ASGY 241: RESEARCH METHODS 1

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH:

EVIDENCE-BASED INQUIRY

1. INTRODUCTION

In the centuries before reading and writing were common, individuals developed
knowledge of the world around them primarily by three means. The first was through
personal experiences. By personal experience, you can find the answers to many of
the questions you face. Much knowledge passed from generation to generation is the
result of experience. If people were not able to profit from experience, progress would
be severely stalemate. In fact, this ability to learn from experience is a major
characteristic of intelligent behaviour. Collective understanding was conveyed as a
series of detailed stories of people and events. Stories provided an understanding, a
range of wisdom from which one could generalise or apply known experience to an
unknown area and thus from reasonable expectations.

A second method of knowledge generation could be identified in positivism.

Positivism assumes that the only valid knowledge is the one scientific. Positivism was
the foundation of the scientific method. The idea was that, the study of humans could
be done the same way as the study of nature, with an accepted set of rules for
conducting and reporting the results. This rationalistic view of knowledge is illustrated
by the work of mainly August Comte. The positivist belief is that, knowledge comes
from things that can be experienced with the senses or proved by logic.

A third paradigm for generating knowledge is called interpretivist. Interpretive

researchers use systematic procedures but maintain that there are multiple socially
constructed realities. Rather than trying to be objective, researchers’ professional
judgements and perspectives are considered in the interpretation of data. There is less
emphasis on numbers and more emphasis on values and context. In this paradigm,

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the meaning is important rather than measurement; this is achieved in conducting
detailed interviews, and prolonged observations.

These major paradigms positivism and interpretivist, provide the foundation for
different types of social research (Quantitative and Qualitative). More important,
though, is the emphasis of any kind of research on gathering empirical evidence, using
systematic procedures, and using accepted rules for determining quality and rigor.
Moreover, among the disciplines, there are variations in designs and methods in the
process of conducting a study. What is common, though, is the principle of evidence-
based inquiry. Evidence-based Inquiry is the search for knowledge using
systematically gathered empirical data. Evidence, unlike opinion or ideology,
evidence-based inquiry is conducted and reported in such a way that the logical
reasoning can be thoroughly examined. The term evidence-based does not refer to
using narrow forms of investigation, nor does it necessarily refer to following formal
procedures. A study is evidence-based when investigators have anticipated the
traditional questions that are relevant and established techniques to avoid bias at each
step of data collection and reasoning. If the errors or biases cannot be eliminated.
Investigators discuss the potential effects of those issues in their interpretations.

2. WHAT IS SOCIAL SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

Searching it again and again means Re-search. Research is defined as human activity
based on intellectual application in the investigation of matter. The primary purpose
for research is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems
for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our
world and the universe. Research can use the scientific method, but need not do so.
Research is an art of scientific investigation. It is regarded as a systematic efforts to
gain new knowledge. The dictionary meaning of research is “a careful investigation or
inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Research
comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit
the formulating hypothesis. Research in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences is
defined as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of

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generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art. Research is an organized and
systematic way of finding answers to questions. Systematic because there is a definite
set of procedures and steps which you will follow. There are certain aspects in the
research process which are always done in order to get the most accurate results.

3. IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Social science deals with the study of society and the relationship among individuals
within society. It includes business, sociology, commerce, demography, etc. Social
science research provides authentic information to the people that are scientifically
proven so that end users can rely upon it. It also helps us in finding the solutions to
different social problems. It focuses on the fact that if we are able to find the root cause
of any problem, we can find the more effective solution to it. Social science is involved
everywhere starting from healthcare sector to business world. It also contributes to
social welfare, formulation of theories, development of methodology, social planning,
prediction, and control.

Social scientists are involved with solving many of the world’s biggest issues like
cybersecurity, finding a cause of various new diseases and evolving new strategies
for defence challenges faced by the countries. Various countries also take help from
social researchers in order to deal with the day to day challenges faced by them. If we
consider the field of medicine, social scientists work closely with different
organizations. For finding the cause of any new disease, studying the environmental
conditions is equally important as studying the cause and pathogen responsible for
the disease. Social science is also in great demand in the business world, specifically
in the aviation industry. They help the companies to understand its customers well by
providing them information about the travel patterns, use of services, etc. Social
science research can help the industries in gaining customer satisfaction by giving
them useful insights into customer behaviours. This can lead to business growth and
higher profitability of the firms.

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Businesses are always interested in knowing more about their customers. Knowing
the customers well ease their several purposes. If they know the behaviours of the
customers, they can design the products accordingly. It decreases their marketing
efforts and even if it is required, it can be strategically planned in the required manner.
It not only decreases the overall cost but also provides a better profitability. The brand
name of the company gets higher visualization in the market. Technology can serve
the purpose of increasing profits but social science research can add a flavour of value
to it. Social research makes social unity possible by providing solutions to the social
groups and castes. It finds the cause of such issues and provides a solution to resolve
the same. It also brings structural change in the life of people by studying more about
the social situations. The research brings about a positive change in the society. The
societal behaviour is studied and analysed to achieve broad goals.

Social research also contributes to societal development by increasing creativity and

innovation. The new idea leads to the up-gradation of society. Focusing on research
enhances the knowledge thereby giving more power to the society. Creativity and
innovation help in formulating new theories that help in the upliftment of the societal
behaviour. Social science research studies various theories on motivation, personality,
leadership, team skills, etc. that are already accepted. It changes the already accepted
principles through its new research methodologies.

Social research studies the society and helps in making laws for the benefit of the
government. It helps in smooth functioning of the society by bringing social order and
control. The research studies the trends of the past and predicts the future. The
prediction of the future trends many tasks, may it be businesses, government or the
society. The government can make the rules by taking in consideration about the
future trends and the businesses can design their strategies in the same way. There
is never an end to the social science research. It helps diverse subject areas to achieve
their motives. It plays an important role in all fields. Hence, the growth and
development of a society are impossible without social science research.

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4. BASIS OF SOCIAL SCIENTIFIC METHODS

4.1. Reliance on empirical evidence:

Scientific method involves a systematic process. The answer to a question is not

decided by perception or imagination. Relevant data are collected through observation
and survey. The validity and the reliability of data are checked carefully and the data
are analysed thoroughly using appropriate methods of analyses.

4.2. Use of concepts:

We use concepts to deal with real facts. Concepts are logical constructs or
abstractions created from sense impressions. They are the symbols representing the
meaning that we hold. They mean the understanding that what we know is made up
of different characteristics.

4.3. Commitment to objectivity:

Objectivity is the hallmark of the scientific method. It means forming a judgment upon
facts unbiased by personal impressions. The conclusion should not vary from person
to person. It should be same for all persons.

4.4. Ethical neutrality:

Science does not pass standard judgment on facts. It does not say they are good or
bad. Science aims nothing but making true and adequate statements about its object.

4.5. Generalization:

Scientist tries to find out the commonality of a series of event. They aim at discovering
the uniformity. Assumed a discovered uniformity a logical class and it’s observed
pattern, a descriptive generalization is formulated.

4.6. Verifiability:

The findings of a research should be verifiable. Scientist must make know to others,
how he arrived at his conclusion. He should thus expose his own methods and
conclusions to critical scrutiny. When others test his conclusion under the same
conditions, then it is accepted as correct.

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4.7. Logical reasoning process:

The scientist method involves the logical process of reasoning. This reasoning process
is used for drawing inference from the finding of a study or for arriving at conclusion.
This logical reasoning process consists of induction and deduction.

4.8. Induction:

One of the methods of logical reasoning process. The inductive method consists of
studying several individual cases drawing a generalization. It involves two processes;
observation and generalization. Conclusion from induction method is subjected to
further conformation based on more evidence

4.9. Deduction:

Deduction is reasoning from the general to the particular. This reasoning establishes
a logical relationship on a major premise. A minor premise and a conclusion. A major
premise is a previously established generalization or assumption. A minor premise is
a particular case related to the major premise. The logical relationship of these
premise lead to conclusion.

E.g. major premise: - All men are mortal

Minor premise: - A is a man

Conclusion: - A is mortal.

The logical process of both induction and deduction are useful in research studies.
Both are inseparable parts of a system of reasoning. Both processes are often used
simultaneously.

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5. GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: EVIDENCE-BASED
INQUIRY

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6: RESEARCH DESIGNS

A way to think about research is based on the research design of the study. As
research design describes the procedures for conducting the study, including when,
from whom, and under what conditions the data will be obtained. In other words, the
research design indicates the general plan: how the research is set up, what happens
on the subjects, and what methods of data collection are used. The purpose of a
research design is to specify a plan for generating empirical evidence that will be used
to answer the research questions. The intent is to use a design that will result in
drawing the most valid, credible conclusions from the answers to the research
questions.

6.1. Quantitative research designs

Quantitative research designs emphasize objectivity in measuring and describing

phenomena. As a result, the research designs maximise objectivity by using numbers,
statistics, structure and control.

6.1.1. Descriptive:

Research using a descriptive design simply provides a summary of an existing

phenomenon by using numbers to characterise individuals or groups. It assesses the
nature of existing conclusions. The purpose of most descriptive research is limited to
characterising something as it is.

6.1.2. Comparative:

In a comparative design, the researcher investigates whether there are differences

between two or more groups on the phenomena being studied. As with descriptive
designs, there is no intervention, even so, the comparative approach takes descriptive
studies a step further. For example, rather than describing pupils’ attitudes towards a
discipline, a comparative study could investigate whether attitudes differ by grade level
or gender. Often, comparative modes of inquiry are used to study relationships
between different phenomena being studied.

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6.1.3. Correlational:

Correlational research is concerned with assessing relationships between two or more

phenomena. This type of study usually involves a statistical measure of the degree of
relationships, called correlation. The relationship measured is a statement about the
degree of association between the variables of interest. A positive correlation means
that high values of one variable are associated with high values of a second variable.
The relationship between level of education and employment. A negative correlation
or relationship means that high values of one variable are associated with low values
of a second variable. The correlation between exercise and heart failure.

6.1.4. Survey:

In a survey research design, the investigator selects a sample of subjects and

administers a questionnaire to collect data. Surveys are used frequently in social
research to describe attitudes, beliefs, opinions and other types of information that
could not be expressed in numbers. Usually, the research is designed so that
information about a large number of people (the population) can be inferred from the
responses obtained from a smaller group of subjects (the sample).

6.2. Qualitative research designs

Qualitative research designs use methods that are distinct from those used in
quantitative designs. Qualitative designs are just as systematic as quantitative
designs, but they emphasize gathering data on naturally occurring phenomena. Most
of these data are in the form of words rather than numbers, and in general, the
researcher must search and explore with a variety of methods until a deep
understanding is achieved.

6.2.1. Ethnography:

An ethnography is a description and interpretation of a cultural or social group or

system. It is a study of culture or social system. Although there is some disagreement
about the precise meaning of the term culture, the focus is on learned patterns of
actions, language, beliefs, rituals and ways of life. As a process, ethnography involves
prolonged fieldwork, typically employing observation and continuous interviews with
participants of a shared group activity and collecting group artifacts. A documentary
style is employed focusing on general details of everyday life and revealing the

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observation skills of the researcher. The collective informant’s point of view is
thoroughly produced through extensive, closely edited quotations to convey that what
is presented is not the fieldworkers view, but authentic and representative remarks of
the participants. The final product is a comprehensive, holistic narrative description
and interpretation that integrates all aspects of group life and illustrates its complexity.

6.2.2. Phenomenology:

A phenomenological study describes the meanings of a lived experience. The

researcher puts aside all judgements and collects data on how individuals make sense
out of a particular experience or situation. The aim of phenomenology is to transform
lived experience into a description of its essence, allowing for reflection and analysis.
The typical technique is for the researcher to conduct long interviews with the
informants directed toward understanding their perspectives on their everyday lived
experience with the phenomenon.

6.2.3. Case study:

Case study research refers to an in-depth, detailed study of an individual or a small

group of individuals. Such studies are typically qualitative in nature, resulting in a
narrative description of behaviour or experience. Case study research is not used to
determine cause and effect, nor is it used to discover generalizable truths or make
predictions. Rather, the emphasis in case study research is placed on exploration and
description of a phenomenon. The main characteristics of case study research are
that it is narrowly focused, provides a high level of detail, and is able to combine both
objective and subjective data to achieve an in-depth understanding.

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6.3. Mixed Method Research Designs
It incorporates both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The use of mixed method
research designs, which combine quantitative and qualitative methods, is becoming
increasingly popular because the use of both approaches together can provide a more
complete investigation. With mixed method designs, researchers are not limited to
using techniques associated with traditional designs, either quantitative or qualitative.
An important advantage of mixed method studies is that they can show the result that
is quantitative and explain why it was obtained qualitatively.
6.3.1. Explanatory design:
In an explanatory design, quantitative data are collected first and, depending on the
results, qualitative data are gathered second to elucidate, elaborate on, or explain the
quantitative findings. Typically, the main thrust of the study is quantitative and the
qualitative results are secondary. Thus, qualitative phase would be used to augment
the statistical data and thus explain the practices.
6.3.2. Elaboratory design:
In a second type of mixed method design, the qualitative data are gathered first and
quantitative phase follows. The purpose of this kind of study, which is called an
exploratory design, is typically to use the initial qualitative phase with a few individuals
to identify themes, ideas, perspectives and beliefs that can then be used to design the
larger scale quantitative part of the study. Often, this kind of design is used to develop
a survey. By using qualitative component in the beginning, researchers are able to use
the language and emphasis on different topics of the subjects in the wording of items
for the survey. Doing so, increases the validity of the scores that result because they
will be well matched with the way the subjects, rather than the researchers, think
about, conceptualise and respond to the phenomenon being studied.

6.4. Triangulation:
Quantitative and qualitative together. In this design, both qualitative and quantitative
data are collected at about the same time. Triangulation is used when the strengths of
one method offset the weakness of the other, so that together they provide a more
comprehensive set of data. To the extent that the results from each method converge
and indicate the same result, there is triangulation and thus greater credibility of the
findings. Theoretically, the triangulation design is used because the strengths of each
approach can be applied to provide not only a more complete result but also one that
is more valid.

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7. RESEARCH PROCESS

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8: THE FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH

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9. THE NATURE OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

Empirical studies begin with research questions. But it is important as well to know
where these research questions comes from. The research problem is the issue,
controversy, or concern that initiates the study. The research problem is included in
the introduction section of a research proposal or report. It consists of several
sentences or few paragraphs that show how the problem is formulated, and provides
the foundation for the meaningfulness of the study. This results in an understanding
of how the research will contribute to an existing body of knowledge. Usually the
research problem begins with a topic. A topic is a general indication of the subject that
is being researched. It indicates the starting point of initial interest.

9.1. Typically, research problems have three components: Context, Purpose,

and Significance

Context places the research problem within a larger subject area. E.g.: For many
years, researchers have documented the importance of student self-efficacy to
motivation. The purpose is a statement that indicates in a more specific manner what
is being investigated. This is indicated by the universal phrase. The purpose of this
study is to……..E.g ‘The purpose of this study is to identify factors predicting teacher
satisfaction’. Significance is addressed by showing how the study will make a
contribution to current knowledge. It is crucial for the study to be clearly related to the
existing body of knowledge and theory.

9.2. Sources of Research Problems

There are two popular sources for identifying a topic that can be modelled into a
research problem. The first is to read recently published books and journal articles.
Another good strategy is to talk with knowledgeable professionals in the field about
the current issues, policies, and directions of field of study. Although no single strategy
is the best, following are some further sources that are used to establish good research
problems:

9.2.1. Investigators Observations, interests, and experience:

Everyday observations and experiences can be a good source of research problems.

In addition to these experiences, each of us is interested in various topics that can be
used for research problems.

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9.2.2. Applying theory:

A common source of problems for basic and applied research is theories that have
implications for practice. The theories provide ideas about what the implications would
be when applied to social settings. Existing theories can also be tested, revised with
the intent to change theories rather than to apply theories in other disciplines.
9.3. Significance of the problem
The significance of the problem is the rationale for a study. It justifies why an evidence-
based inquiry is important and indicates the reasons for the researcher’s choice of a
particular problem. Because research requires knowledge, skills, planning, time and
fiscal resources, the problem to be investigated should be important. A research
problem is significant when aids in developing theory and knowledge.
10: RESEARCH PROBLEM AND RESEARCH QUESTION FORMULATION

In social scientific research, there is need for concise research questions that clearly
communicate the nature of the study. The questions are based on the research
problem but are more specific in showing the logic of the design and variables. The
logic begins with a clearly defined constructs that links with variables.
10.1. Construct:

Is basically a concept. In research, a concept is called a construct. Defining a

construct, is to say that it is created by combining variables in a meaningful pattern.
10.2. Variable:

Is perhaps the most frequently used word in scientific research. A variable is a label
that represents a concept or characteristic. Thus, a variable is a noun or characteristic
because what is studied varies, or has different values.

