Chapter 2-ENG PDF

RULES FOR OPERATION, INSPECTION AND Doc. No.
:
JV MAINTENANCE OF OFFSHORE PROCESS PIPING AND VSP-SR-16
VIETSOVPETRO UNDERWATER PIPELINES
Chapter 2: Pipeline Design Revision: 00
CHAPTER 2
PIPELINE DESIGN
CONTENTS
Page No.
2.1 Codes and Standards 3
2.2 Design Stages 3
2.2.1 Front End Design 4
2.2.2 Conceptual Design 4
2.2.3 Detailed Design 5
2.3 Pipeline Routing Offshore 6
2.3.1 Preliminary Routing 6
2.3.2 Navigation 7
2.3.3 Shore Approaches 7
2.3.4 Existing Pipelines and Structures 8
2.3.5 Platform approaches and riser location 8
2.3.6 Topographical and Hydrographic Survey 10
2.3.7 Soil Data 10
2.3.8 Final offshore routing 10
2.4 Pipeline Routing Onshore 11
2.4.1 Considerations 11
2.4.2 Route Information 12
2.4.3 Permanent Right-of-Way 12
2.4.4 Block Valve Stations 12
2.4.5 Final Routing 12
2.5 Pipeline Routing Tolerance Requirements 12
2.6 Geotechnical Site Investigation 13
2.6.1 Planning 14
2.7 Materials 17
2.7.1 Carbon Steel 17
2.7.2 Glass Reinforced Plastic 18
2.7.3 Corrosion Resistant Alloys 19
2.7.4 Plastics 19
2.7.5 Flexibles 19
2.8 Leak Detection and Isolation Systems 19
2.9 Diameter Selection 20
2.9.1 Basics 20
2.9.2 General Considerations 20
2.9.3 Velocity Limitations 21
2.9.4 Recommended Standard Operating Pressures 22
2.9.5 Sizing Criteria for Liquid Lines 22
2.9.6 Sizing Criteria for Gas Lines 24
2.9.7 Sizing Criteria for Two-Phase Lines 24
2.9.8 Pressure Losses in Valves and Fittings 24
2.10 Wall Thickness Selection 25
2.10.1 Basics 25
2.10.2 General Considerations 25
2.10.3 Hoop Stress Sizing Criterion 26
2.10.4 Code Transition 27
2.10.5 Pipe Wall Thickness Tolerances 28
2.10.6 Minimum Nominal Pipe Wall Thickness 28
2.11 Standardisation of Linepipe 29
2.12 Environmental Data 29
2.12.1 Waves 29
2.12.2 Currents 31
2.12.3 Water Depth 32
2.12.4 Ambient Temperatures 32
2.12.5 Operating Temperatures 33
2.12.6 Marine Growth 33
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2.13 Stresses and loads 33

2.13.1 General 33
2.13.2 Stresses 33
2.13.3 Strain based design 36
2.13.4 Hydrostatic Pressure and Pipeline Collapse during Installation 38
2.13.5 Wave and current loads 40
2.13.6 Wind Forces 41
2.13.7 Point and distributed loads 42
2.13.8 Thermal loads 43
2.13.9 Unsupported spans 43
2.14 On-Bottom Stability 47
2.14.1 General 47
2.14.2 Analysis 47
2.14.3 Concrete Weight Coating 48
2.14.4 Shore Approach 49
2.15 Riser design 50
2.15.1 Components 50
2.15.2 Riser coating 51
2.15.3 Passive Fire Protection 51
2.15.4 Pipeline approach and riser bend angle 52
2.15.5 Riser Clamp Positions 52
2.16 Corrosion 53
2.16.1 Design Life 53
2.16.2 Composition of Transported Medium 54
2.16.3 Environmental Conditions 54
2.16.4 Corrosion Inhibitors 55
2.16.5 External corrosion coatings 55
2.16.6 Cathodic Protection 55
2.16.7 Strength Assessment 56
2.17 Installation Analysis 56
2.18 Pipeline pigging 57
2.18.1 Internal Diameter Inspection Pigs 57
2.18.2 Cleaning and Batching Pigs 57
2.18.3 Corrosion Inspection Pigs 59
2.18.4 Pinger Pigs 59
2.18.5 Pipeline Design for Pigging 59
2.18.6 Pig Launcher and Receiver 60
2.18.7 Pipelines Requiring Pigging Facilities 61
2.19 Pipeline Material Procurement 61
2.19.1 General 61
2.19.2 Linepipe and bends 61
2.19.3 Flanges 62
2.19.4 Butt-weld fittings and Barred Tees 62
2.19.5 Launcher and Receivers. 62
2.20 Pipeline Design Data 62
2.20.1 Allocation of PID number for new pipelines 62
2.20.2 Pipeline Data Sheets 62
2.21 Hydrostatic Testing 64
2.21.1 Testing Requirements 64
2.21.2 Test Equipment and Instrumentation 65
2.21.3 Determination of Residual Air Volume in Pipeline 65
2.21.4 Hydrostatic Leak Test Evaluation 66
2.21.5 Location of Leaks during Hydrostatic Testing 70
2.21.6 Testing After New Construction 70
2.21.7 Hydrostatic Testing of Internal Pressure Piping 71
2.21.8 Testing of Fabricated Items 72
2.21.9 Testing of Replacement Pipe Sections. 72
2.1 Codes and Standards
The basic design standards being followed are:
ASME B.31.4: Liquid transportation systems for hydrocarbons, liquid petroleum gas,
anhydrous ammonia, and alcohols
ASME B.31.8: Gas transmission and distribution piping systems
DNV ‘81 Rules: Rules for Submarine Pipeline Systems
A comprehensive list of applicable codes and standards is included as reference in section

1.8. Unless otherwise stated this document assumes the pipe material to be carbon steel.
SI units are used throughout the text although, where deemed useful, imperial or oil field
units are also provided.
2.2 Design Stages
Design of offshore pipelines is usually carried out in three stages: conceptual engineering,
preliminary engineering, and detail engineering. During the conceptual engineering stage,
issues of technical feasibility and constraints on the system design and construction are
addressed. Potential difficulties are revealed and non-viable options are eliminated.
Required information for the forthcoming design and construction are identified. The
outcome of the conceptual engineering allows for scheduling of development and a rough
estimate of associated cost. The preliminary engineering defines system concept (pipeline
size and grade), prepares authority applications, and provides design details sufficient to
order pipeline. In the detail engineering phase, the design is completed in sufficient detail to
define the technical input for all procurement and construction tendering. A complete
pipeline design includes pipeline sizing (diameter and wall thickness) and material grade
selection based on analyses of stress, hydrodynamic stability, span, thermal insulation,
corrosion and stability coating, and riser specification. The following sections detail the
specific requirements for each design stage.
FIGURE 2 OFFSHORE PIPELINES CATEGORY
2.2.1 Front End Design
During the front-end design of a pipeline, the transport requirements are defined in terms of
product, throughput and pressure/temperature regimes. The Project Development Plan
usually documents the preliminary size, routing options and design philosophy and includes
basis for design parameters such as design life, fluid composition, environmental and
operating conditions.
2.2.2 Conceptual Design
The following activities are normally carried out during the conceptual design of an offshore
pipeline:
• Survey route,
• Select the pipeline route and prepare drawings, including riser location
• Perform a brief environmental impact assessment,
• Finalise the pipeline diameter,
• Select pipeline material and corrosion prevention methods,
• Select pipeline and riser wall thickness,
• Check pipeline in-situ stresses
• Select riser clamp positions, check riser stresses and prepare riser drawings,
• Determine concrete weight coating thickness and density,
• Prepare pipeline and riser installation feasibility report,
• Prepare Process Engineering Flow Diagram, showing pig traps, overpressure

protection system and leak detection system,
• Prepare bill of long lead materials,
• Prepare conceptual design report.
• Determine pipeline criticality and consequence of failure
• Prepare MRP and ensure elements required to carry out maintenance/inspection
activities are included in the design.
The following activities are normally carried out during the conceptual design of an onshore
pipeline:
• Select preliminary route based on 1:10,000 or relevant scale maps,

• Perform a quantitative risk assessment (optional)
• Perform an environmental impact assessment (optional)
• Determine the pipeline diameter size,
• Select pipeline material and corrosion prevention methods,
• Select pipeline wall thickness,
• Prepare Process Engineering Flow Diagram, showing launchers, receivers,
overpressure protection and block valves,
• Prepare bill of long lead materials,
• Prepare conceptual design report.
• Determine pipeline criticality and consequence of failure
• Prepare MRP and ensure elements required to carry out maintenance/inspection
activities are included in the design
2.2.3 Detailed Design
The following activities are normally carried out during the detailed design of an offshore
pipeline:
• Finalise alignment sheets, approach drawings, riser drawings, and general

arrangement drawings,
• Select pipeline installation method (laying, towing, etc.),
• Perform pipeline installation analysis of the preferred method,
• Select riser installation method,
• Perform riser installation analysis of preferred method,
• Carry-out pipeline crossing design,
• Design cathodic protection system,
• Prepare welding specifications,
• Prepare pre-commissioning procedure,

• Prepare operating, maintenance and inspection manual,
• Prepare final bill of materials,
• Prepare detailed design report.
The following activities are normally carried out during the detailed design of an onshore
pipeline:
• Detailed survey by XGM of the preliminary route,
• Select final route,
• Prepare alignment sheets,
• Select and peg the final pipeline route,
• Design cathodic protection system,
• Design major road and river crossings,
• Determine pipeline lowering into trench parameters,
• Prepare welding specifications,
• Prepare pre-commissioning procedure,
• Prepare operating, maintenance and inspection manual,
• Prepare final bill of materials,
• Prepare detailed design report
2.3 Pipeline Routing Offshore
2.3.1 Preliminary Routing
Approximate routing should be indicated on hydrographic charts (scale 1:10,000), showing

structures, pipelines and other features. For riser positioning (platform) orientation drawings
or platform approach drawings provide useful information.
The minimum allowable horizontal curvature of a pipeline depends on various factors, such
as installation method, diameter, wall thickness and operating conditions. For submarine
pipelines, the minimum radius of curvature at bends in the route is governed by two factors:
• The curve radius which can be maintained in equilibrium during installation.

• The equivalent stress in the pipe wall during operation.
As an approximation, soil friction enables a pipeline curve radius, R, if R is greater than the
term,
T
R=
fw
where:
T = on bottom lay tension
f = lateral pipe-soil friction coefficient
w = submerged weight of pipeline when empty
Conservative values of T and f shall be adopted since the above equation ignores pipe
stiffness. Special consideration shall be given to route curvatures near pipeline 'free ends'
(e.g. start up/lay down).
The effect of route curvature on the equivalent stress in the pipe wall shall be checked on a
case by case basis. Generally, bending stresses of up to 10% of SMYS will have no
adverse effect. In the absence of suitable data, the following values may be used for
conceptual design purposes:
Pipe diameter Minimum radius (m)
Less than DN 250 1000
DN 250 DN 450 2000
Over DN 450 3000
Pipeline alignment sheet drawings shall be referenced to the system, and shall show all
pertinent route co-ordinates (e.g. start up/lay down, tangent points, intersection points,
centre points of curvature, kilometre posts).
For pipeline routing tolerance requirements see Section 2.5.
2.3.2 Navigation
Marine traffic may constitute a hazard during and after construction. The primary risk of
damage is by dragging anchors or "sawing" anchor cables. Parts of waterways where
navigation is difficult, mooring and anchoring locations should be avoided as pipeline
crossing sites. To reduce the risks of damage by anchors, in such areas, burial of pipelines
may be advisable.
2.3.3 Shore Approaches
The pipeline shore approach location may be influenced by the existence of industrial,
commercial or residential installations on the shore or banks. Not only may such
installations prohibit the routing of the pipeline in the neighbourhood, but the availability of a
work area on the bank may prohibit the construction or eliminate certain construction
method as e.g. bottom pull. Obviously, a concentration of rocks, barge tie-up points, gravel
or sand pits, and residential, commercial or industrial installations has a negative effect on
the crossing site.
2.3.4 Existing Pipelines and Structures
Crossing of existing pipelines require special measures such as additional dredging, jetting
down existing line, sandbagging or installing saddles, to avoid over-stressing and cathodic
protection system interference. Selection of a route with fewer crossings could therefore be
financially attractive.
Offshore platforms normally are, or will be, concentration points for pipelines and shipping,
and also present navigational obstructions to construction equipment. The pipeline route
should, therefore, be chosen at a practical distance (say 100m) from those structures which
are unrelated to the pipeline. Pipelines close to offshore platforms should, as far as
possible, be arranged in corridors to facilitate the anchoring of vessels for support and
future construction activities at the platform.
The pipeline route shall be selected with due regard to safety of the public and personnel,
protection of the environment, and the probability of damage to the existing submarine
pipeline or other facilities such as electrical cables shall take into design consideration.
Line crossings near platforms should be prevented as they may jeopardise future riser
repairs or relocations. The design should ensure that crossings are sufficiently protected
both from a mechanical and cathodic protection point of view.
2.3.5 Platform approaches and riser location
In deciding where to approach the platform and where to locate the riser, the following
factors should be considered:
• The location of the facilities on the platform to be connected to the pipeline.

• The location of the available riser clamps, J-tubes, bending shoes, or guide rails.
• Other existing and future marine pipelines, and the number of pipeline crossing
required.
• Accessibility of the riser location to the lay/construction barge.
• The location of existing boat landings. In general, risers should not be located near
boat landings because of possible boat-inflicted damage.
• Install large diameter risers near jacket legs (in the "shadow") to minimise stresses on
bracings.
• Angle of pipeline approach.
• The number and position of cross bracings. Since riser clamps make use of the
horizontal bracings these may influence the riser location.
• Rig access to the drilling and wellhead platforms is not hindered by the pipeline. A
minimum clearance of 15 m between spud cans and pipeline should be available.
• Existing Jack-up rig footprints: clearance from the edge of the footprint to the proposed
pipeline axis should be equivalent at least to the depth of the footprint at the point
nearest to the pipeline route, plus 3 pipeline diameters or 1.0m (whichever is the
greater), plus the tolerance for laying.
• Consideration is to be given to reduce risk of damage from dropped objects or dragged

anchor wires by appropriate selection of route and protection of pipeline by mattresses.
In order to establish the number of risers which can be set at a given platform the average
spacing between adjacent risers and the seabed approach angles need to be considered.
The minimum approach angle to a platform face shall be 30° but for practical reasons the
approach angle should be as near as possible to 90°. The minimum angle between
adjacent riser approaches on the seabed should be 4°. The minimum spacing between
adjacent risers (measured from centrelines) on a given jacket face is dependent upon water
depth and shall be as follows:
a) Water depth: From 0 up to 24 metres
DN 100, 150, 200 : 1.0 m

DN 250, 300 : 1.2 m
DN 400, 500 : 1.8 m
DN 600, 700 : 2.1 m
b) Water depth: From 24 up to 46 metres
DN 100, 150, 200 : 1.2 m

DN 250, 300 : 1.5 m
DN 400, 500 : 2.1 m
DN 600, 700 : 2.4 m
c) Water depth: 46-76 metres
DN 150, 200 : 1.5 m

DN 250, 300 : 1.8 m
DN 400, 500 : 2.4 m
DN 600, 700 : 2.7 m
When pipelines have to approach the jacket with angles greater than 30o from the central
axis the spacing between the risers should be increased by 0.3 m to allow more space
between the lines on the seabed.
If the direct approach of a pipeline is hampered by the future position of a jack-up rig,
doglegs can be laid consisting of:
• 90o bend with minimum radius of 5 times the outside diameter.
• section of 25 to 30 m
Doglegs should also be used in preference to tight curved approaches to jackets and
provide a means of allowing for thermal expansion in addition to that provided by riser
deflection below the bottom clamp.
A very important item for riser locations is the design of a complex layout. Several
platforms together form a complex, which should have a staggered layout along a straight
line (spine) in order to:
• free as much of the jacket faces as possible for risers,
• allow easy barge access,
• position different production functions along the spine, so that future extension of any
function is perpendicular to the spine,
• allow for new functions to be installed along the spine,
Often a dedicated riser platform is installed to supply additional riser capacity (with scraper
barrels and manifolds) and/or to reduce the overall risk levels.
For new developments and extensions of existing complexes a careful study of the new
layout should be made in conjunction with anchor patterns (especially the drilling rigs) and
pipeline approaches.
2.3.6 Topographical and Hydrographic Survey
To select the most satisfactory route for an underwater pipeline and to obtain environmental
data necessary for design, information concerning the history, geology, hydrology and
degree of marine activity should be gathered.
When a preliminary routing is chosen, after evaluation of alternatives, the following detail
surveys should be made:
• Side-scan sonar to detect existing lines, ship wrecks, debris etc.
• Pinger survey for sub-bottom profile.
• Bathymetric survey for water depth measurements.
Upon completion of the pipeline, it is normal practice to perform an "as-built" side scan and
bathymetric survey to determine its final location.
2.3.7 Soil Data
Soil data will indicate the necessity and difficulty of excavation and soil stability. If the data
is inconclusive, then sampling and boring with analysis by a qualified consultant may be
required.
If the seabed or river bed is unstable, as for example, in mud lump or mud slide areas
around river deltas, or there is coral or rock, the pipeline should, if possible, be routed
around these areas (refer section 2.6).
2.3.8 Final offshore routing
Based on the information gathered a final routing can be selected and drawn on alignment
sheets and platform approach drawings, for approval.
The alignment sheets usually have a horizontal scale of 1:5,000 and vertical scale of 1:100
and provide details on the pipeline. The platform approach drawing usually has a scale
1:100. For pipeline routing tolerance requirements see Section 2.5.
2.4 Pipeline Routing Onshore
2.4.1 Considerations
The proximity of residential areas and major roads poses safety and environmental
limitations in the routing of pipelines. Where possible these areas should be avoided. Prime
drilling reserves should also be left clear. Obstructions to be avoided include:
• Buildings
• Hard-surfaced areas
• Roads (where possible)
• Wooded or jungle areas
• Other pipelines
• Rivers (where possible)
• Swampy or marshy areas
• Beach areas (erosion problems)
During the route selection process, consideration of the risk contours to residential areas
shall be made. The risk contours should consider all future developments and provide a risk
level. Refer to "DNV - Technical Guidelines".
Pipelines should never be routed directly above or below existing pipelines. Wherever
possible, pipelines shall be buried. Although this increases installation costs it reduces
external corrosion and future maintenance and does not restrict maintenance vehicle
access.
There are occasions where existing above ground pipe racks can be used but efforts shall
be employed to reduce these existing racks. After taking account of the above
considerations, pipe routings should be:
• as straight as possible (eases installation and reduces cost)
• follow natural or logical routes
• utilise existing rights of way (to minimise soil erosion)
River crossings should be straight rather than bowed or severely angled across the river.
Where a change of direction or a shift in line becomes inevitable it is good practice to
combine this with other requirements such as shutdown valves, connections to other
facilities, expansion legs and to do so at points where the line can run parallel to existing
pipeline(s).
After selecting the preliminary route, the government shall be consulted to determine any
future development plans along or close to the proposed route and to gain approval of the
route.
For all significant onshore pipeline projects, an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
and Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) shall be carried-out before finalising the route.
2.4.2 Route Information
To identify the areas described above, topographical background maps shall be used in
conjunction with drilling reserve maps. Aerial photographs are a good source of information
when choosing a preliminary route especially with regard to jungle or other natural
obstacles. When the preliminary routing drawings have been prepared a site survey shall
be carried out. There are no exceptions to this rule. Where thick jungle or undergrowth
prevents 'walking the line' consideration should be given to altering the route accordingly.
During the site visit actual construction dimensions shall be obtained from fixed points such
as well heads, fence lines, centrelines of roads, buildings or any other suitable 'hard' point.
2.4.3 Permanent Right-of-Way
A permanent Right-of-Way (ROW) corridor of 8 m (some 4 m each side of the line) is

normally acquired for the pipeline ROW. This corridor shall allow access to vehicles for
maintenance (e.g. cathodic protection monitoring), patrolling and repair purposes. If
possible the pipeline ROW corridor shall preferably be 16 m wide. This wider corridor shall
prevent (building) activities close to the pipeline. However, it does not mean that the full
corridor needs to be kept clear of vegetation.
2.4.4 Block Valve Stations
All onshore pipelines should have sectionalising block valve stations at maximum intervals
as defined by the ASME B31.4 and B31.8 codes to allow isolation during an emergency. It
is generally good practice to install valves upstream and downstream of river crossings,
particularly for oil lines.
2.4.5 Final Routing
The final routing should be drawn on alignment sheets, which include pipeline details. The
alignment sheets shall be discussed and agreed upon with the project matrix. In addition
approval should be obtained from all relevant parties.
2.5 Pipeline Routing Tolerance Requirements
2.5.1 General
Pipeline routing should be addressed at the very beginning of any new pipeline project.
The route selection should always be progressed with open dialogue between marine
operations, XGM (topographical department) and the pipeline engineering group in order
that the relevant information and requirements of these functions are considered and
addressed.
Where a proposed route from an existing platform is in the general direction of any existing
line the route should follow close and parallel to such existing pipeline corridor for as long
as practically possible, as this will minimise the impact on marine operations, such as the
anchoring patterns at existing platforms.
Where pipelines are laid along existing pipeline corridors the offset limits between the new
pipeline and an existing pipeline, except at platform approaches, shall be as follows:
• Minimum offset of new pipeline from nearest existing pipeline: 15m
• Maximum offset of new pipeline from nearest existing pipeline: 50m
The maximum deviation from alignment along the prescribed route shall be ±15m except
within 450m of the riser, where the maximum allowable deviation shall be as shown in
Section 2.5.2.
Where the pipeline is installed adjacent / parallel to an existing pipeline a minimum

separation of 15m shall be maintained except at the platform approach.
For pipelines installed by the Tow method, this deviation may be relaxed after consultation
between the Pipeline Engineering Department, Marine Operations and where relevant, the
installation contractor.
2.5.2 Platform Approaches

At the approach to platforms the maximum allowable deviation from the prescribed route
shall be reduced from that stated in Section 2.5.1 above as follows:
• From 450m of the riser to 150m from the riser : tapering from 15m to 3m
• From 150m of the riser to the riser tie-in: 3m
At the pipeline to riser interface the deviation shall be sufficiently small so as to allow
installation of the riser clamps without introducing bending stresses in the riser.
2.6 Geotechnical Site Investigation
The objective of the site investigation for a marine pipeline is to obtain sufficient reliable
information to permit the safe and economic design of installation and permanent works.
The investigation shall be designed to verify and expand upon any information previously
collected.
The various stages relating to site survey and geotechnical investigation are illustrated in
Figure 3. At the initial stages of a project development, it is often adequate to assess
geotechnical aspects from desk study information.
As the project progresses, the level of detail required increases and additional costs are
incurred in acquiring this information. The important factor to appreciate is that at all times
expenditure on the site survey and geotechnical data should be commensurate with the
level of detail required.
FIGURE 3: GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN PHASE
2.6.1 Planning
At project conception, the data available shall be sufficient to demonstrate the feasibility
and suitability of the preferred pipeline design concepts and selected route corridors. This
can often be achieved by a desk study to collate published data and information from
previous investigations.
However in areas where little information is available a preliminary investigation is required.

This can often be achieved by a geophysical survey, with simple sampling methods such as
a grab sampler, or drop corer.
As the project progresses towards detailed design and construction, the data shall be
sufficiently detailed to provide input into pipeline design and to allow contractors to provide
optimised pricing for supply and installation works.
The site investigation programme for a marine pipeline development shall therefore be
undertaken in progressive stages. Planning for each stage shall be carried out based on the
results from previous findings in order to optimise the extent of investigation work.
Factors such as: vertical and horizontal uniformity of soil profiles, geological history and
pipeline system size and concept, shall be directly reflected in the extent of the site
investigation. A full appraisal of the various geological factors at a site shall be summarised
in a geo-hazard study.
It is recommended that all stages of the planning and performance of a survey are directed
by a suitably experienced person. The sequence of the site investigation programme shall
be as follows:
Desk study
The desk study shall incorporate a review of all appropriate sources of information and the
collection and evaluation of all relevant available types of data for the area of interest. The
various factors that should be investigated include, but are not limited to:
• Geological databases
• Bathymetric information
• Geophysical data
• Geotechnical data
• Metocean data (tides, currents etc)
• Seismicity
• Performance of existing pipelines
• Human activities (eg location of pipelines, cables wrecks, munitions disposal site,
aggregate dredging
The performance of a desk study alone is not normally sufficient for detailed engineering
purposes. The desk study is the best way of obtaining some information, including location
of existing subsea infrastructure (e.g. pipelines and cables) which may be required for the
planning of both the survey and the construction works.
Geophysical survey
A geophysical survey will need to be performed along the proposed route of the marine
pipeline to collect information on:
• Seabed topography – by echo-sounding or swathe bathymetry. The latter is particularly
important in sand wave areas or other areas of generally uneven seabed.
• Seabed features and obstructions – by methods such as side scan sonar
• Profiling of uppermost 5m, or so, of seabed – usually by means of reflection seismic
techniques (sub bottom profiling). Recent developments in towed resistivity and seismic
refraction methods are providing useful complementary data. This is particularly the
case in very shallow water where seismic reflection is not practical.
• Detection of existing cables, pipelines and other metallic obstructions – by means of a
towed magnetometer, however, note is made that not all metallic objects may be
detected, in particular small fibre optic cables.
As a general rule, the width of the survey corridor is between 500m and 1000m, centred on
the proposed pipeline route. The actual width is influenced by factors such as water depth,
seabed features and the need to provide a degree of flexibility in routing.
Shore approach corridors are more likely to be around 500 metres wide, whereas areas in
deeper water incorporating seabed features such as pockmarks and iceberg scars may
warrant survey corridors in excess of 1000 metres to allow re-routing based on detailed
engineering, to minimise the number of potential free-spans. If the geotechnical survey is to
be performed as a separate exercise (see below) it is still advisable and practical to collect
some soil samples by grab or gravity core to aid the immediate interpretation of surface and
sub-bottom profiling data.
Survey tie-lines to nearby locations where soils information has previously been gathered
will also aid this process.
The geotechnical investigation will normally be performed on completion of the geophysical

survey, and after the route has been determined, either from the same vessel or as a
completely separate operation from a different vessel. This allows for sample and test
locations to be more effectively targeted to identify soil strata changes, clarify apparent
anomalies or investigate specific seabed features. To accelerate interpretation and
reporting on long route surveys, a “first pass” of sampling and testing shall be made on
completion of the route centre-line survey. Again, this may be performed from the
geophysical survey vessel itself or from a separate vessel. In the latter case, the
geotechnical vessel can be performing work along the centre line whilst the corridor “wing-
lines” are being surveyed.
Using current satellite technology it is now feasible to transmit interpreted data between the
geotechnical and geophysical vessels to facilitate onboard interpretation and programme
modifications as appropriate. The performance of the geophysical survey alone, or in
addition to the desk study, is not normally sufficient for detailed engineering purposes,
unless site geotechnical data are already available.
GeoBAS survey
The term ‘geoBAS’ (Geophysical Burial Assessment Survey) describes survey operations
using geophysical methods operated from seabed sleds, and towed by the survey ship, to
provide continuous quantitative information for the first few metres of soil below seabed.
Available methods include seismic refraction and electrical resistivity systems. The use of
these methods is often justified if trenching is difficult or the properties of the seabed are
very variable. A more reliable continuous engineering assessment of the route can be made
if GeoBAS measurements are integrated with CPT and core sample data.
GeoBAS equipment is normally mounted on a sled, which is pulled by the survey vessel at
speeds of between 1 and 4knots. It is essential to have some knowledge of seabed
features and potential obstructions to reduce the risk of damage or loss of the equipment.
GeoBAS surveys may also be useful on the shore approach where deeper burial is required
and sometimes rock is present near the surface. Towed systems can be pulled through the
shallow water zone either towards or away from the beach. Technical issues relating to
shallow water and surf noise should be addressed in a project specific manner.
Geotechnical survey
The geotechnical survey will typically encompass:

• Coring and sampling for material identification, description and subsequent laboratory
testing.
• In situ testing for accurate stratification and determination of key engineering
parameters.
The suitability of each tool for use in the geotechnical survey shall be assessed. This
should be carried out in conjunction with knowledge of the engineering objectives of the
selected concept(s) and the results of the desk study and geophysical survey phases.
2.7 Materials
2.7.1 Carbon Steel
Linepipe for pipelines is ordered according to API Spec. 5L for material grades from B to
X70, supplemented by VIETSOVPETRO’s specification. High Strength Butt-Weld Fittings
for pipelines are ordered to MSS-SP-75 for material grades WPHY 42 to WPHY 70,
supplemented by VIETSOVPETRO’s specification. High Strength Flanges for pipelines are
ordered to ASTM A694 for material grades F42 to F70.
Basic carbon steel properties are:
• Density = 7850 kg/m3

• Modulus of elasticity = 2.05 x 105 MPa
• Thermal expansion coefficient = 1.17 x 10-5 °C-1
• Poisson's ratio = 0.3
Other mechanical properties reported by the pipe mill are:
• Yield strength
• Ultimate tensile strength
• Elongation
• Reduction in area
• Fracture toughness
• Hardness of welded joints
• Hydrogen induced cracking resistance
Tests and acceptance criteria for these properties are covered in the above specifications.
The grade of the material is determined by the Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS)
expressed in thousands of psi (X-42 = 42,000 psi). Metric values for SMYS are:
API Spec. 5L SMYS SMTS Equivalent Strength Materials
Grade for
Linepipe (MPa) (MPa) Butt-Weld Fittings Flanges
B 241 413 ASTM A234 WPB ASTM A105
X42 289 413 MSS-SP-75 WPHY 42 ASTM A694 F42
X60 413 517 MSS-SP-75 WPHY 60 ASTM-A694 F60
X65 448 530 MSS-SP-75 WPHY 65 ASTM-A694 F65
Offshore pipelines are usually constructed in material Grades X42 and X52. Many onshore
pipelines may be constructed from Grade B material. For new and future carbon steel
pipelines the material grade is set as follows:
• For linepipe of up to 12" Nominal Diameter (DN300) X52 grade

• For linepipe of 12" and greater Nominal Diameter (DN300) X60 grade
In general, linepipe of DN300 (Nominal Diameter in mm) and smaller shall be seamless
manufacture. HF-ERW (High-Frequency Electric Resistance Welded) pipe may also be
used for diameters up to and including DN 600.
Note that for pipelines (refer ASME B31.4 and B31.8) a weld joint factor of 1.0 may be
applied for ERW pipe, but for piping (refer ASME B31.3) a factor of less than 1.0 is applied.
For DN400 and greater SAW (Submerged Arc Welded) pipe may be used.
2.7.2 Glass Reinforced Plastic
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) pipelines usually have been used for flowlines, water mains
(onshore) and water piping (offshore).
GRP is advantageous for the transport of corrosive products. In addition the friction factor
for fluid flow can be substantially below steel and the life for GRP piping is usually
significantly longer than that experienced with steel.
Unlike steel, GRP pipe can come in a wide range of material specifications for different
applications. Careful selection is thus required.
The means of connection of pipe joints is either mechanical or adhesive. The application of
GRP should be considered for all future pipelines transporting corrosive fluids on a
performance and life cycle cost basis.
2.7.3 Corrosion Resistant Alloys
For very corrosive service, the application of corrosion resistant alloys, such as stainless
steel or carbon steel with an internal cladding, shall be considered. Before designing a
corrosion resistant alloy, VIETSOVPETRO JV should be consulted.
2.7.4 Plastics
For the transport of domestic gas and water, pipes made from polymer compounds have
found world-wide acceptance. Some of the referred materials are:
HDPE High Density Polyethylene

MDPE Medium Density Polyethylene
UHMW-HDPE Ultra High Molecular Weight
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
All have different properties and manufacturers’ catalogues should be consulted.
For high pressure applications, Polyethylene (PE) lined steel pipe could be considered.
The PE liner provides the corrosion-resistant fluid barrier, whilst the steel carrier provides
the strength (Ref. 54).
2.7.5 Flexibles
Flexible pipelines have found use in many other parts of the world particularly in deeper
waters. Materials used in the carcass construction allow flexible pipelines to be corrosion
resistant (Ref. 53). Flexible pipelines are expensive and their application can usually only
be justified for repairs on damaged pipelines, risers, jumper hoses, or short pipeline runs.
2.8 Leak Detection and Isolation Systems
Many of pipelines are equipped with a low pressure sensor on the inlet, for closing the inlet
valve. The low pressure sensor can usually only detect full bore ruptures, relatively close to
the inlet.
Some pipelines have a high flow sensor in addition to the low pressure sensor. This system
allows smaller than full bore ruptures to be detected along the whole line.
Pipelines must have an integrity monitoring system capable of detecting leak. A leak
detection system in itself has no effect on the leak expectancy of a pipeline and will only
make the operator aware of the occurrence of a leak, enabling him to take remedial actions
in order to limit the consequences of the release. The leak detection system requirements
will vary depending on the pipeline system in question (e.g. offshore or onshore, length etc.)
however, the following should be considered at the design stage and/or implemented during
operation.
On-Line Leak Detection

• continuous mass balance of the pipeline;
• continuous volumetric balance corrected for temperature and pressure of the pipeline;
• continuous monitoring of rate of change of pressure;
• continuous monitoring of rate of change of flow;
• low pressure alarms;
• high pressure alarms;
• high flow alarms;
Off-Line Leak Detection

• visual inspection of the pipeline route;
• running of a leak detection pig (see Chapter18.3.3);
• methane-in-water sensing by Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV).
• Several other methods of on-line leak detection are available, some of which will also
indicate
• the location of a suspected leak. However, in general a good deal of intermediate
pressure,
• temperature and flow information is required with attendant telemetry and for this
reason such
• methods are not generally suitable for offshore use.
2.9 Diameter Selection
2.9.1 Basics
Unless otherwise stated, pipe diameters refer to the outside pipe diameters. Nominal pipe
sizes (NPS) are quoted in inches. These are the actual outside diameters in sizes of NPS
14 and beyond. Up to NPS 12, the diameters are not exact. For example NPS 4 has an
outside diameter of 4.5 inches.
Nominal Diameters (DN) are quoted in mm. These are never the exact outside diameters
but a metric approximation to them. Standard diameters and wall thicknesses for steel
linepipe are listed in API-5L (Ref. 20).
It is generally good practice for short lines to choose the next standard pipe size above the
exact requirement.
2.9.2 General Considerations
The first consideration in selecting a pipeline diameter is that it provides acceptable

pressure drop for the maximum anticipated flow rates. The second consideration is the cost
trade-off between new pumps / compressors and new pipelines. Other factors which are
important in the selection of the pipe diameter are as follows:
Throughput
The forecast over the life of the pipeline should be as accurate as possible, with reasonable
allowances for unforeseen increases. To accommodate a high peak of relatively short
duration it might be more economical to increase the design pressure than to install a
pipeline designed for that peak throughput at a lower pressure.
In the case of a gradual increase in throughput over the life of the pipeline or a sudden
increase at a later date, the possibility of installing a second pipeline at some time during
the life of the first should be considered, as this may prove to be more economical and
operationally attractive.
Fluid properties
Main properties are specific gravity, operating temperatures, viscosity and / or composition.
Operating pressure
The selection of operating pressure is dependent on available or required inlet pressure,

required discharge pressure, pressure rating of connecting facilities, pipe size and pipe
materials; and therefore in turn influences the selection of pipe dimensions. Operating
pressure can also heavily influence corrosion rates with high CO2 content.
Source and cost of pumping/compression energy
Capital investment and operating cost that are required for increasing the inlet pressure will
also influence the overall economics.
Available construction methods
Depending on the conditions at the intended location such as weather conditions, current
velocity, wave heights, tidal effects, bottom conditions, water depth, etc., there may be a
preference for one of the possible construction methods which in turn could put certain
limitations on the selection of line sizes. The available or preferential construction method
also may limit the selection of pipe wall thickness and grade and the type of coating.
Future Use
The function of a pipeline may change over the years. Future uses should be anticipated in
the design phase, and incorporated in the design where possible.
2.9.3 Velocity Limitations
When high water dropouts might be expected in oil lines it is advised to design for a
minimum velocity of 1.5 m/s.
Velocities in wet and two phase gas lines should be high enough avoid slugging problems,
typically more than 3 m/s.
Erosion of the pipeline wall due to impingement of high-velocity liquids or gases might
occur, particular in flowlines and at bends. The equation commonly used to assess the
potential for erosion is (Ref. 24):
⎛ 1 ⎞
Ve = 122 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ρm ⎠
where:
Ve = erosional velocity, [m/s]

ρm
3
= mean fluid density, [kg/m ]
This equation gives a lower bound to potential erosional problems. Velocities in excess of
Ve, may still be acceptable. In those cases VIETSOVPETRO JV should be consulted for
further analysis. Velocities below Ve are safe.
2.9.4 Recommended Standard Operating Pressures
Related with the separation stages at the production facilities the following pressure classes
can be distinguished:
Maximum
Operating
ANSI Pressure
Nomenclature Pressure regime
class (below 38 °C)
(kPa) (kPa)
UHP (Ultra High Pressure) 12,500 to 17,000 #1500 25,500
HHP (High High Pressure) 5,500 to 7,000 #600 10,200
IP (Intermediate Pressure) 4,000 to 4,200 #300 5,100
HP (High Pressure) 1,400 to 2,100 #300 5,100
LP (Low Pressure) 300 to 650 #150 1,965
The ANSI classification is only relevant to any fittings (flanges, valves, etc.) which may be
included in a pipeline. These can be the "weak points" in a pipeline design. For the pipeline
it is good practice to determine a design pressure based on the anticipated maximum
operating pressure plus a 10 % margin.
2.9.5 Sizing Criteria for Liquid Lines
In single phase liquid pipelines the fluid properties remain essentially constant over the
entire length of the pipeline unless there is a significant temperature change.
The general equation for the pressure drop in a liquid pipeline is as follows:
Lv 2
Δ P = ρgΔz + ρf
2d
where:
ΔP = pressure drop, [Pa]

ρ
3
= density of liquid, [kg/m ]
Δz = elevation change (positive upwards) [m]
g = acceleration due to gravity [m/s2]
f = Moody friction factor
L = pipeline length [m]
v = liquid velocity [m/s]
d = internal pipe diameter [m]
The fluid velocity “v” may be determined from the volumetric flow rate by:
4Q
v=
where : πd 2
Q = volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
To determine the friction factor “f” the Reynolds number “Re” has to be calculated from:
vd
Re =
υ
where:
v = flow velocity [m/s]
υ = kinematic viscosity [m2/s]
The friction factor “f” can be read from the standard Moody diagram with a suitable value of
relative roughness ε/d. Typical values of pipe wall roughness ε are:
Plastic coated 0.01 mm

Clean steel 0.02 mm
Corroded steel 0.1 to 1 mm
Concrete 0.2 to 1 mm
For the design of new or non corrosive pipelines, a roughness value of 0.045 mm is often
used. For detailed analysis it is recommended to use the PIPESIM correlations.
2.9.6 Sizing Criteria for Gas Lines
For level gas lines, containing no liquid, the AGA equation can be used for initial sizing.
Pi 2 − Po2 Q2
= CfzT ρ − 5
L d
where:
Pi = inlet pressure [MPa]
Po = outlet pressure [MPa]
C = 5.7 x 10-10 [MPa/K]

z = compressibility factor
ρ = gas density at 101 kPa and 15 °C [kg/m3]
T = Temperature
For final sizing, it is recommended to use the PIPESIM correlations, using either the "black
oil" model or preferably the compositional model.
2.9.7 Sizing Criteria for Two-Phase Lines
There are numerous correlations for pressure drop / flow / diameter / flow regime
determination for two-phase flow. None is easy to apply without computer assistance. It is
recommended that for all two-phase (and so-called three-phase) calculations the PIPESIM
correlations are used.
2.9.8 Pressure Losses in Valves and Fittings
Pressure losses in valves and fittings are usually determined on the basis of an equivalent
length of pipe following the table below.
Valve Type Feature Equivalent Length

Globe valve (conventional) No obstruction 340 D
With wing-guided disc 450 D
Globe valve Stem 60o from pipe run 175 D
(Y-type design) 145 D
Stem 45o from pipe run
Globe valve No obstruction 145 D
(angle type - 90o) With wing-guided disc 200 D
Ball valve Full bore 3D
(spherical plug valve) Reduced bore (< 40 mm) 65 D
Reduced bore (> 40 mm) 45 D
Check valve Conventional type 135 D
In-line ball type 150 D
Globe lift ball type 340 D
Angle lift ball type 145 D
Valve Type Feature Equivalent Length

Gate valve Conventional type 13 D
Reduced bore 65 D
Conduit pipeline 3D
Equal-tee Flow straight-through 18 D
Flow through side 65 D
Elbow 90°, R=1.5 D 20 D
45°, R=1.5 D 16 D
Bend 90o, R= 5 D 16 D
28 D
180o, R= 5 D
Nozzle Suction nozzle on tank 32 D
Outlet nozzle on tank 64 D
2.10 Wall Thickness Selection
2.10.1 Basics
The pipe wall thickness is determined primarily on pressure containment requirements as

defined in the ASME B31.4 or B31.8 codes. Standard wall thicknesses are given in API
Spec. 5L.
By attempts to restrict the range of wall thicknesses in any one size in order to limit the
material stocks provided the cost penalty is small.
Pipe schedules are a series of numbers which identify a range of standard pipe wall
thickness and are used for on-plot pipework, designed in accordance with ANSI/ASME
B31.3 only.
Definitions:
Design pressure is to be taken as the MOP or the pressure class of the connected piping
system, whichever is greater.
Maximum operating pressure is the highest pressure at which a piping system is operated
during a normal operating cycle, abbreviated as MOP. (Sometimes referred to as
maximum actual operating pressure.)
Maximum allowable operating pressure is the maximum pressure at which a pipeline

system may be operated in accordance with the provisions of the design code, abbreviated
as MAOP.
2.10.2 General Considerations
The wall thickness selection is primarily based on the hoop stress criteria, as specified in
the ASME B31.4 and B31.8 codes. The ASME B31.4 code basically applies to liquid lines
and the ASME B31.8 code to gas and two-phase lines. For details refer to the relevant
codes.
A corrosion allowance is only added to the minimum required wall, if the service conditions
are corrosive. Additional wall thickness may be required to:
• withstand installation stresses,
• ensure on-bottom stability,
• provide additional pressure safety in certain areas (e.g. risers),
• ease the welding requirements,
• provide increased resistance against collapse.
The pipe wall thicknesses should provide an adequate allowable operating pressure under
the applicable codes and this Guideline.
The internal design pressure should not be less than the maximum steady state operating
pressure. If levels of pressure rise due to surges (and other variations from normal
operations) exceed the internal design pressure by more than 10%, protective equipment
should be provided.
2.10.3 Hoop Stress Sizing Criterion
The required wall thickness can be based on the following hoop stress criterion:
pD
t=
2σ y fET
where:
t = nominal wall thickness [m]
p = design pressure [MPa]
σy = specified minimum yield strength [MPa]
E = weld joint factor (usually = 1)

T = temperature de-rating factor (< 120oC T = 1)
f = design factor
D = outside diameter of pipe [m]
For offshore pipelines, the ASME B31.8 code specifies for the hoop stress design factors:
f = 0.72 for pipeline in Zone 1
f = 0.50 for riser and pipeline within Zone 2
The ASME B31.4 code (liquid lines) specifies for onshore lines a design factor of 0.72
throughout; however this has been modified for certain locations, for application here. The
ASME B31.8 code (gas/liquid lines) specifies for onshore lines according to zones. Refer to
Table 1 in Section 2.13.2.
Particularly for offshore pipelines and risers, a detailed stress analysis should be carried-out
taking into account all load conditions (thermal, environmental, bending) and all stress
components (axial, hoop, shear).
2.10.4 Code Transition
Pigging facilities (launchers and receivers) are designed in accordance with the pipeline
codes and are generally installed on the scraper deck of a platform. In view of pig / sphere
runs through pipelines, great differences of internal diameter (steps) cannot be tolerated.
The transition of code from pipeline (ASME B31.4/8) to piping (ASME B31.3) should
therefore be at the valves connected to the barrel and tee (see Figures 5 and 6).
There are numerous examples of scraper barrels and/or riser connecting pipework which
have been designed according to ASME B31.3 (specification break at the riser insulation
flange). This situation should be corrected on a maintenance opportunity basis, provided
the incremental costs are small.
FIGURE 5: TRANSITION CODE FOR PIPING AND PIPELINE
FIGURE 6: TRANSITION CODE FOR PIPING AND PIPELINE
2.10.5 Pipe Wall Thickness Tolerances
The steel wall thickness should not deviate from the nominal thickness by more than +10%
or -5% for all sizes of welded pipe. Furthermore, below a nominal wall thickness of 7 mm
the acceptable minus tolerance is -0.35 mm and above 10 mm wall thickness the maximum
acceptable minus tolerance is -0.5 mm.
For all sizes of seamless pipe, the wall thickness should not deviate from the nominal
thickness by more than +15% or -10%.
2.10.6 Minimum Nominal Pipe Wall Thickness
The wall thickness which will facilitate high quality welds, coating and construction, should
not be less than the following minima:
Pipe diameter Minimum wall thickness

DN100 to DN200 4.0 mm (0.156")
DN250 to DN300 4.8 mm (0.188")
DN400 and larger 6.4 mm (0.250")
2.11 Standardisation of Linepipe
To rationalise the amount and variety of pipe held in stock and to simplify handling
provisions, VSP may standardise on one wall thickness and material grade per pipe
diameter for short lines. In addition some sizes of pipe may not be used.
The table below gives the recommended pipe sizes, wall thickness and grades of material.
Non-conformance of new pipelines with values in this list should only be considered if the
additional capital expenditure can be justified against the costs of stocking non-standard
pipeline joints for repair purposes.
DN Outside Diameter Material Grade Wall thickness MAOP [MPa]

mm (inches) API Spec. 5L [mm] f=0.72
100 114.3 (4.5) X-52 8.6 38.8

150 168.3 (6.625) X-52 9.5 29.1
200 219.1 (8.625) X-52 9.5 22.4
250 273.1 (10.75) X-52 9.3 17.6
300 323.9 (12.75) X-60 9.5 17.5
400 406.4 (16) X-60 10.3 15.1
500 508.0 (20) X-60 11.1 13.0
600 609.6 (24) X-60 12.7 12.4
700 711.0 (28) X-60 12.7 10.6
DN Outside Diameter Material Grade Wall thickness References

mm (inches) (VSP ref.) [mm]
200 219.1 (8.625) X-60 12.7 Gaslift pipeline
250 273.1 (10.75) X-60 18.3 Water Injection
pipeline
300 323.9 (12.75) X-60 15.9 Oil/mix/gas
pipeline
350 273.1 (10.75) X-60 23.8 Water Injection
pipeline
2.12 Environmental Data
2.12.1 Waves
As a minimum, the following wave data shall be available at suitable locations along the
route:
• Significant wave heights (Hs) and spectral peak periods (Tp) for 1 year and 100 year
return period storms.
• Maximum wave heights (Hmax) and associated periods (Tmax) for 1 year and 100 year
return period storms.
For overall pipeline stability assessment, the significant wave height and spectral peak
period shall-be used to calculate wave induced flow velocities. For-riser design, and for
localised pipeline sections such as spans and crossings, the maximum wave height and
associated period shall be used.
For each combination of water depth and wave parameters, a suitable wave theory for
predicting water particle motions shall be adopted.
At locations of relatively shallow water depth and near shore areas, shoaling and refraction
effects shall be evaluated including the effects of bottom friction on wave height, sediment
transport and other effects. If a shoaling and refraction analysis is not considered
necessary, suitable justification shall be provided
The design wave used for concept of the design of offshore jackets in which the most
probable is maximum wave in a period of 100 years which is replaced by a regular wave of
a suitable wave length, period and steepness.
To determine the wave-induced water particle velocity at any water depth VIETSOVPETRO
JV could be consulted. They will select a suitable wave theory and from user supplied data
will calculate:
• Wave length, wave celerity, depth of wave influence and wave profile.
• Components of wave particle velocities and accelerations at standard grid points in a

periodic wave.
As an approximate alternative, the linear wave theory may be applied. First the wavelength
needs to be estimated. The controlling equation is:
gT 2 ⎛ 2π d ⎞
L= tanh ⎜ ⎟
2π ⎝ L ⎠
where:
L = Wavelength [m]
g = Gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
T = wave period [s]
d = water depth [m]
Note that this equation is implicit in L and therefore requires an iterative solution. A good
starting point is to assume a deep water wavelength, i.e.:
gT 2
L=
2π
and substitute in the right hand side to find a new value of L. Repeat until convergence,
which is usually rapid.
For conditions in which d / L > 0.1 the maximum horizontal water particle velocity may be
determined from:
π H cosh⎛⎜ 2π
( d−y) / L ⎞
⎟
uw = ⎝ ⎠
T sinh(2π/L )
where:
uw = wave induced velocity at depth y, [m/s]
H = wave height, [m]

y = depth below surface (positive), [m]
For pipeline on-bottom stability calculations:
y=d−D
where:
d = water depth, [m]
D = total outside diameter of pipe (including coatings) [m]
For conditions in which d / L < 0.1, such as the foreshore area, linear wave theory is not
applicable. In this region solitary wave theory should be applied.
The design practice for on-bottom stability of pipelines is to consider the significant wave
height.
For riser design the maximum wave height data for a 100 year return period should be
used, which is the same approach as taken for all jacket tubular. For maintenance and
operational related assessment of risers the significant wave height data should be used,
with a 10 year return period and similarly for installation, a 1 year return period.
2.12.2 Currents
Design 'steady' current data will be provided in the form of directional for 1 year and 100
year return periods. As a minimum, a surface and near bottom velocity shall be provided,
including tidal, surge, and wind driven components.
If an accurate profile is not available, the design current at any depth shall be calculated
from the available data in accordance with the 1/7th power law:
1/ 7
⎛D⎞
uc =u s ⎜ ⎟
⎝d⎠
where:
uc = current velocity one pipe diameter above the seabed [m/s]
us = surface current velocity [m/s]
D = total diameter of pipe (including coating) [m]

d = water depth [m]
For a pipeline resting on the seabed boundary layer effects are significant and an 'effective"
(mean) current velocity acting on the pipeline shall be calculated. This may be taken as the
integral of the square of the velocity from the seabed to the top of the pipe. An alternative,
conservative approximation is to use the current velocity at the top of the pipe in
hydrodynamic force calculations.
2.12.3 Water Depth
At a given location, the most critical (either maximum or minimum) water depth should be
used as appropriate in each design analysis. For example, minimum water depth (LAT)
shall be used for pipeline on-bottom stability and in-situ stress analyses.
The relevant storm surge may, however, be added to the water depth in such cases.
Maximum water depth (HAT) shall be used for pipeline buckling, collapse and installation
stress analyses. For buckling and collapse analyses, surface wave heights shall also be
included.
For riser stress analyses, both maximum and minimum depths shall be considered, as
either may prove critical.
Unless specified otherwise, the-following sea water parameters may be used:
• Density of sea water 1025 kg/m3

• Kinematic viscosity of sea water 0.96 x 10-6 m2/s (25 deg. C)
0.85 x 10-5 m2/s (35 deg. C)
2.12.4 Ambient Temperatures
The sea temperatures in absence of other data shall be the following:

• Average sea temperature = 21 °C (on surface)
• Average sea temperature = 15 °C (on bottom)
2.12.5 Operating Temperatures
The maximum product temperature from an oil well is unlikely to exceed 50°C but note that
material limitations are imposed at temperatures in excess of 38°C for certain components.
New wells, however, tend to have higher pressures and temperatures.
2.12.6 Marine Growth
In the absence of more accurate data, the marine growth thickness for the riser assembly
shall be assumed to be 90 mm at MSL. Marine growth decreases in thickness with
increasing water depth. This thickness shall be assumed to decrease by 1 mm for every
further 2 metres of water depth.
Marine growth density may be assumed to be the same as for seawater.
2.13 Stresses and loads
2.13.1 General
Pipelines and risers have to be designed against the following during all phases of
installation and operation.
• Yielding
• Buckling
• Fatigue
Loading which cause the generation of stresses in the pipe wall may be grouped as follows:
a. Functional Loads
- Pressure (including burial pressure)
- Self weight (or buoyancy)
- Thermal loads
b. Environmental Loads
- Wind
- Currents
- Waves
- Accidental loads (including anchors)
The loading generate combinations of hoop, bending and longitudinal (axial) stresses.
These stresses are usually combined using the von Mises criterion.
2.13.2 Stresses
The pipeline wall thickness selection is usually governed by the hoop stress criterion (see
section 2.10.3).
The hoop stress is directly related to the internal design pressure of the line:
PD
σh =
2t
where:
t = wall thickness [m]
P = internal pressure [MPa]
σh = hoop stress [MPa]
D = steel pipe outer diameter [m]
Hoop stresses and longitudinal stresses (including the maximum bending stresses) in pipe
material are combined using the von Mises criterion, as follows.
(
σ eq = σ h 2 +σ L 2 −σ hσ L +3τ 2 )
where:
σ eq = equivalent stress [MPa]
σh = hoop stress [MPa]
σL = longitudinal stress [MPa]

τ = combined shear stress [MPa]
Note: Longitudinal stress is due to pressure, thermal expansion and bending)
Note: the equivalent stress is maximised when one stress is compressive (typically the
longitudinal stress) and the other is tensile (typically the hoop stress). Tensile stresses are
generally assumed to be positive, compressive stresses negative.
The specified minimum yield stress (SMYS) is generally defined as the stress level at 0.5 %
strain, during a tensile test.
The stress calculations for the operational phase shall be carried out with the nominal wall
thickness excluding the corrosion allowance.
For pipelines operating above 60°C, consideration shall be given to switch from a stress
based design to a strain based design. In such cases, guidance and approval shall be
sought from the VIETSOVPETRO JV (see also 2.13.3).
TABLE 1 - DESIGN FACTORS FOR ONSHORE STEEL PIPELINES
FLUID CATEGORY ⇒ A and B C and D

(Note 1) (Note 1)
APPLICABLE CODE ⇒ B31.4 B31.8
(Note 2)
LOCATION CLASSES ⇒ 1, 2, 3 and 4 1 2 3 4
Pipelines 0.72 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40
Crossings (Note 3) :
Private roads 0.72 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40
Unimproved public roads 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40

Roads, highways, streets and 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40
railways
Rivers, dunes and beaches 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40
Parallel encroachments
(Note 4) :
Private roads 0.72 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40
Unimproved public roads 0.72 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40
Roads, highways, streets and 0.72 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40
railways
Fabricated assemblies 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40
(Note 5) :
Pipelines on bridges 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40
Near concentration of people 0.72 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
(Note 6) (Note 6)
Pipelines, within plant fences, 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.5
block valve stations and pig trap
stations (Note 7)
NOTES:
1. The fluid transported in the pipeline should be categorised in one of the following four
groups, depending on its hazard potential:
• Category A: Non-flammable, stable and non-toxic fluids which are liquid at prevailing
ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure plus 0.5 bar, i.e. the vapour pressure is
lower than 1.5 bar (abs) at ambient temperature. Example: water, slurries.
• Category B: Flammable, or unstable or toxic fluids which are liquid at prevailing ambient
temperature and atmospheric pressure plus 0.5 bar, i.e. the vapour pressure is lower
than 1.5 bar (abs) at ambient temperature. Example: stabilised crude, gasoil.
• Category C: Non-flammable, stable and non-toxic fluids which are gases or a mixture of
gas and liquid at prevailing ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure plus 0.5 bar,
i.e. the vapour pressure is higher than 1.5 bar (abs) at ambient temperature. Example:
nitrogen, carbon dioxide
• Category D: Flammable, or unstable or toxic fluids which are gases or a mixture of gas
and liquid at prevailing ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure plus 0.5 bar, i.e.
the vapour pressure is higher than 1.5 bar (abs) at ambient temperature. Example:
natural gas, liquid petroleum gas, ammonia, unstabilised crude, hydrogen sulphide.
2. ASME B31.4 does not use design factors other than 0.72, which is considered inappropriate
at critical locations (e.g. crossings, within plant fences), and for fabricated assemblies. In
these situations, design factors in line with ASME B31.8 location Class 1 are recommended.
3. ASME B31.8 differentiates crossings with casings and without casings. Because of the poor
experience of cased crossings (i.e. annular corrosion), the same design factor is
recommended, whether a casing is used or not. Design factors for crossings of rivers,
dunes and beaches, not included in ASME B31.8, are provided.
4. Parallel encroachments are defined as those sections of a pipeline running parallel to
existing roads or railways, at a distance less than 50 metres.
5. Fabricated assemblies include pig traps, valve stations, headers, finger type slugcatchers,
etc.
6. Concentrations of people are defined in ASME B31.8 Article 840.3.
7. This category, not specifically covered in ASME B31.8, is added for increased safety.
TABLE 2 - DESIGN FACTORS FOR OFFSHORE PIPELINES

DESIGN LOADING STRESS ALLOWABLE STRESS
CONDITION CONDITION CLASSIFICATION ZONE 1 ZONE 2
Hoop Stress
0.72 0.50
Operating Functional von Mises Equivalent
0.72 0.50
Stress
Functional Hoop Stress
0.72 0.50
Operating plus von Mises Equivalent
0.96 0.67
Environmental Stress
von Mises Equivalent 0.72
Installation Functional (refer Notes 1
Stress to 4)
Functional
von Mises Equivalent 0.96
Installation plus
Stress (refer Notes 1 to 3)
Environmental
Functional Hoop Stress
Hydrostatic 0.90
plus von Mises Equivalent
test 1.0
Environmental Stress
NOTE
1. For the purpose of this Guide the definition of Zones shall be as follows:
For lines considered to be critical and for lines to or from manned facilities, Zone 2 shall extend 500m
outwards from the bottom bend of the riser at the seabed.
For lines considered to be non-critical and for lines to or from not normally manned facilities, Zone 2
shall extend 50m from the bottom bend of the riser at the seabed, and shall include the expansion
spool where present.
For landfall areas Zone 2 shall be taken as extending from LAT to 500m offshore.
Zone 1 shall be taken as all areas outside of Zone 2.
For short in-field lines (typically, less than 2km) it may be more economical to classify the entire line
under Zone 2.
2. The specified allowable stresses during installation are not applicable to installation methods where
yielding of the pipe wall is an integral part of the method (e.g. reeling, bending shoe, J-tube pull). For
such methods, refer to (2.13.3).
3. During installation, a factor of 0.85 may be applied to the bending stress in the equivalent stress
calculation in accordance with the DNV 1981 Rules, paragraph 4.3.2.6.
4. For the standard S-lay method of pipeline installation, the allowable equivalent stress in the overbend
(supported on the barge ramp/stinger) may be increased to 96% of SMYS under functional loading
conditions.
2.13.3 Strain based design
During pipeline construction where yielding of the pipe is an integral part of the method, it is
sometimes more appropriate to apply limitations to the maximum allowable strain of the
pipe wall rather than to a maximum allowable stress.
Examples are offshore pipeline installation by reeling, and riser installation by J-tube pull or
bending shoe.
When the pipeline is plastically deformed, it shall be demonstrated that, after straining, the
pipeline material still complies with the required specifications; this is particularly relevant to
toughness, hardness and yield to tensile ratio properties. In such cases, maximum
allowable strains shall be as defined in paragraphs of sec. 5 C600, sec. 6 A300 and sec. 9
E100 of the DNV 1996 Rules. (See Reference 4).
A maximum permanent bending strain of 2 percent resulting from installation is acceptable

in general. The strain induced in a pipeline by bending it along a radius R is given by:
D
ε=
2R
where:
ε = bending strain in outer fibre
D = pipe outer diameter [m]
R = bending radius [m]
The induced bending stress is:
σ = Eε
where:
σ = Bending stress [MPa]
E = Young's Modulus of elasticity [MPa]
NOTE: During installation and operation the maximum allowable stresses shall be in
accordance with Table 2 of Section 2.13.2.
For cold bending of linepipe the bending strain shall not exceed 2 %. In addition, the pure
bending buckling criteria should be checked. This criterion defines the maximum allowable
elastic curvature. The corresponding minimum allowable elastic bend radius is given by:
1 D2
Rmin = −
=
t
where:
k
Rmin = Minimum bend radius [m]
−
k = Critical curvature for elastic bending [1/m]
D = pipe outside diameter [m]

t = pipe wall thickness, [m]
The design of pipelines for service at elevated temperatures, the equivalent stress
requirements (2.13.2) may in some situations lead to very high wall thicknesses. Such
pipelines may hence also require a strain-based design approach to allow for efficient
design. This is particularly relevant to pipelines transporting hot products (typically above
80 °C).
For pipelines operating at temperatures above 100°C temperature de-rating factors should
also be taken into account. This is particularly relevant to the use of Corrosion Resistant
Alloy (CRA) materials.
2.13.4 Hydrostatic Pressure and Pipeline Collapse during Installation
When a line is laid, it is empty and the external water pressure creates a compressive hoop
stress, which could cause collapse of the pipe. An out-of-roundness in the pipe enhances
the risk of collapse. At the locations where the calculated external pressure which would
cause buckling is lower than the actual external pressure, the pipeline shall be fitted with
buckle arrestors (typically every ten joints).
For pipelines installed from a laybarge a minimum D/t (diameter to wall thickness) ratio of
60 should be used in order to avoid buckling during the laying procedure.
Hydrostatic collapse is generally not a concern, in view of its shallow waters. For projects
in deeper waters (typically > 100m) collapse may need to be taken into account.
In any case, buckling and collapse calculations shall be performed for both the installation
and operational conditions and the 'worst case' load conditions. Maximum water depth
(HAT), inclusive of surface wave heights, shall be used for pipeline buckling and collapse
analyses. The pipeline system shall have an adequate factor of safety against the following
modes of failure during all design conditions:
• Local buckling due to combined bending, external pressure and axial force
• Propagation buckling
• 'Bar' buckling (Euler buckling)
• Collapse (due to external overpressure)
Acceptance criteria for local buckling and 'bar' buckling modes shall be in accordance with
Appendix A of the DNV 1996 Rules, as follows:
For propagation buckling, the external overpressure required to initiate a propagating

