ties, Reputa-
tion and Financing of New Ventures', Management
Science48(3), 364-381.
This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Factors
281
Shaw, E. and S. Carter: 2007, 'Social Entrepreneurship:
Theoretical antecedentsand EmpiricalAnalysisof the
EntrepreneurialProcesses and Outcomes', Journalof
Small Businessand EconomicDevelopment 14(13), 418-
434.
Silberman,M.: 2001, 'Developing InterpersonalIntelli-
gence in the Workplace', International and Commercial
Training7(5), 266-269.
Springett,D. and K. Kearins: 2001, 'Gaining Legiti-
macy?', SustainableDevelopment in BusinessSchoolCur-
ricula9(4), 213-221.
Strang,R.: 1930, 'Measures of Social Intelligence',The
American JournalofSociology 36(2), 263-269.
Stubbs, W. and C. Cocklin: 2008, 'Teaching Sustain-
abilityto Business Students:ShiftingMindsets', Inter-
nationaljournal ofSustainabilityin HigherEducation9(3),
206-221.
Thomas, I.: 2004, 'Sustainabilityin TertiaryCurricula:
What is Stoppingit Happening?',International Journalof
Sustainabilityin HigherEducation5(1), 33-47.
Thompson, J. L.: 1998, 'A Strategic Perspective of
Entrepreneurship', International
JournalofEntrepreneurial
Behaviour& Research5(6), 279-296.
Thompson, J. L.: 2002, 'The World of the Social
Entrepreneur',Ute International Journalof PublicSector
Maniement 15(5), 412-431.
Thompson, J., G. Alvy and A. Lees: 2000, 'Social
-
Entrepreneurship A New Look at the People and
Potential',Management Decision38(5), 328-338.
Thompson, L. and B. Doherty: 2006, 'The Diverse
World of Social Enterprise:A Collection of Social
EnterpriseStories', International Journalof Social Eco-
nomics33(5/6), 361-375.
Velazquez, L., N. Munguia and M. Sanchez: 2005,
'DeterringSustainabilityin Higher Education Institu-
tions: An Appraisalof The Factors Which Influence
Sustainabilityin Higher Education Institutions',Inter-
nationaljournal ofSustainabilityin HigherEducation6(4),
383-391.
Vintén, G.: 1997, 'The Threat in the Questions', Credit
Control18(1), 25-31.
Walker,E. A. and B. J. Webster:2007, 'Gender,Age and
Self-Employment:Some Things Change, Some Stay
the Same', Womenin Management Review22(2), 122-
135.
Warbuton, K.: 2003, Deep Learningand Education tor
Sustainability',InternationalJournalof Sustainability in
Higher Education 4(1), 44-56.
Weber, P. and M. Schaper: 2004, Understandingthe
Grey Entrepreneur',Journal of Enterprising Culture
12(2), 147-167.
Wheeler, D., K. McKague, J. Thomson, R. Davies,
J. Medalye and M. Prada: 2005, 'Creating Sustainable
282 JoyceKoe Hwee Nga and Gomathi Shamuganathan

Local Enterprise Networks',MIT SloanManagement JoyceKoe Hwee Nga

Review47(1), 38-40. School of Business,
Wilson,F., J. Kickuland D. Marlino:2007, 'Gender, Sunway UniversityCollege,
Entrepreneurial and Entrepreneurial
Self-efficacy SelangorDarul Ehsan, Malaysia
Career Intentions:Implications for Entrepreneurial E-mail: joycen88@gmail.com
Theoryand Practice31(3),
Education', Entrepreneurship
387-406. Gomathi Shamuganathan
in the Workplace:
Yong, L.: 2007, EmotionalIntelligence
LeonardPersonality Taylor's UniversityCollege,
Inventory (LPI) Profiling(Leonard
SelangorDarul Ehsan, Malaysia
Personality Malaysia).
Incorporated,
- E-mail: shgomathi@gmail.com
a WorldWithout
Yunus, M.: 2007, Creating Poverty Social
Businessand theFutureofCapitalism(BBS Public Affairs,
USA).
Zhao, H. and S. E. Seibert:2006, The Big Five Per-
sonalityDimensionsand Entrepreneurial Status:A
Meta-AnalyticalReview', JournalofAppliedPsychology
91(2), 259-271.

This content downloaded from 111.68.100.252 on Fri, 20 Mar 2015 10:48:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions