Thesis PDF

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EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON COLD

START EMISSIONS USING ELECTRICALLY
HEATED CATALYST
A THESIS
Submitted by
N. NITHYANANDAN
for the award of the degree
of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DR. M.G.R. EDUCATIONAL AND RESEARCH
INSTITUTE UNIVERSITY
(Declared U/s 3 of the UGC Act, 1956)
CHENNAI - 600 095
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NOVEMBER 2010
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this thesis titled “EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION ON COLD START EMISSIONS USING
ELECTRICALLY HEATED CATALYST” is the bonafide work of
Mr. N. NITHYANANDAN who carried out the research under my
supervision. Certified further that to the best of my knowledge the work
reported herein does not form part of any other thesis or dissertation on the
basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion of this
or any other candidate.

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DECLARATION
I declare that the thesis entitled “EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION ON COLD START EMISSIONS USING
ELECTRICALLY HEATED CATALYST” submitted by me for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy is the record of work carried out by me during the
period from October 2006 to November 2010 under the guidance of
Dr. S. SENDILVELAN and has not formed the basis for the award of any
degree, diploma, associate-ship, fellowship, titles in this or any other
university or other similar institution of higher learning.

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ABSTRACT
The environmental pollution is one of the major strategic questions
for decision makers both in industry as well as in government. The use of
petrol and petroleum products in the automobile industry is well known and
the emission from them is also well known. More stringent emission
standards are being introduced all over the world with the aim of
progressively reducing vehicular emission leading research to achieve Low
Emission Vehicle (LEV), Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (ULEV) and Zero
Emission Vehicle (ZEV).
In achieving the LEV and ULEV, the after treatment of exhaust
gases such as catalytic converter plays an important role. New catalytic
converters attain maximum conversion rates of about 80-90 % under optimum
operating conditions but it is not effective during cold start conditions. Two
factors contribute to the high emission at cold start are the catalyst does not
begin to oxidize HC and CO until it reaches light off temperature and engines
run with a rich mixture during warm-up. Approximately 60 percent of the
overall HC and CO emissions are emitted during the first 180 seconds from
the cold-start period. One strategy to control the cold start emission is the use
of an Electrically Heated Catalyst (EHC).
In this investigation an attempt is made to study the cold start
emission from Spark Ignition engine using Electrically Heated Catalyst in

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combination with conventional catalytic converter. The experiments have
been conducted in two different configurations (EHC-MC and EHC-LOC-
MC) with copper oxide and silver oxide as catalyst in EHC and Light off
Converter (LOC) with and without air supply under 1 and 1.5 kW heating for
EHC. The commercially available catalytic converter is used as Main
Converter (MC). It is found that the EHC reduces cold start emission in both
configurations and more reduction is achieved in EHC-LOC-MC
configuration with copper oxide as catalyst under 1.5 kW heating with air
supply.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to my supervisor
Dr.S.Sendilvelan, Principal, Aksheyaa College of Engineering,
Kancheepuram District, India, for his constant encouragement, help and
valuable guidance in carrying out the research work.
I am grateful to my Doctoral Committee members,
Dr.K.Balagurunathan, Dean Academic St. Peter’s Engineering College,
Chennai, and Dr.S.Arul Head of the department, Panimalar Engineering
College Chennai, for providing the necessary support, review and guidance.
I sincerely thank Mr.M.Ganesan Professor and Head, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Dr.M.G.R Educational and Research Institute,
Chennai, Dr.P.Aravindan, Dean (IIPC) & Research, Dr.M.G.R Educational
and Research Institute, Chennai, The Principal, Panimalar Institute of
Technology, Chennai, for their kind support and timely help.
Finally, I wish to thank all those helped directly or indirectly in
completing this research work.
N. NITHYANANDAN
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xix
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 GENERAL 1
1.2 EMISSION FORM SI ENGINES 2
1.3 EMISSION CONTROL FROM SI ENGINES 4
1.4 EXHAUST GAS TREATMENT DEVICES 4
1.4.1 Cold Start Conditions 5
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 6
2.1 GENERAL 6
2.2 COLD START EMISSION CONTROL IN
SI ENGINES 6
2.3 CLOSURE 18
3 EMISSION CONTROL FROM SI ENGINE 20

3.1 GENERAL 20
3.2 EMISSION CONTROL METHODS 20
3.2.1 General Emission Control 20
3.2.1.1 Engine Design Modification 20
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3.2.1.1.1 Air Fuel Ratio 21

3.2.1.1.2 Retarding Ignition
Timing 21
3.2.1.1.3 Combustion Chamber
Modification 21
3.2.1.1.4 Lower Compression
Ratio 21
3.2.1.1.5 Reduced Valve
Overlap 22
3.2.1.2 Fuel Modification 22
3.2.1.3 Crankcase Emission Control 23
3.2.1.3.1 Positive Crankcase
Ventilation 23
3.2.1.3.1.1 Open PCV
Systems 24
3.2.1.3.1.2 Closed PCV
System 24
3.2.1.4 Evaporation Loss Control Device 25
3.2.1.5 Exhaust Gas Recirculation 26
3.2.1.5.1 NOx Formation 26
3.2.1.5.2 Exhaust Gas
Recirculation (EGR) 27
3.2.1.6 Treatment Of Exhaust Gases 27
3.2.1.6.1 Thermal Reactor 28
3.2.1.6.2 Catalytic Converter 28
3.2.1.6.2.1 Conventional
Oxidation
Converter 29
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3.2.1.6.2.2 Two Stage

Three Way
Catalytic
Converter 29
3.2.2 Cold Start Emission Control 30
3.2.2.1 Fast Light Off Techniques 31
3.2.2.1.1 Close Coupled
Catalytic Converter 31
3.2.2.1.2 Pre-Catalyst 32
3.2.2.1.3 HC Trapping System 32
3.2.2.1.4 Exhaust Gas Ignition 33
3.2.2.1.5 Electrically Heated
Catalyst (EHC) 33
3.3 CLOSURE 34
4 ELECTRICALLY HEATED CATALYST 35

4.1 GENERAL 35
4.2 ELECTRICALLY HEATED CATALYST 35
4.2.1 EHC-MC Configuration 36
4.2.2 EHC-LOC-MC Configuration 36
4.3 SELECTION OF CATALYST FOR EHC 37
4.4 SELECTION OF SUBSTRATE FOR EHC 38
4.5 PREPARATION OF CATALYST 38
4.6 FABRICATION OF EHC 39
4.7 POWER SUPPLY TO EHC 40
4.7.1 Battery Powered EHC 41
4.7.2 Alternator Powered EHC 41
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4.7.3 Electrical Power Supply from

220 V Ac 42
4.8 SECONDARY AIR SUPPLY TO EHC 42
5 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 43
5.1 GENERAL 43
5.2 EXPERIMENTAL SET UP 43
5.3 INSTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENT 45
5.3.1 Exhaust Gas Analyzer 45
5.3.2 Data Logger 45
5.3.3 Thermocouple 46
5.3.4 Rotometer 46
5.3.5 Regulator 46
5.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 47
6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 48

6.1 COPPER OXIDE AS CATALYST IN EHC
WITH 1 Kw HEATING 48
WITH 1.5 Kw HEATING 53
6.3 SILVER OXIDE AS CATALYST IN EHC
WITH 1 Kw HEATING 57
WITH 1.5 Kw HEATING 61
6.5 COPPER OXIDES AS CATALYST IN EHC
AND LOC WITH 1kw HEATING 65
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AND LOC WITH 1.5 Kw HEATING 69
AND LOC WITH 1 Kw HEATING 74
AND LOC WITH 1.5 Kw HEATING 78
6.9 COMPARISON OF TEMPERATURE OF
THE MAIN CONVERTER IN VARIOUS
CONFIGURATIONS 82
6.10 COMPARISON OF CO % BY VOLUME IN
VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS 87
6.11 COMPARISON OF HC IN ppm IN VARIOUS
CONFIGURATIONS 92
7 CONCLUSION 98
REFERENCES
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
VITAE
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
1.1 LEV and ULEV Regulations 2

1.2 Pollutant Formation Mechanism in SI Engines and
Its Effects on Human Beings 2
3.1 Effect of Design and Operating Variables on
Exhaust Emissions 22
5.1 Engine Specification 45
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
3.1 Close Coupled Catalytic Converter 31

3.2 Pre-Catalyst 32
3.3 HC Trapping Systems 33
3.4 Electrically Heated Catalytic Converter 34
4.1 EHC-MC Configuration 36
4.2 EHC-LOC-MC Configurations 37
4.3(a) Part Drawing Of EHC – 1 40
4.3(b) Part Drawing Of EHC – 2 40
4.4 Assembled View of EHC 40
5.1 Experimental Set-up 44
6.1(a) Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC (Without LOC) With 1 Kw Heating Without
Air Injection 48
6.1(b) Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC (Without LOC) With 1 Kw Heating With Air
Injection 49
6.1(c) Carbon Monoxide Vs Time for Copper Oxide as
Catalyst in EHC with 1 Kw Heating 51
6.1(d) Hydrocarbon Vs Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC with 1 Kw Heating 52
In EHC (Without LOC) With 1.5 Kw Heating
Without Air Injection 53
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In EHC (Without LOC) With 1.5 Kw Heating With
Air Injection 54
6.2(c) Carbon monoxide Vs Time for Copper Oxide as
Catalyst in EHC with 1.5 Kw Heating 55
6.2(d) Carbon monoxide Vs Time for Copper Oxide as
Catalyst In EHC with 1.5 Kw Heating 56
6.3(a) Temperature Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC (Without LOC) With 1 Kw Heating Without
Air Injection 57
6.3(b) Temperature Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC (Without LOC) With 1 Kw Heating With
Air Injection 58
6.3(c) Carbon monoxide Vs Time for Silver Oxide as
Catalyst in EHC with 1 Kw Heating 59
6.3(d) Hydrocarbon Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC with 1 Kw Heating 60
6.4(a) Temperature Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC (Without LOC) With 1.5 Kw Heating
Without Air Injection 61
6.4(b) Temperature Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC (Without LOC) With 1.5 Kw Heating With
Air Injection 62
6.4(c) Carbon monoxide Vs Time for Silver Oxide as
Catalyst in EHC with 1.5 Kw Heating 63
6.4(d) Hydrocarbon Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC with 1.5 Kw Heating 64
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in EHC & LOC with 1kw Heating without Air Injection 66
in EHC & LOC with 1 Kw Heating With Air Injection 67
Catalyst in EHC and LOC with 1 Kw Heating 68
6.5(d) Hydrocarbon Vs Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst
in EHC and LOC with 1 Kw Heating 69
6.6(a) Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst in
EHC & LOC with 1.5 Kw Heating Without Air Injection 70
6.6 (b) Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst in
EHC & LOC with 1.5 Kw Heating With Air Injection 71
Catalyst in EHC and LOC with 1.5 Kw Heating 72
6.6(d) Hydrocarbon Vs Time For Copper Oxide as Catalyst in
EHC and LOC with 1.5 Kw Heating 73
6.7(a) Temperature Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst in
EHC & LOC with 1 Kw Heating Without Air Injection 75
6.7(b) Temperature Vs Time For Silver Oxide as Catalyst in
EHC & LOC with 1 Kw Heating With Air Injection 76
6.7(c) Carbon Monoxide Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst
in EHC and LOC with 1 Kw Heating 77
6.7(d) Hydrocarbon Vs Time For Silver Oxide as Catalyst in
EHC and LOC with 1 Kw Heating 78
6.8(a) Temperature Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst in
EHC & LOC with 1.5 Kw Heating Without Air Injection 79
6.8(b) Temperature Vs Time For Silver Oxide as Catalyst in
EHC & LOC with 1.5 Kw Heating With Air Injection 80
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6.8(c) Carbon Monoxide Vs Time for Silver Oxide as

Catalyst in EHC and LOC with 1.5 Kw Heating 81
6.8(d) Hydrocarbon Vs Time For Silver Oxide as Catalyst
in EHC and LOC with 1.5 Kw Heating 82
6.9(a) MC Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as
Catalyst in EHC for EHC-MC Configuration with
Air Supply under 1 And 1.5 KW 83
6.9(b) MC Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC and LOC for EHC-LOC-MC Configuration
With Air Supply under 1 And 1.5 Kw 83
6.9(c) MC Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst
And 1.5 Kw Heating With Air Supply for EHC-MC
And EHC-LOC-MC Configuration 84
6.9(d) MC Temperature Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC for EHC-MC Configuration with Air Supply
Under 1 And 1.5 Kw 85
6.9(e) MC Temperature Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst
In EHC and LOC for EHC-LOC-MC Configuration
With Air Supply under 1 And 1.5 Kw 85
6.9(f) MC Temperature Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst
And 1.5 Kw Heating With Air Supply for EHC-MC
And EHC-LOC-MC Configuration 86
6.9(g) MC Temperature Vs Time for EHC-LOC-MC
Configuration with 1.5 Kw Heating And Air Supply 87
6.10(a) CO Vs Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst in EHC For
EHC-MC Configuration with Air Supply Under 1 And
1.5 Kw 88
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6.10(b) CO Vs Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst in EHC

And LOC for EHC-LOC-MC Configuration with
Air Supply under 1 And 1.5 Kw 88
6.10(c) CO VS Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst with 1.5kw
Heating and Air Supply for EHC-MC and
EHC-LOC-MC Configuration 89
6.10(d) CO Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst in EHC for
EHC-MC configuration With Air Supply under 1
And 1.5 Kw 90
6.10(e) CO Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst in EHC and
LOC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration With Air
Supply under 1 and 1.5kw 90
6.10(f) CO Vs Time for Silver Oxide as Catalyst with 1.5 Kw
Heating and Air Supply for EHC-MC and EHC-LOC-
MC Config. 91
6.10(g) CO Vs Time for EHC-LOC-MC Configuration With
1.5 Kw Heating and Air Supply 92
6.11(a) HC Vs Time For Copper Oxide as Catalyst in EHC
For EHC-MC Configuration with Air Supply Under 1
And 1.5 Kw 93
6.11(b) HC Vs Time for Copper Oxide as Catalyst in EHC
And LOC for EHC-LOC-MC Configuration with
Air Supply under 1 And 1.5 Kw 93
6.11(c) HC Vs Time For Copper Oxide as Catalyst with
1.5 Kw Heating and Air Supply for EHC-MC and
6.11(d) HC Vs Time For Silver Oxide as Catalyst in EHC For
EHC-MC Configuration with Air Supply Under 1
And 1.5 Kw 95
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6.11(e) HC Vs Time For Silver Oxide as Catalyst in

EHC&LOC for EHC-LOC-MC Configuration with
Air Supply Under 1 And 1.5 Kw 95
6.11(f) HC Vs Time For Silver Oxide as Catalyst with
1.5 Kw Heating and Air Supply for EHC-MC and
6.11(g) HC Vs Time for EHC-LOC-MC Configuration with
1.5 Kw Heating and Air Supply 97
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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Symbols
CO2 - Carbon Dioxide
CO - Carbon Monoxide
cm - Centimeter
g/mile - Gram per mile
Kg - Kilogram
KW - Kilowatts
Lit - Litre
NOx - Nitrogen Oxides
% - Percentage
SO2 - Sulphur di Oxide
HC - Unburned Hydrocarbon
Abbreviations
APEHC - Alternator Powered Electrically Heated Catalyst
EHC - Electrically heated catalyst
EICHC - Electrically Initiated Chemically Heated Catalyst
LOC - Light off converter
lpm - Litre per minute
LEV - Low emission vehicle
MC - Main converter
ppm - Part Per Million
rpm - Revolution per minute
SI - Spark Ignition Engine
ULEV - Ultra Low emission vehicle
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
The advent of petrol engines several years ago was considered a

feat in human history. But today the emission from it is considered a threat to
the very existence of mankind. In recent years, much attention has been paid
to global environmental destruction. According to the data available the level
of pollution is rising at an alarming rate which leads to several problems.
Petrol and diesel fueled automobiles contribute significantly for pollution.
The degree of contribution to pollution depends on their population and traffic
flow.
The pollution from large industries, powerhouses are taken care of

by the skilled engineers by employing various emission control methods. The
emission control method for the automobile engine is a difficult one, as it is a
very small power plant rarely serviced properly. The automobiles are operated
under various loads and speeds and are accelerated and decelerated frequently
while being driven on the road. There are millions of these engines at a time
on the roads consuming billions of tons of gasoline and diesel and hence
discharging billions of tons of the product of combustion into the atmosphere.
The population of Spark-Ignition engines is very high and

increasing rapidly due to the convenience for short distance transportation.
Spark-Ignition engines are the major source of urban air pollution. The
exhaust gases contain harmful pollutants in the form of carbon monoxide
(CO), hydrocarbons (HC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). About half of the
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hydrocarbons and almost all carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen are
from the tail pipe exhaust. Table 1.1 gives the details of LEV and ULEV
regulations.
Table 1.1 LEV and ULEV Regulations
Pollutant Units LEV ULEV

HC g/mile 0.075 0.04
CO g/mile 3.4 1.7
1.2 EMISSION FROM SI ENGINES
The major pollutants of the gasoline engines are of two types,

regulated pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) and unregulated pollutants such as lead (Pb), sulphur
dioxide (SO2) etc. Table 1.2 gives the details of formation of these pollutants
and their effects on human beings.
Table 1.2 Pollutant Formation Mechanism in SI Engines and its Effects

on human beings
Pollutant Its effects on human

Formation Mechanism
Name beings
CO It is a product of incomplete Impairs oxygen carrying
combustion. It may be due to capacity of blood. Affects
insufficient time for combustion central nervous system,
and/or insufficient oxygen for high blood pressure, heart
combustion. disease. More than 3 %
concentration by volume in
respirated air can lead to
sudden death.
Table 1.2 (Continued)
22
Pollutant Its effects on human

Formation Mechanism
Name beings
HC It may be due to Bronchitis, eye irritation,
• Flame quenching at the cataracts, cancer of skin
combustion chamber walls, and liver.
leaving layer of unburned air fuel
mixture adjacent to the wall.
• The filling of crevice volume with
unburned mixture which escapes
the primary combustion process.
• Incomplete combustion.
• Due to evaporative losses.
NOx Oxides of Nitrogen which occur only Bronchitis, Low lung
in the exhaust. Nitrogen and oxygen function in children, high
react at relatively high temperatures. incidence of asthma.
Therefore, high temperatures (peak Combines with oxygen to
combustion temperature) and form ozone, which causes
availability of oxygen are the two progressive lung damage.
main reasons for the formation of
NOx. The NOx concentration in
exhaust is also affected by Air-fuel
ratio and spark advance.
SO2 It is formed due to oxidation of Bronchitis, Frequent Colds,
sulphur (which is present in the Emphysema, lung Cancer.
petrol) during the combustion
process.
Pb After combustion, much of the lead Extremely toxic, affects
(present in the form of tetra ethyl as central nervous system.
an antiknock agent) is transmitted via Leads to loss of weight,
the exhaust to the atmosphere, as abdominal pain, brain
particualtes of lead halide. Minor damage and low IQ in
amount of lead is also evolved during children.
the evaporative losses.
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1.3 EMISSION CONTROL FROM SI ENGINES
The emission from SI engine can be controlled by any one of the

following methods:
• Redesigning the engine ventilating system, Carburettor, fuel

tank, combustion chamber and ignition system.
• Destroying the pollutants after these have been formed or

treating the exhaust gas.
With increased stringency of emission standards, the engine

modifications mentioned above were found to be inadequate and hence, it
becomes necessary to adopt exhaust gas treatment such as catalytic converter,
thermal reactors etc.
1.4 EXHAUST GAS TREATMENT DEVICES
The catalytic converter is the basic exhaust gas treatment device

used in SI engine. The catalytic converters attain maximum conversion rate of
about 80 to 90 % under optimum operating conditions. Noble metal coated
catalysts are used in these converters to control the emission. These
converters are placed at under body locations, which are a metre away from
the exhaust manifold of the engine. Catalytic converters attain maximum
conversion rates of about 80-90 % under optimum operating conditions but it
is not effective during cold start conditions. The catalyst is not active during
cold start period due to the low temperature during starting. The existing
catalytic converters are successful in reducing emission after the catalyst
attaining 250oC to 350oC.
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1.4.1 Cold Start Conditions
Cold start emission represents the greatest concentration of

emission from today’s catalyst equipped vehicles. A cold start is defined as an
engine start following a 12 to 36 hours continuous vehicle soak in a constant
temperature environment of 20oC to 30oC. Two factors contribute to the high
emission at cold start. First, the catalyst does not begin to oxidize HC and CO
until it reaches an effective operating temperature, called light off
temperature. The light off temperature is generally defined as the temperature
at which catalyst becomes more than 50 % effective. Second, most engines
generally run with a rich mixture during warm-up. The oxidation reactions
cannot begin without adequate supply of oxygen.
To control the cold start emission, some of the techniques reported

in the literature are:
• Electrically Heated Catalyst (EHC)
• Hydrocarbon storage devices
• Exhaust Gas Ignition
• Close Coupled Catalyst
• Fuel Burner and
• Pre-catalyst
In the present investigation studied the cold start emission control

using an Electrically Heated Catalyst (EHC).
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 GENERAL
Exhaust emission requirements have become increasingly more

stringent in the past decade with the introduction of LEV and ULEV
standards. These regulations have forced improved combustion control and
after treatment of exhaust. It is well known that, to achieve these very low
emissions standards by the control on Hydrocarbon and Carbon monoxide
emission during cold start. Lot of works have been reported in the literature
on the cold start emission control on SI engines by using include Electrically
Heated Catalyst, Hydrocarbon Storage Devices, Close Coupled catalytic
converters and Exhaust Gas Ignition. The following is a brief account of cold
start emission control investigations on SI engines available in literature.
2.2 COLD START EMISSION CONTROL IN SI ENGINES
Paul Day and Socha (1988) have investigated the impact of

physical (cell density, frontal area, volume) and material (porosity, thermal
mass) design parameters on vehicle emission and pressure drop. They have
found that larger volume and/or higher cell density substrates reduce cold
start CO and HC emission. They have reported that material changes have
little or no impact on catalyst performance. They have concluded that pressure
drop could be increased by using a longer substrate and dramatically reduced
with a larger frontal area.
26
Larson (1989) has studied the effect of cold ambient condition on

vehicle emission. He has found that emission levels at 20 oF are three to four
times the 75 oF levels. He has also noted that bulk of this emission increase
occurs during the cold start portion of the test due to fuel enrichment and
decreased emission control system efficiency during cold start. It has been
concluded that vehicles equipped with port fuel injection showed significant
reduction cold ambient emission.
Hellman et al (1989) have discussed the application of resistive

materials as part of an exhaust emission control system to control cold start
emission. They have conducted experiments with two different conductive
materials using methanol and gasoline as fuels. They have concluded that low
levels of formaldehyde emission in zero-mile tests using resistively heated
catalysts.
Whittenberger and Kubsh (1990) have developed resistively heated

metal substrate converters to improve the cold start emission characteristics of
light duty vehicles. They have developed a solid state controller operating on
vehicle’s 12 volt system delivering high currents to the metal monolith and
controlling the converter temperature to a given set point. It has been reported
that substantial improvement in cold start HC and CO emission under both
normal ambient and reduced ambient conditions were achieved. They have
also concluded that HC and CO emission were reduced by more than 50 %
than that of the same metal monolith converter tested in an unheated
configuration.
Martin Heimlich (1990) has studied the benefit of cold start air
injection to a preheated automotive catalyst. It has been reported that heating
an automotive exhaust emission catalyst prior to cold start operation may not
be sufficient in itself and supplemental oxygen may be required for improved
27
control of non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), benzene, and carbon

monoxide (CO) emission.
Martin Heimrich et al (1991) have studied the performance of

electrically heated catalyst systems including heating controls and air
injection. They have concluded that significant reduction in cold start
emission could be achieved.
Whittenberger and Kubsh (1991) have studied emission

performance of an electrically heated catalytic converter for both low mileage
tests and after exhaust aging. They have observed that the aged EHC system
using a 300 hour engine schedule impacted cold start HC and CO emission on
par with low mileage EHC system. It has been reported that the aged EHC
system reduced HC emission by 76 % and CO emission by 92 % during first
140 seconds of the FTP cycle when compared to that with the aged converter
without heating.
Louis Socha et al (1992) have reported that an extruded metal

electrically heated catalyst (EHC) in combination with a traditional main
converter can achieve the Low and Ultra-Low emission standards. They have
reported that non-methane hydrocarbon (NMHC) emissions range from 0.15
to 0.3. g/mile for such systems. They have concluded that emission and
energy usage are minimized when the EHC is placed adjacent to the main
converter and when the EHC system is located close to the engine. They have
further concluded that the main converter does the majority of the conversion
during cold start rather than EHC.
Ma et al (1992) have described a method of reducing the light-off

time of the catalytic converter to less than 20 seconds by means of an after
burner in which exhaust gases from the engine calibrated to run rich and
additional air injected into the exhaust gas stream to form a combustible
28
mixture is used. They have reported that the main feature of this is to make
mixture ignitable within 2 seconds from the start of the engine when the
exhaust gases arriving at the afterburner are cold and essentially non-reacting.
Friedich Kaiser et al (1993) have studied the emission performance

and effectiveness of heated catalytic converter with low current fitted in the
Porsche 968 engine. It has been reported that they have used cable of reduced
cross section and weight and a simple power circuit breaker (relay) due to low
heating current. They have concluded that this type of EHC system gave
higher conversion efficiency and durability at reduced cost.
Joseph Kubsh et al (1993) have developed an electrically heated

catalytic converter and tested with Current certification fuel, the Auto/Oil
industry average fuel (RF-A), and a fuel that meet the 1996 California Phase
II reformulated gasoline standards. They have reported that California Phase
II reformulated gasoline consistently gave the lowest NMHC mass emission
with EHC operation (2-2.5 times lower than RF-A). They have also reported
that there was significant reduction in cold start HC and CO emission
regardless of fuel, compared to the main converter system.
Summers et al (1993) have studied the use of close coupled

palladium catalyst on emission to meet LEV and ULEV standards. They have
also studied the use of double wall (or insulated) pipes to lower HC and CO
emission with the main converter. They have found that the supply of
secondary air improves HC and CO light off of both the converters.
Takehisa Yaegashi et al (1994) have developed a new heating

strategy for electrically heated catalysts to reduce power consumption while
achieving the desired hydrocarbon conversion. They have also developed a
relationship between catalyst volume and power consumption. They have
29
concluded that the front face heating of the catalyst reduced power level and
achieved light off quickly.
Kuper et al (1994) have investigated cold start emission with a new

generation of series 6 heated catalytic converters in a Porche 969 engine.
They have also optimized the use of secondary air injection. They have found
that the emission reduction was significant by the reduction of mass to be
heated and the position of the catalyst.
Mizuno et al (1994) have developed a structurally durable exhaust

manifold EHC with reduced electric power consumption. They have reported
that this new EHC with a light off catalyst reduces more than 50% of total HC
emission with 2 kW of post heat. They have conducted experiments with two
different (square and hexagonal) metal substrates and concluded that the
square cell substrate showed many cell deformations whereas no cell
deformation in hexagonal cell substrate.
Subir Roychoudhury et al (1994) have tested both resistively heated

and non resistive mini-converter systems in series with a conventional main
converter in 2.2 liters Plymouth Reliant. They have reported that HC, CO and
NOx emission reduced by more than 50 %, 40 % and 30 % respectively in the
non-resistive converter and in the resistively heated converter system HC, CO
and NOx were further reduced.
Louis Socha et al (1994) have developed a low mass extruded

electrically heated catalysts (EHC) operated at low power levels. They have
found that EHC cascade systems were successful because they initiate the
catalytic reaction quickly.
Yukio Nakayama et al (1994) have demonstrated that, use of

variable valve timing and lift system in an engine reduces considerably HC
30
emission in cold start conditions as the engine could run on a leaner mixture
than in the existing engines.
Paul Laing (1994) has developed an alternator-powered electrically

heated catalyst (APEHC) system and concluded that power provided directly
from the alternator at an elevated voltage leads to reduced wire thickness and
simple electrical circuit mechanism.
Louis Socha et al (1995) have developed a mathematical model to

predict EHC system conversion efficiency as a function of EHC power,
heating time and inlet exhaust gas temperature to the EHC and studied the
impact of the design parameters on cold-start emission reduction. They have
reported a reduction of upto 80 percent in non-methane hydrocarbon emission
during cold start.
Burch et al (1995) have studied the heat retention of a prototype

catalytic converter with the help of vacuum insulation and phase-change
thermal storage system. They have found that retention heat in the converter
between trips allows exhaust gases to be converted more quickly,
significantly reducing cold-start emission. It has been reported that tests were
conducted in Dodge Neon with 2.0 litre engine by varying vacuum insulation
continuously between 0.49 and 27 W/m2 K using small metal hydride to
prevent overheating of the catalyst. It has been concluded that converter
temperature remained at 146 oC after the 23-hour cold soak at 27 oC due to the
vacuum insulation and a reduction of 52 % and 29 % in the overall emissions
of CO and HC.
Pfalzgraf et al (1996) have investigated the performance of close

coupled catalytic converters complemented by engine-related catalyst heating
measures and secondary air injection in Audi A4 and V6, 2.8 liters and five
valve engine. It has been reported that the emission results were below half of
31
the maximum emission allowable as per LEV standards. It has also been
reported that that the influence of support material on the overall emissions in
aged converters is insignificant.
Robert Locker et al (1996) have investigated experimentally

palladium coated preconverter and trimetal coated main converter as per new
European driving cycle and the FTP 75 test cycle in 4 cylinders, 176 kW
engine on dynamic engine test bench. It has been reported that ceramic
preconverters are mechanically durable under these conditions. They have
also concluded that secondary air could be a viable tool to lower emissions
further.
Fumio Abe et al (1996) have studied the emission performance of a

structurally durable extruded Ring Fit Canned EHC. It has been reported that
in their system the monolith substrate was rigidly fixed, to have high vibration
resistance. It has also been reported that large thermal expansion of the
hexagonal structured metal substrate was absorbed by its support system to
prevent substrate deformation. It has been concluded that significant reduction
of cold start emission was achieved with this system.
Kubsh and Brunsox (1996) have studied the performance of the

EHC with low and high cell density (160 cpsi Vs 400 cpsi), non-straight flow
channel geometry and several low-power zoned heating strategies (all with
160 cpsi) in a V6 test engine. They have concluded that hydrocarbon emission
for the aged low cell density, high cell density and non-straight channel
designs were significant during cold start with full face heating strategies.
They have also concluded that zoned heating offered significant power
reduction at the expense of cold-start hydrocarbon emission.
Katsumi Takatsu et al (1996) have developed microwave dielectric

heating technique for rapid catalyst heating to reduce the harmful pollutants in
32
cold start emission. It has been reported that dielectric material coated to the
exhaust catalyst caused speedy release of micro wave energy. It has been
concluded that this system gave better performance of HC and CO reduction.
Leslie Hampton et al (1996) have tested the reliability and

durability of Corning’s Generation 3 EHC and found that the results of all the
tests were favourable and met the requirements.
Franz-Josef Hanel et al (1996) have studied the performance of

EHC fitted in BMW ALPINA B12 5.7 engine with Switch-Tronic
transmission, an exclusive, luxury oriented, high performance limited series
limousine. It has been reported that the emission level has fallen to less than
15 % of the maximum permissible level of the 1996 European emission
standards.
Toshihiro Takada et al (1996) have studied the effect of volume,

configuration, selection, loading and distribution of precious metals, additive
components, and substrate type catalyst specification and converter layouts to
optimize catalyst converter system. They have concluded that high density
palladium front loading, high heat resistance and low heat mass metal support
for the warm-up catalyst gives quick light off in the main catalytic converter.
Terres et al (1996) have investigated a battery powered EHC

cascade using MY 91 vehicle without upgrades in the engine control. They
have found out that optimum light off performance was achieved with Low
Mass and palladium coated heater elements and light off converters. It has
been reported that the main converter is heated through exothermic
homogenous gas reactions in the exhaust manifold and in the down pipe, as
well as through catalytic supported reactions in the EHC and LOC.
33
Geoffery McCullough and Roy Douglas (1996) have developed an

experimental test rig to investigate the intensity of the reactions on oxidation
catalyst when the inlet temperature is increased from ambient through light
off at a rate which is similar to that found in an engine exhaust after a cold
start. It has been reported that, even though the front face of the catalyst is
hotter than the rear due to the transient temperature ramp, the highest reaction
rate occurs in the rear half of the catalyst during the early stages of light off. It
has also been reported that as the light off process progresses, the reaction
zone moves in a radial direction and migrates towards the front face.
Naoki Baba et al (1996) have investigated the effects of the noble

metal loading pattern on conversion characteristics during warm up by
numerical simulation. They have reported that high loading of the noble metal
only on the frontal region has almost the same warming up conversion
performance as the uniform high loading. It has been concluded that the new
pattern would improve the conversion characteristics.
Hanel et al (1997) have studied the performance and durability of

the EHC fitted in a BMW ALPINA B12 engine. They have also studied the
battery life. They have concluded that 82 % CO reduction and 73.4 % HC +
NOx reduction with EHC were possible.
Naomi Noda et al (1997) have studied the cold start emission

performance of the “In-line HC Adsorber System” fitted in the 2 litre
Japanese car. It has been reported that this system consisting of light off (LO)
catalyst + HC adsorber BZA (BZA = Barrel-Zeolite–Adsorber) with a center
hole + burn-off (BO) catalyst + main converter (MC) and secondary air
injection management reduces NMHC emission to 0.049 g/mile with “In-line
HC Adsorber System”.
34
Subir Roychoudhury et al (1997) have developed a low thermal

mass, short metal monolith (Mircolith) preconverter and tested in combination
with close coupled ceramic main converter with and without secondary air on
a 1.9 litre Ford Escort to reduce the cold start emission. They have reported
that NMHC, CO and NOx emission were reduced to 0.024, 0.36 and 0.094
g/mile respectively with secondary air. They have also reported that NMHC,
CO and NOx emission were reduced to 0.038, 0.554 and 0.068 g/mile
respectively without secondary air. They have concluded that lower thermal
mass and high geometric surface area of the short metal Microlith substrate in
combination with ceramic main converter resulted in fast light off and high
conversion efficiencies.
Yuichi Shimasaki et al (1997) have reported that an EHC system

using extruded Alternator Powered Electrically Heated Catalyst (APEHC) and
thin wall light off substrate achieved ULEV standards. They have also studied
the durability of the APEHC with hot vibration testing, water quenching,
thermal cycling, corrosion, electrical cycling test, steady state temperature
test, and electrical load dump test.
Dipl.-Ing. Flatermeier et al (1998) have studied the performance of

the closed-coupled catalyst fitted in Audi 4-Cylinder Engine. They have also
studied the effect of catalytic converter location, exhaust manifold design,
thermal features of the catalytic converter, and Air ratio on emission. They
have further studied durability of closed coupled catalyst with vibration
analysis, Flow distribution, and Temperature studies. They have concluded
that they have achieved Euro III norms and reported that Euro IV can be
achieved by further precision timing of the complete system.
Patil et al (1998) have developed a Air Less Adsorber system to

improve cold start hydrocarbon emission fitted on a 3.8 litre V6 engine. It has
been reported that Air Less Adsorber systems consist of a first catalyst, an
35
adsorber, and a second catalyst. They have concluded that HC emission was
reduced by more than 38 % with Air Less Adsorber system than that of the
catalyst system.
David Lafyatis et al (1998) have developed a Ambient Temperature

Light-off (ATL) system for achieving very low emission standards by
combining hydrocarbon trap technology with a novel catalyst which operates
at ambient temperature. It has been reported that this system achieve less than
50 % of ULEV emission standards using California Phase II (CP2) fuel.
Joerg Abthoff et al (1998) have developed and investigated two

different (A and B type) types of HC adsorber system for reducing cold start
hydrocarbon emissions with zeolite based HC adsorber. In the A type,
integrated adsorber, the adsorbing sieve, binder, and the catalytic function
were combined in a homogeneous washcoat. In the B type, the molecular
sieve and binder are applied to the substrate first as an underlayer, followed
by the catalytic layer as an over coat. They have used palladium as a catalyst
in both types. They have found that B type integrated adsorber shows clear
aging stability under test conditions compared to A type integrated adsorber.
Naomi Noda et al (1998) have studied the cold start emission

performance of passive inline hydrocarbon adsorber. They have also studied
the effect of the centre hole on the adsorber BZA. They have found that the
adsorber BZA with a 25 mm diameter centre hole reduces 30 % lower FTP
NMHC emission when compared to a system with no centre hole adsorbent
BZA.
Robert Carter et al (1998) have studied the performance of the fast

light off ultra-short metal monolith catalyst in a laboratory rig capable of
simulating automotive exhaust streams. They have also studied light off
behaviour of the fresh and aged catalyst over a wide range of air fuel ratios.
36
They have also discussed the effect of thermal aging on the catalyst/substrate
interface. It has been concluded that conversion efficiency of CO and HC and
NO were 70 %, 54 % and 53% respectively at stoichiometric conditions with
short metal monolith catalyst.
Noriyuki Kishi et al (1998) have developed a ultra low heat

capacity and high heat insulating exhaust manifold to reduce cold start
emission with conventional catalytic converter. It has been reported that
exhaust manifold with hollow double wall structure with an inner tube of 0.6
mm thickness achieved less heat loss, resulting in a higher exhaust gas
temperature following cold start. It has also been reported that this high
exhaust gas temperature in cold start reduces the light off time of the catalyst.
Yong-Seok Cho et al (1998) have observed flow distribution in a

closed-coupled catalytic converter fitted on to a 1500cc engine with a
specially designed flow measurement system under steady and transient flow
conditions. It has been reported that the flow uniformity index decreases as
Reynolds increases.
Akira Tayama et al (1998) have studied the cold start emission

performance of integrated system which includes an EHC, a three way
catalyst and an HC adsorber with the improved measurement system. They
have also studied the individual performance of the HC adsorber. They have
improved the conventional CVS measurement system by adopting of an
analyser capable of measuring low concentration emissions, by reducing the
concentration of target components in the dilution air and by optimizing of
CVS dilution rate.
Naomi Noda et al (1999) have studied the performance of advanced

zeolite HC adsorbent which is capable of adsorbing small HC molecules and
large HC molecules to some degree, even under aqueous conditions. It has
37
been concluded that NMHC emission reduced drastically with HC adsorber

system.
Hans Baucer et al (1999) have developed a system that controls the

heat output of the exhaust system and heat transfer to the other components
by choosing proper materials to reduce radiative heat transfer. They have
found that heat loss could be reduced by using a mantle material with a lower
emissivity. It has been concluded that austenitic mantle material clearly
displays a lower emissivity than a ferrite mantle.
Oliver Murphy et al (1999) have demonstrated a new heating

strategy based on an Electrically Initiated Chemically Heated Catalyst
(EICHC) to reduce the cold start emissions. They have developed a test
apparatus incorporating an EHC and a spray-generating nozzle. They have
conducted experiments by passing a spray of methanol along with air through
the preheated EHC at different temperatures. They have reported that the time
required to achieve catalyst light off temperature within the EHC was reduced
drastically with the EICHC approach. They have further reported that low
electrical energy was required to heat the catalytic converter in EICHC
system.
Gron Seog Son et al (1999) have studied the effect of secondary air
injection and lean air fuel ratio to achieve LEV/ULEV on a 2.0 DOHC A/T
vechile. They have concluded that LEV/ULEV regulations could be achieved
by secondary air injection and lean air fuel ratio.
2.3 CLOSURE
From the preceding paragraphs, it may be noted that quite a few

experimental and theoretical investigations have been carried out in SI engine
to study the cold start emission. However the available information on the
38
control of emission and improvement in performance of the SI engine using

Electrically Heated Catalyst are quite limited. Further no attempt has been
made to investigate cold start emission from SI engines using metal oxide
coated catalyst in EHC.
Therefore, in the present investigation, an attempt has been made to

investigate the performance of the metal oxide coated EHC with annular
heating and to improve the cold start CO and HC conversion efficiency.
39
CHAPTER 3
EMISSION CONTROL FROM SI ENGINE
3.1 GENERAL
One of the serious problems facing the modern technological

society is the drastic increase in environmental pollution by the internal
combustion engine. Spark Ignition engines are the major source of urban air
pollution. The population of SI engines is very high and increases rapidly due
to the convenience for short mileage transportation in urban areas. It is true
that the pollutants from one vehicle do not amount much, but if the very large
number of vehicles is considered, the total amount of pollutants become
tremendous and need to be controlled.
3.2 EMISSION CONTROL METHODS
The exhaust gases of SI engine contain harmful pollutants in the

form of HC, CO, and NOx. Various emission control methods to be adopted
for petrol engine may be classified into two categories:
• General Emission Control
• Cold Start Emission Control
3.2.1 General Emission Control
3.2.1.1 Engine Design Modification
Some of the engine design modifications that can be adopted to

control the emission are given below:
40
3.2.1.1.1 Air fuel Ratio
The carburettor may be modified to provide relatively lean and

stable air-fuel mixtures during idling and cruise operation. With this
modification, the idle speed needs to be increased to prevent rough idle
associated with leaner fuel-air ratios. Fuel distribution may be improved by
better manifold design, inlet air heating, raising of coolant temperature and
use of electronic fuel injection system.
3.2.1.1.2 Retarding Ignition Timing
Retarding ignition timing allows increased time for fuel burning. It

reduces NOx emission by decreasing the maximum temperature. It also
reduces HC emission by causing higher exhaust temperature. However,
retarding the ignition timing results in greater cooling requirement. Retarding
the ignition timing also causes some loss in power and fuel economy.
3.2.1.1.3 Combustion Chamber Modification
Modification in the combustion chamber such as reduction of

surface to volume ratio, reduced squish area and reduced distance of the top
piston ring from the top of the piston leads to reduction in dead space hence
reduces quenching zone and HC emission.
3.2.1.1.4 Lower Compression Ratio
Lower compression ratio also reduces the quenching area and hence
HC emission and NOx emission due to lower maximum temperature. But
lowering compression ratio causes reduction in thermal efficiency and higher
fuel consumption.
41
3.2.1.1.5 Reduced Valve Overlap
Increased valve overlap allows some air fuel mixture to escape

directly through the exhaust causing increase in the emission level. This can
be controlled by reducing the valve overlap.
The variation of emission level of petrol engine due to the increase

of the some of variable/operating parameter as reported in literature is given
in Table 3.1.
3.2.1.2 Fuel Modification
Gasoline is a mixture of several hydrocarbons. For achieving low

emission, additives may be added to the gasoline to reduce carbonmonoxide
and hydrocarbon in the exhaust. Lower alcohols when added in small
quantities reduce CO emission and Polyalkozylated alkyl phenol reduces HC
emission in gasoline fuel.
Table 3.1 Effect of design and operating variables on exhaust emissions
HC CO NOx
Variable increased
Concentration Concentration Concentration
Air-fuel ratio Increases Increases Decreases
Load - - Increases
Speed Decreases - Increases or
Decreases
Spark retard Decreases - Decreases
Exhaust back pressure Decreases - Decreases
Surface/volume Ratio Increases - -
Combustion Chamber Area Increases - -
Stroke/Bore Ratio Decreases - -
Displacement/Cylinder Decreases - -
Compression Ratio 1ncreases - Increase
Air Injection Decreases Decreases Increases
42
3.2.1.3 Crankcase Emission Control
The problem of crankcase ventilation has existed since the

beginning of the automobile. No piston ring can provide a perfect seal
between the piston and cylinder wall. When an engine is running, the pressure
of combustion forces the piston downward. This same pressure also forces
products of combustion and unburned fuel from the combustion chamber past
the piston rings and into the crankcase. These gases are called crankcase
vapours or bolwby. The byproducts of incomplete combustion include carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Blow by
have three undesirable features:
• It destroys the lubricating qualities of engine oil.
• It causes sludge and varnish to form.
• It helps cause formation of corrosive acids, which can damage

engine parts.
This is a tube connected to the engine crankcase that allows

vapours to pass into the atmosphere. Fresh air to ventilate the crankcase enters
through a vented oil filler cap. This air passes into the crankcase where it
mixes with the vapours. When the car is moving, a vaccum is created by the
airflow flowing past the road draft tube. This vaccum draws the crankcase
vapours out into the atmosphere. The road draft tube has following
disadvantages, it works best only when there is a pressure difference between
the oil filler cap and the draft tube and it passes the crankcase vapours directly
into the atmosphere causing air pollution.
3.2.1.3.1 Positive Crankcase Ventilation
The drawbacks of the road draft tube were eliminated when the
controlled crankcase ventilation system was introduced. Controlled, or
43
positive, crankcase ventilation relies on intake manifold vacuum to draw the

vapours from the crankcase up into the intake manifold. This results in a
positive movement of the air through the crankcase whenever the engine is
running. The vapours are then returned to the combustion chambers, where
they are burned. This system may be classified as open or closed PCV
systems, depending upon their design.
3.2.1.3.1.1 Open PCV Systems
A hose connects the crankcase with the intake manifold, when the
engine is running fresh air is drawn into the crankcase through the vented oil
filter cap. This air mixes with the crankcase vapours, travels to the intake
manifold where it is drawn into the engine cylinders. Airflow from the
crankcase is metered through the PCV valve that contains a spring-oriented
plunger to control the rate of airflow through the engine. Open PCV systems
only partly control crankcase emissions. Manifold vacuum decreases
considerably under heavy load or acceleration, causing crankcase pressures to
build. This forces some of the vapours into the atmosphere through the vented
oil filler cap.
3.2.1.3.1.2 Closed PCV System
In closed PCV system, the oil filler cap is not vented to the
atmosphere. Air for the crankcase is drawn through a hose from the air
cleaner to one of the valve covers or to a crankcase inlet below the intake
manifold. Under normal operating conditions, fresh air from the air cleaner
passes through the inlet hose to the crankcase, the fresh air mixes with the
crankcase vapours and passes through a PCV valve before being drawn into
the intake manifold. Vapours that back up under certain conditions cannot
escape from the closed system. If manifold vacuum drops or if the system
becomes clogged, extra crankcase vapours will reverse their direction. In the
44
closed crankcase ventilation system, these vapours flow back to the air
cleaner, instead of passing out of the engine and into the atmosphere. Once in
the air cleaner, they mix with incoming air and pass through the carburetor,
throttle body, or intake manifold to be burned in the combustion chamber.
This makes the closed system almost 100 percent effective in controlling
crankcase emissions.
3.2.1.4 Evaporation Loss Control Device
The purpose of this device is to collect all evaporative emissions

(vapours) and recirculating them at the appropriate time. It consists of an
adsorbent chamber, pressure balancing valve and purge control valve. The
adsorbent chamber contains charcoal, which holds the hydrocarbon vapour
before they escape to atmosphere. The fuel tank and carburettor bowl are the
main sources of HC emission in form of vapour directly connected to the
absorbent chamber when the engine is turned off i.e. under hot soak
condition. Hot soak is the condition when a warmed up car is stopped and its
engine turned off. This causes the petrol to boil from carburettor bowl and
significant amount of HC comes out. All these HC vapours are absorbed in
the absorber chamber. Also diurnal cycle loss from the tank is taken care of.
Diurnal cycle is the daily cyclic variation in the temperature which causes
tank ‘breathing’ or forcing the gasoline out of the tank.
The adsorbent bed when saturated is relieved of the vapours by a

stripping action allowing the air from the air cleaner to draw them to the
intake manifold through the purge valve. The internal seat of the pressure
valve at that time is so located that there is a direct pressure communication
between the internal vent and the top of the carburettor bowl, maintaining
designed carburettor metering forces.
45
The operation of the purge control valve is controlled by the

exhaust pressure. The evaporation loss control device completely controls all
types of evaporative losses.
3.2.1.5 Exhaust Gas Recirculation
3.2.1.5.1 NOx Formation
Under normal circumstances, nitrogen and oxygen do not combine

unless temperatures exceed 1372°C. When ignition timing is correct,
maximum heat and pressure are created in an engine’s combustion chambers.
Whenever combustion chamber temperatures exceed 1372°C, nitrogen and
oxygen combine rapidly to form large amounts of NOx. Four basic ways to
reduce NOx formation:
• Enrich the air fuel mixture. This allows the engine to run cooler
but increases HC and CO emissions, as well as reducing fuel
economy.
• Lower the compression ratio. This has been done to allow

engines to burn unleaded gasoline, but is a limited means of
controlling NOx. Too low a ratio results in inefficient
combustion and increased HC and CO emission.
• Retard spark timing slightly.
• Dilute the incoming air fuel mixture with a small amount of

inert gas to lower combustion temperatures. Since exhaust gases
are relatively inert, a portion of them can be recirculated to
dilute the mixture. This is the most efficient method of lowering
combustion temperatures and reducing NOx emissions without
affecting engine performance, fuel economy and other exhaust
emissions.
46
3.2.1.5.2 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is done by routing small quantities

(6 –10 percent) of exhaust gas from the engine’s exhaust manifold to the
intake manifold this exhaust gas dilutes the incoming air fuel mixture in the
cylinder. Since exhaust gas contains no oxygen, the resulting air- fuel-
exhaust mixture is not as powerful when ignited. This means that it will not
create as much heat as an undiluted air fuel mixture would produce. Since it
does not require much exhaust gas to cool down peak combustion
temperatures, re-circulation must be held to very low quantities. Even when
the EGR valve used to reroute the exhaust gas is wide open, the orifice
through which the gas pass is very small.
Because the amount of NOx produced at low engine speeds is very

small, exhaust gas recirculation is neither required nor desirable at idle. It also
is undesirable during high-speed driving at wide-open throttle, since it
adversely affects efficient operation and good derivability. Maximum
recirculation is required only during crusing and acceleration. When NOx
formation is greatest. Engine temperature also is a determining factor in
recirculation. When engine temperature is low, NOx formation is also low,
and recirculation is eliminated to produce fast warm-up and better
derivability. The dilution of the air fuel mixture with EGR reduces the energy
involved in combustion. This in turn reduces the amount of heat created in the
combustion chamber, as well as the peak combustion pressure. This intern
reduces NOx.
3.2.1.6 Treatment of Exhaust Gases
Exhaust gas from the SI engine manifold is treated to reduce HC

and CO emissions. A number of devices have been used. They are given
below:
47
3.2.1.6.1 Thermal Reactor
Thermal reactor is an enlarged exhaust manifold that bolts directly

onto the cylinder head. This is a chamber, which is designed to provide
sufficient residence time to allow oxidation of CO and HC into CO2 and H20
in the presence of secondary air at high temperatures. In order to enhance the
conversion of CO to CO2 the exhaust temperature in increased by retarding
the spark. The heat derived from the chemical oxidation of CO, plus the
sensible heat from the engine, are required to sustain sufficient temperatures.
3.2.1.6.2 Catalytic Converter
Catalytic converter is one of the most effective emission control

device installed in an exhaust system that converts pollutants to harmless
byproducts through a catalytic chemical reaction. The catalytic converter
comprises a ceramic support, a washcoat (usually aluminum oxide) to provide
a very large surface area and a surface layer of precious metals (platinum,
rhodium, and palladium are most commonly used) to perform catalyst
function.
A catalyst is a substance that starts or increases a chemical reaction,

while remaining unchanged by that reaction. Since it only encourages rather
than takes part in the reaction, the catalyst is never used up. To change HC
and CO into harmless gases, the catalytic elements (platinum and palladium)
start an oxidation reaction in the catalytic converter. Oxidation is the addition
of oxygen to an element or compound. If there is no enough oxygen in the
exhaust, an air pump or aspirator valve supplies extra air. The oxidation mixes
the HC and CO with oxygen to form H2O and CO2. The oxidation process
generates considerable heat (exothermic heat). NOx control requires a separate
reaction, called reduction. Reduction is the opposite of oxidation, or the
chemical removal of oxygen from a material. The reduction reaction changes
48
NOx to harmless nitrogen N2 and CO2. The elements rhodium and platinum
are used as reduction catalysts. There are two principal types of catalytic
converters currently employed. They are:
• Conventional Oxidation Converter
• Two stage, Three Way Converter
3.2.1.6.2.1 Conventional Oxidation Converter
The catalytic element generally used in a conventional oxidation

converter is platinum or a mixture of platinum or palladium. The catalyst is
deposited on an aluminum oxide or ceramic substrate through which the
exhaust gas flows. This substrate must provide a catalyst support which can
withstand high temperatures. Two forms of ceramic substrate are used in
oxidation converters: tiny pellets or a honeycomb monolith. The catalyst
element is deposited on the surface of the substrate material. Both kinds of
substrate material (monolith or pellets) provide several thousand square yards
or meters of catalyst surface area over which the exhaust flows. In converters
using a monolith substrate material, a diffuser inside the converter shell
allows a uniform flow of exhaust gases over the entire area of the substrate. In
converters using a pellet substrate, the gas flows over the top and down
through the substrate layers.
3.2.1.6.2.2 Two stage Three Way Catalytic Converter
Because the oxidation and the reduction reactions oppose each

other, both cannot occur at the same time and in the same place. An oxidation
and a reduction catalyst can be combined in the same converter, but a second
oxidation catalyst is then required for complete emission control. Air is blown
in between these two catalysts. An oxidation-reduction catalyst or hybrid
catalyst is often called a two stage, three way converter. A hybrid catalyst and
49
a second oxidation catalyst can be installed in opposite ends of the same

converter housing. The three way catalytic converter simultaneously removes
all three pollutants to a high degree under optimum conditions. The three-way
converter work most efficiently when the air-fuel mixture is maintained at the
stoichiometric ratio of 14.7. The most complete combustion of air and fuel
occur at this ratio, resulting in the least amount of harmful pollutants. HC and
CO emissions are high at ratios richer than 14.7; NOx emission are greatest
with ratios leaner than 14.7.
3.2.2 Cold Start Emission Control
Even though a properly working 3 way catalytic converter reduces

emission of HC, CO and NOx by 80-90%, the newly erected requires much
lower emission standards. The test regulations for measuring automobile
emissions prescribe several hours of car conditioning at an ambient
temperature of 20°C to 35°C (cold start) proceeding each emission test. The
test starts with an idling phase and ends up with a moderate acceleration.
When tested vehicles emit majority of tailpipe HC and CO emissions during
first minute or two of operation following the cold start. A cold start is
defined as an engine start following a 12 to 36 hours continuous vehicle soak
in a constant temperature environment of 20oC to 30oC. Two factors
contribute to the high emissions at cold start. First, the catalyst does not begin
to oxidize HC and CO until it reaches an effective operating temperature,
called light off temperature. The light off temperature is generally defined as
the temperature at which catalyst becomes more than 50 % effective. Second,
most engines generally run with a rich mixture during warm-up. The
oxidation reactions cannot begin without adequate supply of oxygen. Quick
light off is a key part to achieve these very low emissions. New techniques
were developed to accelerate the warm up of the catalytic converter. The
objective is to attain light-off temperature as quickly as possible.
50
3.2.2.1 Fast Light Off Techniques
The various fast light-off techniques can be categorized as follows:
• Passive systems employing exhaust system design changes

(positioning of the catalytic converter closer to the engine, use of
pre catalysts or HC traps) in order to reduce cold-start emission.
• Active systems, which rely on the controlled supply of additional

energy to rise, exhaust gas temperature during cold-start
(electrically heated catalyst (EHC), fuel burner, exhaust gas
ignition with secondary air injection).
3.2.2.1.1 Close Coupled Catalytic Converter
Operates in a similar fashion to conventional three-way catalysts

but is positioned closer to the exhaust manifold as shown in Figure 3.1.
Catalysts are normally positioned under the body of the vehicle, often about a
meter away from the exhaust manifold. During cold start a considerable
amount of heat from the exhaust gases can be lost into and through the
exhaust pipe. If the catalyst is moved closer then the exhaust gases enter the
catalyst hotter. Hence the catalyst reaches light-off temperature quicker, and
the exhaust gases are converted earlier. Higher catalyst temperatures
experienced during high vehicle speeds can accelerate the deactivation of the
catalyst performance that results in lower catalyst durability.
Engine
Exhaust Mainfold
Main Converter
Figure 3.1 Close coupled Catalytic Converter

51
3.2.2.1.2 Pre-Catalyst
In this technique the main catalyst remain at its initial position

whereas the pre-catalyst is usually placed in the vicinity of the exhaust manifold
as shown in Figure 3.2. The Pre-catalyst should be carefully designed regarding
their formulation and volume. The Pre-catalyst volume is usually 10-30 % of the
main converter volume. Larger pre-catalysts exhibit a higher thermal inertia,
resulting in slower waming-up of the main converter. Aging of pre catalyst is
the main problem in this technique.
Engine
Exhaust Mainfold Pre - Catalyst Main Converter
Figure 3.2 Pre-Catalyst
3.2.2.1.3 HC Trapping System
HC adsorption is an approach to reduce cold start HC emissions by

means of HC trap to collect and store hydrocarbons from the exhaust in the
first several seconds of operation using an adsorbent, e.g. activated carbon or
a zeolite material. This system consists of a first catalyst followed by an
adsorber unit with a central hole, a second catalyst and conventional main
converter. During cold start, the exhaust gas passes through the adsorber
substrate channels and the central hole. The hydrocarbons are adsorbed from
the exhaust gas passing through the channels and a portion of the exhaust gas
passing through the hole impinges directly on and heats the second catalyst. A
diverter is used to divert the exhaust gas through the adsorber unit and away
52
from the central hole during cold start. After the diverter is turned off most of
the exhaust gas flows directly through the hole to the second catalyst, thus
heating is faster than the adsorber unit. As the adsorber is heated the HCs are
slowly desorbed and oxidized over the second catalyst. Simple sketch of HC
trapping system is shown in Figure 3.3.
Engine
Adsorber with central hole
First Catalyst Second Catalyst
Exhaust Mainfold
Secondary Air Main Converter
Figure 3.3 HC Trapping System
3.2.2.1.4 Exhaust Gas Ignition
In an EGI system, rapid heating of engine out pollutants in a small

combustion chamber placed before the main catalytic converter. For the
employment of EGI the engine operates initially with very rich fuel
conditions, allowing a combustible exhaust gas mixture to reach the catalyst
inlet where it is ignited with the help of a spark plug, located at the converter
inlet. An electric pump provides the additional air required for the combustion
of the exhaust gas mixture. Only part of the fuel is burned in the combustion
chamber, whereas the remaining part is ignited at the catalyst inlet face.
3.2.2.1.5 Electrically Heated Catalyst (EHC)
The Electrically Heated Catalyst (EHC) Converter with secondary

air injection is generally placed before the main catalytic converter and
electrically heated by the car's battery prior to start-up.
53
Engine
Air Supply EHC

+
-
Exhaust Mainfold
Main Converter
Figure 3.4 Electrically Heated Catalytic Converter
This provides an active catalyst surface to convert cold start

emissions. The secondary air injection is necessary since at cold start, engines
run with rich air fuel mixture. This additional air injected to the EHC will
provide the extra oxygen necessary for the oxidation of HC and CO. Simple
sketch of EHC with main converter is shown in Figure 3.4. Detailed
explanation about the EHC is given in the chapter 4.
3.3 CLOSURE
In the proceeding paragraphs, various types of emission control

methods were discussed. In engine design modification alone is not sufficient
to achieve low emission and ultra low emission vehicles. The after treatment
of exhaust gases plays important role in obtaining LEV and ULEV. Hence, in
this present investigation it is proposed to adopt after treatment of exhaust gas
by Electrically Heated Catalyst (EHC).
54
CHAPTER 4
ELECTRICALLY HEATED CATALYST
4.1 GENERAL
Cold start emissions represent the greatest concentration of

emissions from today’s catalyst equipped vehicles. The catalyst is not active
(at temperatures below 250 °C for CO and 250 to 350 °C for HC emissions)
during this period due to the low operating temperature. Depending on the
particular engine, vehicle tail pipe emissions can be excessive for a period of
two to three minutes following the cold start. One strategy to reduce quantity
of pollutants emitted during the cold start operation is an Electrically Heated
Catalyst (EHC). The following paragraphs explain the construction of EHC,
the selection of catalyst for EHC, selection of substrate for EHC, fabrication
of EHC etc. in detail.
4.2 ELECTRICALLY HEATED CATALYST
Cold start emission could be controlled by electrically heated

catalyst (EHC) in addition to the main catalytic converter. The EHC consists
of a heater element and pre-catalyst. The EHC quickly reaches high
temperature levels sufficient for CO and HC conversion by electrical heating
before starting the engine. The secondary air is supplied during the cold start
period to provide enough oxygen to initiate and sustain the chemical reaction.
The exhaust gas carries the heat generated by the exothermic oxidation in
EHC down to main converter, which consequently attains faster light off. The
55
EHC volume is fixed approximately 20 % of the commercially available Main

Converter (MC). The experiments have been conducted in two different
configurations as given below:
4.2.1 EHC-MC Configuration
Figure 4.1 shows EHC-MC Configuration. In this system EHC and

MC is placed a meter away from the engine for proper temperature
management and maximum utilization of exhaust exothermic energy.
Relatively cool exhaust gas in cold start period comes in contact with the
EHC, which is maintained at high temperature by electrical heating before the
engine start. This high temperature catalyst surface activates the CO and HC
conversion. When the CO conversion starts tremendous amount of exothermic
heat is generated and carried by exhaust gas to the MC for faster light off.
Engine
Air Supply EHC

+
-
Exhaust Mainfold
Main Converter
Figure 4.1 EHC-MC Configuration
4.2.2 EHC-LOC-MC Configuration
The Light Off Converter (LOC) is placed in between the EHC and
the MC to improve cold start CO and HC emission as shown in Figure 4.2.
The LOC volume is fixed approximately 10 % of the commercially available
catalytic converter. This EHC-LOC-MC configuration is located downstream
of the engine. The EHC should initiate the CO and HC oxidation in the
56
subsequent LOC, as quickly as possible. It has been reported that the MC is

very quickly brought to its operating temperature due to the exothermic heat
in EHC and LOC, sensible heat energy of the exhaust and the electrical
energy supplied to EHC.
Engine
Air Supply EHC LOC

+
-
Exhaust Mainfold
Main Converter
Figure 4.2 EHC-LOC-MC Configuration
4.3 SELECTION OF CATALYST FOR EHC
The important criterion for the selection of catalyst material is cost

and availability. The catalysts are classified as noble metal catalyst and
transition metal catalyst. The metals such as platinum, palladium and rhodium
are called noble metal catalysts. The metal oxides such as copper oxide, silver
oxide, zinc oxide and nickel oxides are called transition metal catalyst. The
catalyst chosen for coating should have the following requirements:
• To convert hazardous pollutants into harmless products

• To be effective for wide range of temperature
• To be chemically stable
• To withstand thermal shock
• To be economic and readily available
57
It is found from literature that copper, nickel, chromium and silver

catalysts show higher efficiency than other metal catalysts. In this
investigation copper oxide and silver oxide are used as catalyst in EHC.
4.4 SELECTION OF SUBSTRATE FOR EHC
The substrates generally classified into ceramic substrates and

metal substrates. The metal substrates have the following advantages over the
ceramic substrate
• High electrical conductivity for quick heating

• High mechanical strength and thermal stability
• High thermal conductivity
• Large surface area
• Very thin wall section
• Low specific heat and
• Quick warm up
It is found from literature that stainless steel is the material used for
the substrate of EHC. It also posses high corrosion resistance, greater strength
and scale resistance at high temperature.
4.5 PREPARATION OF CATALYST
Metals oxides were obtained by electroplating oxidation processes.

The base metal substrate, stainless steel mesh was degreased by trichloro-
ethelyne at a temperature of 70oC. Then the mesh was de-rusted by solvent to
remove dust particles from its surface. Later, it was heated with dilute sulfuric
acid to make it free from surface scales or other foreign materials. Then the
mesh was coated with metals by electroplating process.
58
Electroplating is the process by which the coating metal is coated

on the stainless steel mesh by passing a direct current through an electrolyte,
containing the soluble salt of the coating metal. The electrolytic solution is
kept in an electroplating tank. The anode and cathode are dipped in the
electrolytic solution. When direct current is passed, coating metal ions
migrate to cathode and get deposited there. Thus a thin layer of coating metal
is obtained on the cathode. For brighter and smoother deposit, the favorable
conditions are low temperature, high current density and low metal ion
concentration.
The surface of the mesh was maintained at a temperature of 100oC

in order to allow the oxidation process to take place. The metal oxides thus
prepared were used in the experiments.
4.6 FABRICATION OF EHC
The stainless steel sheet was cut and rolled to the required
dimension and welded to form the converter chamber as shown in Figure
4.3(a). The two outer cones were fabricated from the 16-gauge stainless steel
sheet. One outer cone was welded with the converter chamber and other side
of the converter chamber is welded with flange with six holes.
Another outer cone welded with flange with six holes. In this outer
cone provision is made to join concentric cylindrical mesh in which
Electrically Heated catalyst and LOC is placed. This concentric cylindrical
mesh is made up of stainless steel wire mesh rolled and welded to the required
dimensions. This cylindrical mesh was closed by a cone made up of stainless
steel sheet to avoid the axial flow of exhaust gas. The annular space (EHC)
and the inner cylinder (LOC) is filled with metal oxides as shown in the
Figure 4.3 (b).
59
The two parts (Figure 4.3(a) and Figure 4.3 (b)) are assembled by
the flange with gasket using fasteners. The assembled view is shown in the
Figure 4.4. To prevent heat loss a thick layer of asbestos rope insulation is
used in this assembly. Provisions for placing thermocouple and electrical
heater (two 750 Watts or two 500 Watts band type heaters with cables) are
made at appropriate positions. For providing air supply a nozzle is welded on
the leading side of the EHC in the exhaust pipe.
Sheet metal inner cone

Converter Chamber
Outer Cone
Outer cone
Flange Concentric mesh
Flange
Figure 4.3 (a) Part drawing of EHC – 1 (b) Part drawing of EHC - 2
Band type Heater
Nozzle
EHC LOC
Figure 4.4 Assembled view of EHC
4.7 POWER SUPPLY TO EHC
In an EHC system, the following three sources of energy are

available as power required heating up the catalyst:
60
• Electrical energy supplied to the EHC
• Sensible energy of the exhaust
• Chemical energy of the exhaust (exothermic heat once the

catalyst becomes active)
To minimize the electrical energy to be supplied to EHC, the other

two sources of energy should be better utilized. The vehicle battery or the
alternator can supply the heating current.
4.7.1 Battery Powered EHC
Batteries were used to pre-heat EHCs prior to engine starting

consuming power of 5 kW or above. Tremendous improvements were made
to reduce power consumption to 1.5 to 2 kW. However, even a 1.5 kW power
requirement has a substantial impact on battery life. Also for providing 1.5 to
2 kW of power from a 12 volt battery, wires of large diameters and
sophisticated power switching mechanism are required.
4.7.2 Alternator Powered EHC
The Alternator of an automobile can supply power upto 1.5 kW at

12 to 14 volts. However, alternators are capable of providing greater power at
elevated voltage levels. By providing the power directly from the alternator,
the battery is spared from supplying the high power to EHC. Also, the higher
voltage supply results in lower current levels at an equivalent power level.
Lower current levels enable the use of smaller diameter wires and a simple
switching device. The alternator powered EHC has greater system reliability.
Heart of this system is the switch that controls the output of the
alternator. The switch could be a mechanical relay, but more likely will be a
solid-state device for improved reliability. When the EHC is not being
61
powered, the switch is in the A position so that the alternator is supplying

power to the vehicle electrical system and battery. To supply power to the
EHC, the switch changes to B position. In the B position, the EHC is the only
load on the alternator, and receives all available alternator power. An
important aspect of this technique is that during the EHC power mode, the
vehicle battery supplies the rest of the vehicle’s electrical system power
requirements. The vehicle’s electrical system requires substantially less power
than the EHC. Thus, the impact on the battery is much less than if the battery
had to supply power to the EHC.
4.7.3 Electrical Power supply from 220 V AC
In the preceding paragraphs, for heating the EHC power from

battery or from an alternator is being discussed. The power supply from
automobile driven alternator requires a hi-tech switching mechanism. To
avoid the requirement of such mechanism and to protect the life of battery an
attempt is made to heat the EHC with the available electrical supply of the
laboratory where the test is being conducted.
4.8 SECONDARY AIR SUPPLY TO EHC
It is important to mention that secondary air is necessary for the

EHC system to initiate the chemical reaction. A rich air fuel ratio is generally
used for starting and during the first 20 to 40 seconds of operation.
Consequently, secondary air is required during the engine cold start period to
provide enough oxygen to initiate and sustain the chemical reaction.
62
CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
5.1 GENERAL
In the present investigation, an attempt has been made to study the

cold start emission characteristics of a spark ignition engine using Electrically
Heated Catalyst (EHC). The detailed description of the experimental set up
and measurement techniques are presented in the following paragraphs:
5.2 EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
The schematic diagram of the complete experimental set-up is

shown in Figure 5.1. Experiments have been conducted on a multi-cylinder,
vertical, water-cooled, four stroke, spark ignition engine, coupled to a
hydraulic dynamometer. The engine specification is shown in Table 5.1. The
engine is mounted on the bed with suitable connections for fuel and cooling
water supply. The fuel is supplied from a fuel tank through two-way cock to
allow the fuel either from the tank or through the burette. Tests were
conducted at 50 % of maximum load with 1750 rpm, after an idling period of
20 sec. The Electrically Heated Catalytic Converter was placed before the
main catalytic converter on the exhaust pipe. The main converter used is the
commercially available converter that has been exposed to approximately
5000 kilometers of vehicle operation.
The inlet, bed, and outlet temperatures of the EHC and the bed
temperature of the main converter were measured by four cromel-alumel
63
thermocouples. All these thermocouples are connected with a PC based 8 –

channel 12-bit data logging system to register the temperature variation.
Figure 5.1 Experimental Set-up

1. Engine 10. Pressure Gauge
2. Loading Device 11. Flow meter
3. Air Tank 12. Thermocouple
4. Orifice 13. Exhaust Pipe
5. Manometer 14. EHC
6. Burette 15. Main CC
7. Fuel Tank 16. Analyzer
8. Air Compressor 17. Printer
9. Flow Regulator 18. Data logger
19. Computer
The gas analyzer (Crypton 285 OIML II- SPEC) was used for the
measurement of HC and CO in the exhaust. The response time of gas analyzer
is 10 seconds. Air was supplied from a compressor at constant pressure
through a nozzle provided on the leading side of the EHC in the exhaust pipe.
Regulator and Rotometer were used to regulate and measure the air supply.
64
Table 5.1 Engine Specification
Make : Ambassador
Model : Mark 4-Water-cooled, Four Cylinder,
four stroke SI engine.
Bore : 73.02 mm.
Stroke : 88.9 mm.
Displacement : 1489 CC.
No. of Cylinders : 4
Gross BHP : 46.5 at 4200 rpm
Firing Order : 1-3-4-2
Compression ratio : 7.2:1
5.3 INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT
5.3.1 Exhaust Gas Analyzer
Hydrocarbon and Carbon monoxide is measured by using Crypton

285 OIML II – SPEC analyzer. The analyzer having microprocessor control
unit to indicate CO and HC. It consists of sampling and evaluating unit. The
analyzer compares the exhaust gas and the sample to evaluate the emissions.
The sampling pump draws the atmospheric air as a sample and the exhaust
gas is drawn through hose and probe which is inserted in the tail pipe. The
analyzer measures CO in the range of 0 to 10 % with resolution of 0.01%, HC
in the range of 0 to 5000 ppm with a resolution of 5 ppm. The analyzer also
measures engine speed in the range of 0 to 6000 rpm.
5.3.2 Data Logger
The exact and precise measurements are the basic essentials for any
Research and Development techniques. These measurements must be stored
65
and retrieved whenever required. This is made easy by data logging systems.
The data logger measures the variables and records quickly and accurately as
desired. In addition, the data loggers are capable of maintaining the required
limits and if the limit is exceeded, it gives an alarm. It processes the readings
stored to give required results.
The data logger used here is “tailor made system” configured

precisely from standard modules to meet a particular requirement. The
methodology may be used in the directions of exhaust system design and
optimization, addressing light off temperature of the catalytic exhaust system.
This methodology is being extensively used in research and development of
automotive exhaust after-treatment systems, with promising results.
Exhaust gas temperature monitored inside the catalytic converter

can provide useful information about heat release caused by exothermal
reactions, which is an indication of catalyst light off.
5.3.3 Thermocouple
Thermocouples are used to measure the temperature of the exhaust

gas, EHC, MC, and tail pipe temperatures. The cromel-alumel “K” type
thermocouple with a positive chromel wire and a negative alumel wire is used
in clean oxidizing atmospheres upto a temperature of 1260 oC.
5.3.4 Rotometer
Rotometer is used to measure the flow rate of the secondary air

supplied from the compressor to the EHC.
5.3.5 Regulator
The regulator is used to regulate the air supply at a constant flow

rate of 80 lpm to the EHC.
66
5.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
First, the cooling water is supplied to engine before starting and the
temperature of the outlet cooling water is measured. If the temperature is
around 30 °C then it is said to be in cold start. Then the engine is started and
tests are conducted with 50 % of maximum load at a speed of 1750 rpm, after
an idling period of 20 sec.
Test was conducted without any after treatment systems attached

and then with the MC fitted on. The parameters such as engine exhaust gas
temperature, surface temperature of MC, HC and CO emission were measured
for the above test conditions.
Later, the test were conducted after fitting the copper oxide catalyst
filled EHC and MC with 1 kW and 1.5 kW power for heating without
secondary air and as well with secondary air. Further test were conducted
with the above mentioned after treatment devices fitted on with silver oxide
filled as catalyst in EHC.
Similarly the experiments were repeated by using copper oxide and

silver oxide as catalyst in EHC as well as the LOC.
The temperature of the engine exhaust, surface temperature of EHC

and surface temperature of MC was recorded with data logger using
thermocouple. Simultaneously HC and CO emission were recorded. The flow
rate of the secondary air supply was maintained at a preset value of 80 lpm
using the regulator and air was supplied upto 20 seconds following cold start.
The results obtained in the various experiments were discussed in

detail in the following chapter.
67
CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results obtained in the present investigation on a Spark-Ignition

engine fitted with Electrically Heated Catalyst (EHC) and tested under the
various test conditions specified in chapter 5 is presented in detail in the
following paragraphs:
6.1 COPPER OXIDE AS CATALYST IN EHC WITH 1 kW

HEATING
Figure 6.1(a) shows variation of temperature with time for the

exhaust gas without any ATD, surface of the MC alone (without EHC),
surface of the EHC for EHC-MC configuration without air supply and surface
of the MC for EHC-MC configuration without air supply.
Figure 6.1(a) Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as catalyst in EHC

(without LOC) with 1 kW heating without air injection
68
The variation of temperature of the exhaust gas without any ATD

and the surface temperature of MC without EHC are shown for the purpose of
comparison. It is seen that the temperature of EHC reaches 312 °C due to
electrical heating before starting the engine. It is observed that the EHC
temperature decreases gradually and reaches 280 °C at 36 seconds after cold
start, due to the relatively cool exhaust gas entering EHC. It is further seen
that the temperature of the EHC increases up to 132 seconds due to the
exothermic energy created in EHC and after that it remains almost steady. It is
noted that the surface temperature of MC without EHC shows steady increase
with respect to time after cold start and the same trend is observed for the MC
in EHC-MC configuration with marginal rise in temperature at all times after
cold start. This increase may be due to the energy transfer during exothermic
reaction in EHC. It is seen from the graph that the MC reaches a light off
temperature around 250 °C after 132 seconds from cold start.
Figure 6.1(b) Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as catalyst in

EHC (without LOC) with 1 kW heating with air injection
69
The variation of temperature with time, for the exhaust gas without
any ATD, surface of the MC alone (without EHC), surface of the EHC for
EHC-MC configuration with air supply and surface of the MC for EHC-MC
configuration with air supply is shown in Figure 6.1 (b). It is seen that the
temperature of EHC reaches 312 °C due to electrical heating before starting
the engine as in the previous case. It is observed that the temperature of EHC
decreases gradually and reaches 246 °C at 48 seconds after cold start, due to
the relatively cool exhaust gas and cool secondary air entering EHC. It is
further seen that the temperature of the EHC increases upto a time of 145
seconds due to the exothermic energy created in EHC. It is noted that the
surface temperature of MC without EHC shows steady increase with respect
to time after cold start and the same trend is observed for the MC in EHC-MC
configuration at all times after cold start. It is seen from the graph that the MC
in this configuration reaches a light off temperature around 250 °C after 120
seconds from cold start due to higher energy transfer in the presence of
secondary air.
Figure 6.1 (a) & 6.1 (b) shows variation of temperature with respect
to time for the surface of the MC alone (without EHC), surface of the MC for
EHC-MC configuration without air supply and surface of the MC for EHC-
MC configuration with air supply. It is noted that the surface temperature of
MC in all cases shows steady increase with respect to time after cold start.
Further it is noted that the surface temperature of MC for EHC-MC
configuration with air supply increases higher than that of without air supply.
This increase may be due to the higher exothermic heat release due to the
availability of more oxygen in secondary air.
70
Figure 6.1(c) Carbon monoxide Vs Time for Copper Oxide as catalyst in

EHC with 1 kW heating
The variation of CO with time from cold start of the engine for the
exhaust gas without any ATD, with MC only (without EHC), with EHC-MC
configuration without air supply and with EHC-MC configuration with 80
lpm air supply is shown in Figure 6.1(c). It is seen that CO % by volume are
higher for the engine exhaust without any ATD and gradually decreases with
time and a similar trend is seen for all other cases. It is further noted that the
CO % by volume is lower for MC without EHC and further lower for EHC-
MC configuration without air supply and still lower for EHC-MC
configuration with air supply. This may be due to the availability of more
oxygen in the secondary air supplied. It is seen that a maximum reduction of
49.7% is obtained after 144 seconds from the cold start for EHC-MC
configuration without air supply when compared with MC alone and 64.8 %
reduction is achieved for EHC-MC configuration with air supply after 132
seconds.
71
Figure 6.1(d) Hydrocarbon Vs Time for Copper Oxide as catalyst in

Figure 6.1(d) shows the variation of HC with time from cold start
of the engine for the exhaust gas without any ATD, with MC only (without
EHC), with EHC-MC configuration without air supply and with EHC-MC
configuration with 80 lpm air supply. It is seen that HC in ppm are higher for
the engine exhaust without any ATD and gradually decreases with time and a
similar trend is seen for the engine fitted with MC only, EHC-MC
configuration without air supply and EHC-MC configuration with air
injection. It is noted that HC content is higher for the engine exhaust without
any ATD, and it shows lowest value for EHC-MC configuration with air
supply for the other two configurations lies in between two. It is seen that a
maximum reduction of 28.16 % is obtained after 60 seconds from the cold
start for EHC-MC configuration without air supply when compared with MC
alone and 37.5 % is achieved for EHC-MC configuration with air supply after
180 seconds. It is further seen that a reduction of 33% after 60 seconds from
the cold start with air supply for same configuration with air. This may be due
to the availability of more oxygen in the secondary air supplied.
72
6.2 COPPER OXIDE AS CATALYST IN EHC WITH 1.5 kW

HEATING
Figure 6.2(a) Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as catalyst in EHC

(without LOC) with 1.5 kW heating without air injection

of the MC for EHC-MC configuration without air supply. It is seen that the
EHC temperature reaches 370 °C due to electrical heating before starting the
engine. It is observed that the temperature of EHC decreases gradually and
reaches 330 °C at 48 seconds after cold start, due to the relatively cool
exhaust gas entering EHC. It is further seen that the temperature of EHC
increases upto 132 seconds due to the exothermic energy created in EHC and
after that it remains almost steady. It is noted that the surface temperature of
MC without EHC shows steady increase with respect to time after cold start
and the same trend is observed for the MC in EHC-MC configuration with
marginal rise in temperature at all times after cold start. This increase may be
due to the energy transfer during exothermic reaction in EHC. It is seen from
73
the graph that the MC in this configuration reaches a light off temperature
around 250 °C after 120 seconds from cold start.

EHC (without LOC) with 1.5 kW heating with air injection
The variation of temperature with time, for the exhaust gas without
configuration with air supply is shown in Fig 6.2 (b). It is seen that the EHC
temperature reaches 370 °C due to electrical heating before starting the engine
as in the previous case. It is observed that the EHC temperature decreases
gradually and reaches 310 °C at 48 seconds after cold start, due to the
relatively cool exhaust gas and cool secondary air entering EHC. It is further
seen that the temperature of the EHC increases up to 108 seconds due to the
exothermic energy created in EHC and then it is steady. It is noted that the
to time after cold start and the same trend is observed for the MC in EHC-MC
configuration at all times after cold start. This increase may be due to the
energy transfer during exothermic reaction in EHC and the sensible heat of
74
the exhaust gas. It is seen from the graph that the temperature MC in this
configuration with air supply reaches the light off temperature around 250 °C
after 108 seconds from cold start.
Figure 6.2(a) and 6.2(b) shows variation of Temperature with

respect to Time for the surface of the MC alone (without EHC), surface of the
MC for EHC-MC configuration without air supply and surface of the MC for
EHC-MC configuration with air supply. It is noted that the surface
temperature of MC in all cases shows steady increase with respect to time
after cold start. Further it is noted that the surface temperature of MC for
EHC-MC configuration with air supply increases higher than that of without
air supply. This increase may be due to the higher exothermic heat release due
to the availability of more oxygen in secondary air supplied.
Figure 6.2(c) Carbonmonoxide Vs Time for Copper Oxide as catalyst in

EHC with 1.5 kW heating
The variation of CO % by volume with time from cold start of the

engine for the exhaust gas without any ATD, with MC only (without EHC),
with EHC-MC configuration without air supply and with EHC-MC
configuration with 80 lpm air supply is shown in Fig 6.2 (c). It is seen that CO
75
% by volume are higher for the engine exhaust without any ATD and it is
lower for other cases. It is noted that the CO % by volume is lowest for EHC-
MC with air supply. A maximum reduction of 55.64% is obtained after 144
seconds from the cold start for EHC-MC configuration without air supply
when compared with MC alone and 66.67 % reduction is achieved for EHC &
MC configuration with air supply after 144 seconds. This may be due to the
availability of more oxygen in the secondary air supplied.

Figure 6.2(d) shows the variation of HC in ppm with respect to time

from cold start of the engine for the exhaust gas without any ATD, with MC
only (without EHC), with EHC-MC configuration without air supply and with
EHC-MC configuration with 80 lpm air supply. It is seen that HC in ppm are
time and a similar trend is seen for the engine fitted with MC only, for EHC-
MC configuration without air supply and for EHC-MC configuration with air
injection. It is noted that HC content is higher for the engine exhaust without
any ATD, and it showed lowest value for EHC-MC configuration with air
supply for other two configuration lies in between two. It is seen that a
76

start for EHC-MC configuration without air supply when compared with MC
alone and 41.67 % is achieved for EHC-MC configuration with air supply
after 180 seconds. This may be due to the availability of more oxygen in the
secondary air supplied.
6.3 SILVER OXIDE AS CATALYST IN EHC WITH 1 kW

HEATING
Figure 6.3(a) Temperature Vs Time for Silver Oxide as catalyst in EHC

(without LOC) with 1 kW heating without air injection

of the MC for EHC-MC configuration without air supply. It is seen that the
engine. It is observed that the EHC temperature decreases gradually and
exhaust gas entering EHC. It is further seen that the temperature of the EHC
77
lower temperature rise at all times after cold start. This may be due to lower
exothermic heat release in EHC with silver oxide catalyst. It is seen from the
graph that the MC reaches a light off temperature after 156 seconds from cold
start.
Figure 6.3(b) Temperature Vs Time for Silver Oxide as catalyst in EHC

(without LOC) with 1 kW heating with air injection
The variation of temperature with time for the exhaust gas without
configuration with air supply is shown in Fig 6.3 (b). It is seen that the EHC
seen that the temperature of the EHC increases upto 120 seconds due to the
78
exothermic energy created in EHC. It is noted that the surface temperature of

and the same trend is observed for the MC in EHC-MC configuration at all
times after cold start. This increase may be due to the energy transfer during
exothermic reaction in EHC and the sensible heat of the exhaust gas. It is seen
from the graph that the main converter reaches light off temperature around
250 °C after 144 seconds from cold start.
Figure 6.3(a) and 6.3(b) shows variation of temperature with time

for the surface of the MC alone (without EHC), surface of the MC for EHC-
MC configuration without air supply and surface of the MC for EHC-MC
configuration with air supply. It is noted that the surface temperature of MC
in all cases shows steady increase with respect to time after cold start. Further
it is noted that the surface temperature of MC for EHC-MC configuration
with air supply and without air supply were almost same. This may be due to
the lesser exothermic heat release with silver oxide catalyst in EHC.
Figure 6.3(c) Carbonmonoxide Vs Time for Silver Oxide as catalyst in

79
Figure 6.3(c) shows the variation of CO with time from cold start of
the engine for the exhaust gas without any ATD, with MC only (without
configuration with 80 lpm air supply. It is seen that CO % by volume are
time and a similar trend is seen for all cases. It is further noted that the CO %
by volume is lower for EHC-MC configuration without air supply and still
lower for EHC-MC configuration with air supply. This may be due to the
availability of more oxygen in the secondary air supplied. It is seen that a
maximum reduction of 12.5 % is obtained after 96 seconds from the cold start
for EHC-MC configuration without air supply when compared with MC alone
and 27.5 % reduction is achieved for EHC-MC configuration with air supply
after 132 seconds.
Figure 6.3(d) Hydrocarbon Vs Time for Silver Oxide as catalyst in EHC

with 1 kW heating
80
configuration with 80 lpm air supply. It is seen that HC in ppm are higher for
the engine exhaust without any ATD and gradually decreases with time and a
similar trend with lower values is seen for all other cases. It is to be noted that
these is no variation observed in all the cases as the temperature of the MC
remains same in all the cases.
6.4 SILVER OXIDE AS CATALYST IN EHC WITH 1.5 kW

HEATING

(without LOC) with 1.5 kW heating without air injection
EHC-MC configuration without air supply and surface of the MC for EHC-
MC configuration without air supply is shown in Fig 6.4 (a). It is seen that the
engine. It is observed that the EHC temperature decreases gradually and
exhaust gas entering EHC. It is further seen that the temperature of the EHC
81
marginal rise in temperature at all times after cold start. This increase may be
due to the energy transfer during exothermic reaction in EHC. It is seen from
the graph that the MC reaches the light off temperature of 258 °C after 144
seconds from cold start.

(without LOC) with 1.5 kW heating with air injection
Figure 6.4(b) shows variation of temperature with time for the

surface of the EHC for EHC-MC configuration with air supply and surface of
the MC for EHC-MC configuration with air supply. It is seen that the EHC
82
seen that the temperature of the EHC increases upto 132 seconds due to the
exothermic energy created in EHC. It is noted that the surface temperature of
and the same trend is observed for the MC in EHC-MC configuration at all
times after cold start. This increase may be due to the energy transfer during
exothermic reaction in EHC and the sensible heat of the exhaust gas. It is seen
from the graph that the MC reaches the light off temperature of 250 °C after
138 seconds from cold start.
Figure 6.4(a) and 6.4(b) shows variation of surface temperature of

MC with time without EHC, with EHC-MC configuration without air supply
and with EHC-MC configuration with air supply. It is noted that the surface
EHC-MC configuration with air supply showed little higher value than that of
without air supply. This increase may be due to the higher exothermic heat
release due to the availability of more oxygen in secondary air supplied.
Figure 6.4(c) Carbonmonoxide Vs Time for Silver Oxide as catalyst in

83

with EHC-MC without air supply and with EHC-MC with 80 lpm air supply
is shown in Fig 6.4 (c). It is seen that CO % by volume are higher for the
engine exhaust without any ATD and gradually decreases with time and a
similar trend is seen for rest of the cases. It is further noted that the CO % by
volume is lower for EHC-MC configuration without air supply and still lower
for EHC-MC configuration with air supply when compared to MC alone. This
may be due to the availability of more oxygen in the secondary air supplied. It is
seen that a maximum reduction of 13.7 % is obtained after 144 seconds from the
cold start for EHC-MC configuration without air supply when compared with
MC alone and 29.5 % reduction is achieved for EHC-MC configuration with air
supply after 132 seconds.

with 1.5 kW heating
The variation of HC in ppm with time from cold start of the engine
for the exhaust gas without any ATD, with MC only (without EHC), with
EHC-MC configuration without air supply and with EHC-MC configuration
84
with 80 lpm air supply is shown in Fig 6.4 (d). It is seen that HC in ppm are
time and a similar trend is seen for other configurations. It is further noted
that the HC in ppm are lowest for EHC-MC configuration with air supply.
6.5 COPPER OXIDE AS CATALYST IN EHC AND LOC WITH

1 kW HEATING

surface of the EHC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply and
surface of the MC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply. The
variation of temperature of the exhaust gas without any ATD and the surface
temperature of MC without EHC are shown for the purpose of comparison. It
is seen that the temperature of EHC reaches 312 °C due to electrical heating
before starting the engine. It is observed that the EHC temperature decreases
relatively cool exhaust gas entering EHC. It is further seen that the
temperature of the EHC increases upto 144 seconds due to the exothermic
energy created in EHC and LOC and after that it remains almost steady. It is
noted that the surface temperature of MC without EHC shows steady increase
with respect to time after cold start and the same trend is observed for the MC
in EHC-LOC-MC configuration with marginal rise in temperature at all times
after cold start. This increase may be due to the energy transfer during
exothermic reaction in EHC and LOC. It is seen from the graph that the
MC reaches a light off temperature of 250 °C after 120 seconds from cold
start.
85
400
350
300
250
Temp (C)
200
150
100 Exhaust without any ATD

MC alone (without EHC)
50 EHC for EHC-LOC-MC config. without air
MC for EHC-LOC-MC config. without air
0
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time ( sec )
Figure 6.5(a) Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as catalyst in

EHC & LOC with 1kW heating without air injection
EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply and surface of the MC for EHC-
LOC-MC configuration with air supply is shown in Figure 6.5 (b). It is seen
that the temperature of EHC reaches 312 °C due to electrical heating before
starting the engine as in the previous case. It is observed that the temperature
of EHC decreases gradually and reaches 266 °C at 36 seconds after cold start,
due to the relatively cool exhaust gas and cool secondary air entering EHC. It
is further seen that the temperature of the EHC increases up to a time of 144
to time after cold start and the same trend is observed for the MC in EHC-
LOC-MC configuration at all times after cold start. It is seen from the graph
that the MC in this configuration reaches a light off temperature of 257 °C
after 108 seconds from cold start due to higher energy transfer in the presence
of secondary air.
86
450
400
350
300
Tem p (C)
250
200
150

50 EHC for EHC-LOC-MC config. with air
MC for EHC-LOC-MC config. with air
0
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time ( sec )

EHC & LOC with 1 kW heating with air injection
Figure 6.5(a) and 6.5(b) shows variation of temperature with

respect to time for the surface of the MC alone (without EHC), surface of the
MC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply and surface of the
MC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply. It is noted that the
surface temperature of MC in all cases shows steady increase with respect to
time after cold start. Further it is noted that the surface temperature of MC for
EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply increases higher than that of
release due to the availability of more oxygen in secondary air.
The variation of CO with time from cold start of the engine for the
exhaust gas without any ATD, with MC only (without EHC), with EHC-
LOC-MC configuration without air supply and with EHC-LOC-MC
configuration with 80 lpm air supply is shown in Figure 6.5 (c). It is seen that
CO % by volume are higher for the engine exhaust without any ATD and
gradually decreases with time and a similar trend is seen for all other cases. It
is further noted that the CO % by volume is lower for MC without EHC and
87
further lower for EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply and still
lower for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply. This may be due to
the availability of more oxygen in the secondary air supplied. It is seen that a
start for EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply when compared
with MC alone and 68.81 % reduction is achieved for EHC-LOC-MC
configuration with air supply after 144 seconds.
8
without any ATD
7 MC alone (without EHC and LOC)
EHC-LOC-MC config. without air
6 EHC-LOC-MC config. with air
CO ( %Volume )
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time ( sec )

EHC and LOC with 1 kW heating
EHC), with EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply and with EHC-
LOC-MC configuration with 80 lpm air supply. It is seen that HC in ppm are
time and a similar trend is seen for the engine fitted with MC only, EHC-
LOC-MC configuration without air supply and EHC-LOC-MC configuration
with air injection. It is noted that HC content is higher for the engine exhaust
without any ATD, and it shows lowest value for EHC-LOC-MC configuration
88
with air supply for the other two configurations lies in between two. It is seen
that a maximum reduction of 32.39 % is obtained after 60 seconds from the
cold start for EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply when compared
with MC alone and 41.66 % is achieved for EHC & MC configuration with
air supply after 180 seconds. This may be due to the availability of more
oxygen in the secondary air supplied.
1000
900 without any ATD

MC alone (without EHC and LOC)
800 EHC-LOC-MC config. without air
EHC-LOC-MC config. with air
700
HC ( ppm )
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time ( sec )

6.6 COPPER OXIDE AS CATALYST IN EHC AND LOC WITH

1.5 kW HEATING

surface of the MC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply. It is
seen that the EHC temperature reaches 370 °C due to electrical heating before
starting the engine. It is observed that the temperature of EHC decreases
89
temperature of EHC increases upto 108 seconds due to the exothermic energy
created in EHC and after that it remains almost steady. It is noted that the
LOC-MC configuration with marginal rise in temperature at all times after
cold start.
400
350
300
250
Temp (C)
200
150

0
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
Time (sec) 180
Figure 6.6(a) Temperature Vs Time for Copper Oxide as catalyst in

EHC & LOC with 1.5 kW heating without air injection
This increase may be due to the energy transfer during exothermic

reaction in EHC and LOC. It is seen from the graph that the MC in this
configuration reaches a light off temperature of 260 °C after 108 seconds
from cold start.
90
LOC-MC configuration with air supply is shown in Figure 6.6(b). It is seen

that the EHC temperature reaches 370 °C due to electrical heating before
starting the engine as in the previous case. It is observed that the EHC
start, due to the relatively cool exhaust gas and cool secondary air entering
EHC.
450
400
350
300
Temp (C)
250
200
150
Exhaust without any ATD
100

0
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time (sec)

EHC & LOC with 1.5 kW heating with air injection
It is further seen that the temperature of the EHC increases upto 96

seconds due to the exothermic energy created in EHC and then it is steady. It
is noted that the surface temperature of MC without EHC shows steady
increase with respect to time after cold start and the same trend is observed
for the MC in EHC-LOC-MC configuration at all times after cold start. This
increase may be due to the energy transfer during exothermic reaction in EHC
and the sensible heat of the exhaust gas. It is seen from the graph that the
temperature MC in this configuration with air supply reaches the light off
temperature of 250 °C after 96 seconds from cold start.
91
Figure 6.6(a) and 6.6(b) shows variation of temperature with

respect to time for the surface of the MC alone (without EHC), surface of the
MC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply and surface of the
MC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply. It is noted that the
surface temperature of MC in all cases shows steady increase with respect to
time after cold start. Further it is noted that the surface temperature of MC for
EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply increases higher than that of
release due to the availability of more oxygen in secondary air supplied.

with EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply and with EHC-LOC-
MC configuration with 80 lpm air supply is shown in Figure 6.6(c).

EHC and LOC with 1.5 kW heating
92
It is seen that CO % by volume are higher for the engine exhaust

without any ATD and it is lower for other cases. It is noted that the CO % by
volume is lowest for EHC-LOC-MC with air supply. A maximum reduction
of 59.94 % is obtained after 144 seconds from the cold start for EHC-LOC-
MC configuration without air supply when compared with MC alone and
73.11 % reduction is achieved for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air
supply after 144 seconds. This may be due to the availability of more oxygen
in the secondary air supplied.
Figure 6.6(d) shows the variation of HC in ppm with respect to time

from cold start of the engine for the exhaust gas without any ATD, with MC
only (without EHC), with EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply
and with EHC-LOC-MC configuration with 80 lpm air supply.

It is seen that HC in ppm are higher for the engine exhaust without
any ATD and gradually decreases with time and a similar trend is seen for the
engine fitted with MC only, for EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air
93
supply and for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air injection. It is noted that
HC content is higher for the engine exhaust without any ATD, and it showed
lowest value for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply for other two
configuration lies in between two. It is seen that a maximum reduction of
35.41 % is obtained after 180 seconds from the cold start for EHC-LOC-MC
configuration without air supply when compared with MC alone and 47.91 %
is achieved for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply after
180 seconds. The availability of more oxygen in the secondary air supplied.
6.7 SILVER OXIDE AS CATALYST IN EHC AND LOC WITH

1 kW HEATING
Figure 6.7 (a) shows variation of temperature with time for the
surface of the MC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply. It is
seen that the EHC temperature reaches 312 °C due to electrical heating before
starting the engine. It is observed that the EHC temperature decreases
energy created in EHC and after that it remains almost steady. It is noted that
the surface temperature of MC without EHC shows steady increase with
respect to time after cold start and the same trend is observed for the MC in
EHC-LOC-MC configuration with lower temperature rise at all times after
cold start. This may be due to lower exothermic heat release in EHC and LOC
with silver oxide catalyst. It is seen from the graph that the MC reaches a light
off temperature after 144 seconds from cold start.
94
400
350
300
250
Tem p (C)
200
150

0
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time (sec)

& LOC with 1 kW heating without air injection
LOC-MC configuration with air supply is shown in Figure 6.7 (b). It is seen
EHC. It is further seen that the temperature of the EHC increases upto 144
LOC-MC configuration at all times after cold start. This increase may be due
to the energy transfer during exothermic reaction in EHC & LOC and the
sensible heat of the exhaust gas. It is seen from the graph that the main
converter reaches light off temperature of 250 °C after 132 seconds from cold
start.
95
400
350
300
250
Temp (C) 200
150

0
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time (sec)

& LOC with 1 kW heating with air injection
Figure 6.7(a) and 6.7(b) shows variation of temperature with time

for the surface of the MC alone (without EHC), surface of the MC for EHC-
LOC-MC configuration without air supply and surface of the MC for EHC-
LOC-MC configuration with air supply. It is noted that the surface
EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply and without air supply were
almost same. This may be due to the lesser exothermic heat release with silver
oxide catalyst in EHC.
Figure 6.7(c) shows the variation of CO with time from cold start of
the engine for the exhaust gas without any ATD, with MC only (without
LOC-MC configuration with 80 lpm air supply. It is seen that CO % by
volume are higher for the engine exhaust without any ATD and gradually
decreases with time and a similar trend is seen for all cases. It is further noted
that the CO % by volume is lower for EHC-MC configuration without air
96
supply and still lower for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply. This
may be due to the availability of more oxygen in the secondary air supplied. It
is seen that a maximum reduction of 27.7 % is obtained after 144 seconds
from the cold start for EHC-MC configuration without air supply when
compared with MC alone and 33.7 % reduction is achieved for EHC-MC
configuration with air supply after 132 seconds.
8
without any ATD
7
6
CO ( %Volume )
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time ( sec )
Figure 6.7(c) Carbon monoxide Vs Time for Silver Oxide as catalyst in

LOC-MC configuration with 80 lpm air supply. It is seen that HC in ppm are
time and a similar trend with lower values is seen for all other cases. It is to be
noted that there is no variation observed in all the cases as the temperature of
the MC remains same in all the cases.
97
1000
without any ATD
900
700
HC ( ppm )
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time ( sec )

and LOC with 1 kW heating
6.8 SILVER OXIDE AS CATALYST IN EHC AND LOC WITH

1.5 kW HEATING
EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply and surface of the MC for
EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply is shown in Figure 6.8(a). It
is seen that the EHC temperature reaches 370 °C due to electrical heating
before starting the engine. It is observed that the EHC temperature decreases
energy created in EHC and after that it remains almost steady. It is noted that
the surface temperature of MC without EHC shows steady increase with
respect to time after cold start and the same trend is observed for the MC in
EHC-LOC-MC configuration with marginal rise in temperature at all times
98
after cold start. This marginal increase may be due to the energy transfer
during exothermic reaction in EHC and LOC. It is seen from the graph that
the MC reaches the light off temperature of 258 °C after 144 seconds from
cold start.
400
350
300
250
Temp (C)
200
150

0
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time (sec)

& LOC with 1.5 kW heating without air injection
Figure 6.8(b) shows variation of temperature with time for the

surface of the EHC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply and
surface of the MC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply. It is seen
EHC. It is further seen that the temperature of the EHC increases upto
120 seconds due to the exothermic energy created in EHC. It is noted that the
99
LOC-MC configuration at all times after cold start. This increase may be due
to the energy transfer during exothermic reaction in EHC & LOC and the
sensible heat of the exhaust gas. It is seen from the graph that the MC reaches
the light off temperature of 255 °C after 132 seconds from cold start.
400
350
300
250
Temp (C)
200
150
Exhaust without any ATD
100 MC alone (without EHC)
EHC for EHC-LOC-MC config. with air
50
0
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time (sec)

& LOC with 1.5 kW heating with air injection
Figure 6.8(a) and 6.8(b) shows variation of surface temperature of

MC with time without EHC, with EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air
supply and with EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply. It is noted that
the surface temperature of MC in all cases shows steady increase with respect
to time after cold start. Further it is noted that the surface temperature of MC
for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply showed little higher value
than that of without air supply. This increase may be due to the higher
exothermic heat release due to the availability of more oxygen in secondary
air supplied.
The variation of CO % by volume with time, from cold start of the

100
with EHC-LOC-MC without air supply and with EHC-LOC-MC with 80 lpm
air supply is shown in Figure 6.8 (c). It is seen that CO % by volume are
time and a similar trend is seen for rest of the cases. It is further noted that the
CO % by volume is lower for EHC-MC configuration without air supply and
still lower for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply when compared
to MC alone. This may be due to the availability of more oxygen in the
secondary air supplied. It is seen that a maximum reduction of 36.11 % is
obtained after 132 seconds from the cold start for EHC-MC configuration
without air supply when compared with MC alone and 39.8 % is achieved for
EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply after 144 seconds.
8
without any ATD
7
6
CO ( %Volume )
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time ( sec )
Figure 6.8(c) Carbon monoxide Vs Time for Silver Oxide as catalyst in

The variation of HC in ppm with time from cold start of the engine
for the exhaust gas without any ATD, with MC only (without EHC), with
EHC-LOC-MC configuration without air supply and with EHC-LOC-MC
configuration with 80 lpm air supply is shown in Figure 6.8 (d). It is seen that
HC in ppm are higher for the engine exhaust without any ATD and gradually
101
decreases with time and a similar trend is seen for other configurations. It is
further noted that the HC in ppm are lowest for EHC-LOC-MC configuration
with air supply.
1000
900 without any ATD

700 EHC-LOC-MC config. with air
HC ( ppm )
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
Time ( sec )

and LOC with 1.5 kW heating
6.9 COMPARISON OF TEMPERATURE OF THE MAIN

CONVERTER IN VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS
Figure 6.9(a), Figure 6.9(b) and Figure 6.9(c) shows the bar chart
representation of temperature of Main Converter with time after cold start, for
1 kW and 1.5 kW heating in EHC-MC configuration and EHC-LOC-MC
Configuration with copper oxide as catalyst and air supply. It seen from the
Figure that EHC-LOC-MC configuration with 1.5 kW heating and air supply
with copper oxide as catalyst in EHC & LOC achieves faster light off than
other configurations. This may be due to the high temperature of catalyst
surface in EHC due to 1.5 kW preheating and the high exothermic heat
release in EHC and LOC with copper oxide catalyst.
102
450
with MC only
400
with 1 kW heating
350 with 1.5 kW heating
MC Temperature ( oC)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.9(a) MC Temperature Vs Time for copper oxide as catalyst in

EHC for EHC-MC configuration with air supply under
1 and 1.5 KW
450
with MC only
400 with 1 kW heating

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.9(b) MC Temperature Vs Time for copper oxide as catalyst in

EHC and LOC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with Air
Supply under 1 and 1.5 kW
103
450
Copper Oxide in EHC only
400 Copper Oxide in EHC and LOC
MC Temperature ( oC )
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180
Time ( Sec)
Figure 6.9(c) MC Temperature Vs Time for copper oxide as catalyst

And 1.5 kW heating with air supply for EHC-MC and
EHC-LOC-MC configuration
Figure 6.9(d), Figure 6.9(e) and Figure 6.9(f) shows the bar chart
representation of temperature of Main Converter with time after cold start, for
1 kW and 1.5 kW heating in EHC-MC configuration and EHC-LOC-MC
Configuration with silver oxide as catalyst and air supply. It seen from the
Figure that the silver oxide as catalyst in EHC-LOC-MC configuration with
1.5 kW heating and air supply achieves faster light off than other
configurations with silver oxide as catalyst.
104
350
with MC only
with 1.5 kW heating
250
200
150
100
50
0
96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.9(d) MC Temperature Vs Time for silver oxide as catalyst in

EHC for EHC-MC configuration with air supply under 1
And 1.5 kW
350
with MC only
with 1.5 kW heating
250
200
150
100
50
0
96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.9(e) MC Temperature Vs Time for silver oxide as catalyst in

EHC and LOC for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with Air
Supply under 1 and 1.5 kW
105
350
Silver Oxide in EHC only
300 Silver Oxide in EHC and LOC
250
200
150
100
50
0
96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.9(f) MC Temperature Vs Time for silver oxide as catalyst And

1.5 kW heating with air supply for EHC-MC and EHC-
LOC-MC configuration
Figure 6.9(g) shows the comparison of silver oxide catalyst and

copper oxide catalyst in EHC-LOC-MC configuration with 1.5 kW heating
and air supply. It is seen from the chart that MC in this configuration with
copper oxide as catalyst in EHC and LOC achieved light off temperature
quickly than silver oxide as catalyst in EHC and LOC. It may be noted that
light off temperature of 250 °C is reached after 132 seconds for silver oxide as
catalyst and 96 seconds for copper oxide as catalyst. This may be due to the
low exothermic heat release in the silver oxide catalyst when compared to
copper oxide catalyst.
106
450
Copper Oxide in EHC and LOC
400
Silver Oxide in EHC and LOC
350
MC Temperature ( oC )
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180
Time ( Sec)
Figure 6.9(g) MC Temperature Vs Time for EHC-LOC-MC configuration

with 1.5 kW heating and air supply
6.10 COMPARISON OF CO % BY VOLUME IN VARIOUS

CONFIGURATIONS
Figure 6.10(a), Figure 6.10(b) and Figure 6.10(c) shows the bar
chart representation of CO with time after cold start, for 1 kW and 1.5 kW
heating in EHC-MC configuration and EHC-LOC-MC Configuration with
copper oxide as catalyst and air supply. It seen from the Figure that EHC-
LOC-MC configuration with 1.5 kW heating and air supply with the copper
oxide as catalyst in EHC & LOC achieves less values of CO (% by volume)
than other configurations with copper oxide as catalyst. This may be due to
the high temperature catalyst surface in EHC due to 1.5 kW preheating
and the high exothermic heat release in EHC and LOC with copper oxide
catalyst.
107
7
with MC only
6 with 1 kW heating
with 1.5 kW heating
CO (% Volume) 4
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.10(a) CO Vs Time for copper oxide as catalyst in EHC for EHC-
MC configuration with air supply under 1 and 1.5 kW
7
with MC only
6 with 1 kW heating
with 1.5 kW heating
5
CO (% Volume)
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.10(b) CO Vs Time for copper oxide as catalyst in EHC and LOC
for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply under 1
and 1.5 kW
108
3.5
with copper oxide in EHC
3 with copper oxide in EHC and LOC
2.5
CO (% Volume)
2
1.5
0.5
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.10(c) CO VS Time for copper oxide as catalyst with 1.5kW

heating and air supply for EHC-MC and EHC-LOC-MC
configuration
Figure 6.10(d), Figure 6.10(e) and Figure 6.10(f) shows the bar
chart representation of CO with time after cold start, for 1 kW and 1.5 kW
silver oxide as catalyst and air supply. It seen from the Figure that the silver
oxide as catalyst in EHC-LOC-MC configuration with 1.5 kW heating and air
supply achieves faster light off than other configurations with silver oxide as
catalyst.
109
7
with MC only
with 1 kW heating
6
with 1.5 kW heating
CO (% Volume) 4
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.10(d) CO Vs Time for silver oxide as catalyst in EHC for EHC-
7
with MC only
6 with 1 kW heating
with 1.5 kW heating
5
CO (% Volume)
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.10(e) CO Vs Time for silver oxide as catalyst in EHC and LOC
for EHC-LOC-MC config. With air supply under 1 and
1.5kW
110
6
with silver oxide in EHC and LOC
with silver oxide in EHC
5
CO (% Volume)
4
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180

Time (Sec)
Figure 6.10(f) CO Vs Time for silver oxide as catalyst with 1.5 kW

heating and air supply for EHC-MC and EHC-LOC-MC
config.

copper oxide as catalyst in EHC and LOC achieved less CO values than silver
oxide as catalyst in EHC and LOC. This may be due to the high exothermic
heat release in the copper oxide catalyst when compared to silver oxide
catalyst.
111
4.5 Copper oxide in EHC and LOC

Silver oxide in EHC and LOC
4
3.5
2.5
CO ( % Volume )
1.5
0.5
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time ( Sec )
Figure 6.10(g) CO Vs Time for EHC-LOC-MC configurations with 1.5

KW heating and air supply
6.11 COMPARISON OF HC IN ppm IN VARIOUS

CONFIGURATIONS
Figure 6.11(a), Figure 6.11(b) and Figure 6.11(c) shows the bar
chart representation of HC with time after cold start, for 1 kW and 1.5 kW
copper oxide as catalyst and air supply. It seen from the chart that EHC-LOC-
MC configuration with 1.5 kW heating and air supply with copper oxide as
catalyst in EHC & LOC achieves faster light off than other configurations
with copper oxide as catalyst and gives more reduction of HC. This may be
due to the high exothermic heat release in EHC and LOC with copper oxide
catalyst. This high heat release may be due to the high temperature catalyst
surface in EHC due to 1.5 kW preheating.
112
900
800 with MC only

with 1 kW heating
700
with 1.5 kW heating
600
HC (ppm)
500
400
300
200
100
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.11(a) HC Vs Time for copper oxide as catalyst in EHC for EHC-
MC configuration with air supply under 1 and 1.5 KW
900
800 with MC only
600
with 1.5 kW heating
HC (ppm)
500
400
300
200
100
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.11(b) HC Vs Time for copper oxide as catalyst in EHC and LOC
for EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply under 1
and 1.5 kW
113
700
Copper oxide in EHC

600
Copper oxide in EHC and LOC
500
HC (ppm) 400
300
200
100
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.11(c) HC Vs Time for copper oxide as catalyst with 1.5 kW

Heating and air supply for EHC-MC and EHC-LOC-
configuration
Figure 6.11(d), Figure 6.11(e) and Figure 6.11(f) shows the bar
chart representation of HC with time after cold start, for 1 kW and 1.5 kW
silver oxide as catalyst and air supply. It seen from the charts that the silver
oxide as catalyst in EHC, LOC is not showing much reduction in the HC.
This may be due to the low exothermic heat release in the silver oxide
catalyst.
114
under 1 and 1.5 kW

900
under 1 and 1.5 kWwith MC only
800
under 1 and 1.5 kWwith 1 kW heating
700 under 1 and 1.5 kWwith 1.5 kW heating
under 1 and 1.5 kW
600
under 1 and 1.5 kW
HC (ppm)
500 under 1 and 1.5 kW
under 1 and 1.5 kW
400
under 1 and 1.5 kW
under 1 and 1.5 kW
200
under 1 and 1.5 kW
under 1 and 1.5 kW
0
under 1 and 1.5 kW
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
under 1 and
Time1.5 kW
(Sec)
under 1 and 1.5 kW
Figure 6.11(d) HC Vs Time for silver oxide as catalyst in EHC for EHC-
900
800 with MC only

with 1 kW heating
600
HC (ppm)
500
400
300
200
100
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.11(e) HC Vs Time for silver oxide as catalyst in EHC&LOC For

EHC-LOC-MC configuration with air supply under 1 and
1.5 kW
115
900
800 Silver oxide in EHC

700
600
HC (ppm)
500
400
300
200
100
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time (Sec)
Figure 6.11(f) HC Vs Time for silver oxide as catalyst with 1.5 kW

Heating and air supply for EHC-MC and EHC-LOC-MC
configuration

copper oxide as catalyst in EHC and LOC achieved light off temperature
quickly than silver oxide as catalyst in EHC and LOC in EHC-LOC-MC
configuration. This may be due to the high exothermic heat release in the
copper oxide catalyst when compared to silver oxide catalyst.
116
800
700
Copper oxide in EHC and LOC
600
500
HC ( ppm )
400
300
200
100
0
12 36 60 84 108 132 156 180
Time ( Sec)
Figure 6.11(g) HC Vs Time for EHC-LOC-MC configurations with 1.5

kW heating and air supply
117
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
From the present investigations, on emission control from SI engine

using Electrically Heated Catalytic (EHC) converter in combination with
commercially available Main Converter (MC), the following conclusions are
arrived:
• Electrical heating of the catalyst surface before starting the

engine shows significant reduction in cold start emission.
• At higher the power level, a higher reduction in cold start

emission was achieved due to the high surface temperature of
catalyst which initiates the CO and HC conversion quickly.
• The Main Converter reaches light off temperature quickly in

both EHC-MC configuration and EHC-LOC-MC configuration
due to the exothermic heat generated in the EHC and EHC and
LOC with sensible heat of the Exhaust.
• Among these two configurations EHC-LOC-MC Configuration

shows faster light off of Main Converter and more reduction of
cold start emission.
• The copper oxide as catalyst shows significant reduction in cold

start CO and HC emission in both EHC-MC and EHC-LOC-MC
configuration.
118
• Secondary air injection in EHC shows further reduction in cold

start CO and HC emission than without secondary air supply
due to the availability of more oxygen for chemical reaction in
all configurations.
• Among the different configurations, test results shows EHC-

LOC-MC configuration with air supply and 1.5 kW heating
achieves faster light off and hence the more cold start emission
reduction.
• Copper oxide as catalyst showed more reduction than silver

oxide as catalyst in all configurations.

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1

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON COLD

for the award of the degree

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Certified that this thesis titled “EXPERIMENTAL

INVESTIGATION ON COLD START EMISSIONS USING

ELECTRICALLY HEATED CATALYST” is the bonafide work of

Mr. N. NITHYANANDAN who carried out the research under my

supervision. Certified further that to the best of my knowledge the work

basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion of this

or any other candidate.

I declare that the thesis entitled “EXPERIMENTAL

INVESTIGATION ON COLD START EMISSIONS USING

ELECTRICALLY HEATED CATALYST” submitted by me for the degree

of Doctor of Philosophy is the record of work carried out by me during the

period from October 2006 to November 2010 under the guidance of

degree, diploma, associate-ship, fellowship, titles in this or any other

university or other similar institution of higher learning.

The environmental pollution is one of the major strategic questions

for decision makers both in industry as well as in government. The use of

progressively reducing vehicular emission leading research to achieve Low

Emission Vehicle (ZEV).

In achieving the LEV and ULEV, the after treatment of exhaust

gases such as catalytic converter plays an important role. New catalytic

converters attain maximum conversion rates of about 80-90 % under optimum

run with a rich mixture during warm-up. Approximately 60 percent of the

of an Electrically Heated Catalyst (EHC).

In this investigation an attempt is made to study the cold start

emission from Spark Ignition engine using Electrically Heated Catalyst in

combination with conventional catalytic converter. The experiments have

been conducted in two different configurations (EHC-MC and EHC-LOC-

EHC. The commercially available catalytic converter is used as Main

configurations and more reduction is achieved in EHC-LOC-MC

I express deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to my supervisor

Dr.S.Sendilvelan, Principal, Aksheyaa College of Engineering,

Kancheepuram District, India, for his constant encouragement, help and

valuable guidance in carrying out the research work.

I am grateful to my Doctoral Committee members,

Dr.K.Balagurunathan, Dean Academic St. Peter’s Engineering College,

Chennai, and Dr.S.Arul Head of the department, Panimalar Engineering

I sincerely thank Mr.M.Ganesan Professor and Head, Department of

Mechanical Engineering, Dr.M.G.R Educational and Research Institute,

Chennai, Dr.P.Aravindan, Dean (IIPC) & Research, Dr.M.G.R Educational

and Research Institute, Chennai, The Principal, Panimalar Institute of

Technology, Chennai, for their kind support and timely help.

Finally, I wish to thank all those helped directly or indirectly in

completing this research work.

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3 EMISSION CONTROL FROM SI ENGINE 20

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3.2.1.1.1 Air Fuel Ratio 21

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3.2.1.6.2.2 Two Stage

4 ELECTRICALLY HEATED CATALYST 35

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4.7.3 Electrical Power Supply from

6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 48

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

6.6 COPPER OXIDE AS CATALYST IN EHC

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1.1 LEV and ULEV Regulations 2

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.