10.2.1. Independent and dependent variables

The idea of variables arose as a way of describing and explaining experimental

studies. In an experiment, the outcome depends on what is caused by the intervention,
hence the name dependent variable. The dependent variable is affected by the
intervention. The independent variable in experimental studies is the name for the
intervention. It describes what was done by the experimenter to influence the
dependent variable.

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10.3. Research questions and hypotheses

Specific Research Question

Type format
Descriptive What is……?
How frequently……?
Relationship/Comparative What is the difference…….?
Is there a difference………..?
Relationship/Correlational What is the relationship between…….?
Difference What is the effect of……….?

10.3.1. Descriptive questions

Descriptive research questions just describe. Studies using descriptions typically use
frequencies, percentages, graphs showing how much or how frequently something
has occurred. There are no comparisons or corrections, and often there are no
independent variable. E.g. What do teachers perceive to be the area in which they
would like training for professional development?

10.3.2. Differences and Correlations:

In most scientific studies, the purpose goes beyond description to examine

relationships among variables. The term relationship is used extensively. It refers to
how one variable relates to another, that is, can results of one variable predict results
of the other variable. Relationship questions include two types: One type analyses
differences or comparisons between groups of subjects. And second, more common
type of relationship question uses a correlational procedure rather that differences
between groups.

10.3.3. Difference questions:

Group of subjects are compared to determine the effect of the intervention. The
differences between the groups are analysed to investigate whether one group scores
higher on the dependent variable than another group or groups. Eg. Are there
significant differences in achievement between traditional and computer-assisted
learning groups?

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10.4. Research hypothesis

Hypothesis is an assuming statement of the expected relationship between two or

more variables. Problem statements and research hypotheses are similar in
substance, except that research hypothesis are declarative statements, more specific
than problem statements, clearly testable, and indicative of the expected results. That
is, a research hypothesis is the investigators expectation or prediction of what the
results will show. It is a conjectural statement that is a prediction made prior to data
collection. Research hypothesis are used because they represent a synthesis of the
researchers expectation based on previous literature and experience. The research
hypothesis, then, follows from the related literature. It is a way to connect the literature
to the current study, providing a framework for developing explanations. It also helps
the researcher keep focused on the purpose of the study. Finally, research hypothesis
provide a framework for reporting results and making interpretations of the data. In
social research there are commonly two types of hypothesis. Null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis. Alternative hypothesis is a statement that there is a relationship
between variables, while the null hypothesis is a statement that there are no
statistically significant differences or relationships. Null Hypothesis King’oriah (2004)
defines null hypothesis as “the negative statement of the suspected truth that is going
to be investigated through data collection and data manipulation” (p.177). For
example, if one wishes to investigate whether there is a statistical significant difference
between the performance of male and female students in secondary schools, there
could be two possibilities, one negative and the other positive:

· There is no statistical significant difference between the performance of male and

female students in private secondary schools (null hypothesis)
· There is a statistical significant difference between the performance of male and
female students in private secondary schools (alternative)
The negative statement is stated as the null hypothesis, thus:
H0: There is no statistical significant difference between the performance of male
and female students in private secondary schools.
1.4.2 Alternative Hypothesis
King’oria (2004) defines alternative hypothesis as “the alternative set of facts that are
accepted or proven to be true if the null hypothesis is rejected or proven to be not
true.” The positive statement is stated as an alternative hypothesis, thus:

HA: There is a statistical significant difference between the performance of male and
female students in private secondary schools

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Readings

Barbie E. (2008) The Basics of Social Research. Thompson Wadsworth. Belmont:

USA.
Cresswell J.W. (2009) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches. Sage Publications. London: UK.

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