buckle, Pbi, may be determined from the following equation:
2.064
⎛ t ⎞
Pbi = 0.02 E ⎜ ⎟
⎝D⎠
where:
E = Young's modulus of elasticity for steel
D = nominal outer diameter of pipe, [m]
t = minimum pipe wall thickness, [m]
Note:
t = nominal wall thickness minus the manufacturing tolerance
Due to the economic consequences of a propagating buckle, a safety factor fb against the
initiation of a propagating buckle shall be used. A recommended value for fb is 1.5, although
other values may be agreed on a case by case basis. Buckle arrestors shall be installed
where the external pressure, Pext ≥ Pbi /fb. Alternatively, for short pipelines, it may be more
economical to increase the wall thickness to ensure that Pext ≥ Pbi /fb.
Buckle arrestor spacing shall be based on an assessment of installation and repair costs,
but should not exceed one every 10 pipe joints.
The external overpressure necessary for an initiated buckle to propagate along the pipeline
is less than Pbi and is given by:
2 .4
⎛ t ⎞
Pbp = 24 S y ⎜ ⎟
⎝D⎠
where:
Sy = SMYS of the pipe steel (as per API Specification 5L)
However, if buckle arrestors are installed where Pext ≥ Pbi /fb, there is no need to install such
arrestors where Pbp < Pext < Pbi /fb.
The acceptance criteria for pipe collapse due to external pressure shall be that Pext > Pc, the
critical collapse pressure. Pc shall be determined by the following equation:
g (r , d )Py Pe
Critical collapse pressure, Pc =
(P y
2
+ Pe
2
)
where:
⎛ t ⎞
Pure plastic collapse pressure, Py = 2 S y ⎜ ⎟
⎝D⎠
2 E (t D )
3
Pure elastic collapse pressure, Pe =
( )
1.4 1 − γ 2 (1 − t D )
2
With: r=
Py
Pe
and d =δ D ( t)
(Dmax − Dmin )
δ=
(Dmax + Dmin )
Sensitivity of the above calculation shall be checked with methods laid down in DNV 1996
Rules.
2.13.5 Wave and current loads
A pipeline resting on the seabed is subjected to forces resulting from steady currents and
waves. These forces are:
• Fd = drag force
• FL = lift force
• Fm = inertia force
In determining the maximum wave and current loads, the water particle velocities due to
current and waves are assumed to be additive thus :
u = uc + uw
The distributed loading on a pipe or riser due to relative particle motion is determined using
the Morison equation.
2
u
Fd = ρ D Cd
2
where: Fd = unit drag force acting normal to the pipe and in the plane
defined by the velocity vector and the pipe axis [N/m]
ρ
3
= mass density of surrounding liquid [kg/m ]
D = outer diameter of the pipe including coatings [m]
Cd = drag coefficient for flow normal to the pipe axis
u = fluid particle velocity normal to the pipe axis [m/s]
The drag coefficient depends upon a number of parameters including Reynolds number,
the Keulegan-Carpenter number (for waves) and pipe roughness.
The lift force per unit length for a pipe in close proximity to a fixed boundary (seabed) is
calculated in similar fashion.
2
u
FL = ρ D CL
2
where F = unit lift force acting normal to the pipe and normal to the
L
velocity vector [N/m]
C = lift coefficient for flow normal to the pipe axis
L
The inertia forces exerted by accelerating water particles (wave induced) is determined
from the following relationship.
π D
2
du
Fm = ρ Cm
4 dt
where F = unit inertia force acting normal to the pipe axis [N/m]
m
C = added mass coefficient

m
du = liquid particle acceleration normal to the pipe axis [m/s2]

dt
The following table taken gives recommended coefficients. See also DNV 1996 Pipeline
Rules.
Steady current Combined current Wave induced current

(Uwi ≤ 0.2U) (Uwi ≤ 0.7U) 2 (Uwi > 0.7U)
Cd (Concrete coated) 1.0 1.2 1.7
Cd (clean) 0.7 0.9 1.4
CL 0.7 0.9 1.0
Cm - 3.3 3.3
Note:
1) Uwi = wave-induced velocity; U = total velocity
2) These values for Cd and CL are in principle only valid for diameters below DN 300 (12 in.)
or for velocities above 2 m/s. For larger diameters or lower velocities Cd and CL vary with
the Keulegan-Carpenter number (Kc = Um T/D) and may be considerably higher. In that
case the advice of specialists is required, although the above values can give a sensitivity
check for calculation purposes.
2.13.6 Wind Forces
These forces are assumed to act normal to the pipe axis - in the plane defined by the pipe
axis and the wind direction.
The "static" wind force per unit length of a pipe may be determined by the following formula:
Fw = 0. 613 Cw v w Dt
2
where Fw = wind force per unit length, acting normal to pipe axis [N/m]
Cw = drag coefficient according to table below
vw = component of wind velocity normal to pipe axis [m/s]
Dt = total outside diameter of pipe, including coating [m]
The drag coefficient should, strictly, depend on wind velocity, pipe diameter and surface
roughness. However, the following coefficients may be used for individual pipes.
External Pipe Surface

Pipe Diameter
Smooth Rough
D ≥ 0.2m 0.7 0.8
D < 0.2m 1.2 1.3
2.13.7 Point and distributed loads
Point loads can be introduced on pipelines for example by laybarge rollers and pipeline
supports. A detailed finite element analysis of the stresses induced is usually not warranted.
However, for checking purposes, one could use the analytical solution of a unit pipe
diameter long thin tube supported at the base and loaded by its own weight.
For buried pipelines the stresses induced due to soil cover and wheel loadings may be
calculated as follows:
wDt
σb = 6 3 3
1. 42 x 10 t + 2 .18 P D
Where: σ = induced bending stress [MPa]

b
w = uniformly distributed load acting on pipe [N/m]

D = outside pipe diameter [m]
t = pipe wall thickness [m]
P = internal pressure [MPa]
The pipe load may be estimated from:

LD
w = 1800 H D + 0. 72 2
H
Where: H = burial depth to top of pipe [m]

L = wheel load [N]
The induced bending stress in direct combination with the hoop stress should remain below
the allowable stress limit.
2.13.8 Thermal loads
Thermal expansion loadings generally cause few problems both onshore and offshore
Brunei. This is due to low variations in ambient temperatures and small differences in
operating and surroundings temperatures. The thermal expansion of a long pipeline,
subject to axial soil friction and constant temperature loading is:
μW
δ = La
2
2EA
α E A ΔT
where: La =
μW
where: δ = expansion at the end of the pipeline [m]
μ = pipe-to-soil axial friction coefficient
W = pipe submerged weight [kN/m]

EA = pipe axial stiffness [kN]
La = anchor length of pipeline developing friction [m]
α
-6
=
linear expansion coefficient [11.7 x 10 /°C]
ΔT = operating temperature minus installation temperature [°C]
2.13.9 Unsupported spans
Pipelines are regularly subjected to spanning caused by scouring and coral areas
respectively. Scouring takes place around many jackets leaving the riser, riser bend, and a
section of pipeline free of the seabed. A pipeline crossing another pipeline by means of
(sandbag) support at regular intervals, may also be subject to a multiple number of
unsupported spans.
The method of assessing maximum allowable span length considers three primary
conditions:
a. Loaded with functional loads only
b. Loaded with functional plus environmental loads
c. Loaded cyclically due to vortex shedding (which induces a cyclic bending stress)
Note that when a pipeline, which has already been installed, subsequently needs to be
supported, it should be lifted up to a neutral (level) position before the supports are placed
in order to ensure that there is no sagging left in the line. If this procedure is not followed
the remedial effect of providing supports is minimised as the line will remain in a stressed
condition.
The functional loads on a pipeline span are pressure and bending (due to pipeline weight
only). The pressure induces a hoop stress of β times the yield stress (σh = β σy) in the pipe
and an axial stress σa1 (due either to end-cap effect or Poisson effect).
PD
σh = = β σ y tensile (see section 2.13.2)
2t
σ a1 = 0.5 σ h tensile (for axially unrestrained pipeline - end-cap effect)
or σ a1 = − 0. 3 σ h compressive (for axially restrained pipeline - Poisson effect)
The bending load induces an axial stress σa2 component (the bending stress) of α times the
yield stress such that:
σa2 = + α σy or - α σy
The total axial stress, σa, is summed algebraically to give:
σa = σa1 + σa2
The equivalent stress is:
σ eq =σ y (α 2 +0.75β 2 )
Rearranging gives:
⎛ σ eq 2 ⎞
α = ⎜ 2 −0.75β 2 ⎟
⎜σ ⎟
⎝ y ⎠
The factor β is determined by the design pressure of the line. The ratio of equivalent to yield
stress is governed by the acceptance criteria. For the functional loads the limit is 72% and
for functional plus environmental loads, the limit is 96% as shown for Zone 1 in Table 2 of
Section 2.13.2. Substitution of these ratios provides one value for the ratio α and multiplied
by the yield stress the maximum allowable bending stress.
The bending stress induced by submerged weight of the pipeline, ws (uniform load) on the
pipeline span can be determined by modelling the pipeline as a beam, with an average
support condition between a simply supported and fixed end.
2
ws L
M=
10
σb = M D and
2I
I=
π
64
(D 4
−(D − 2t )
4
)
where M = induced bending moment [N m]
ws = uniform distributed load rate [N/m]
L = span length [m]
D = pipe outside diameter [m]
4
I = area moment of inertia [m ]
t = pipe wall thickness [m]
σ = bending stress [Pa]
b
The shear stress induced by the submerged weight [ws] (uniformly distributed load) on the
pipeline span may be similarly determined by modelling the pipeline as a beam, with an
average support condition between a simply supported and fixed end.
Fs
σs =
A
ws L
where Fs = = shear force
2
A = Cross section area of the pipe
π
=
4
(D − (D−2t ) )
2 2
The equivalent stress is calculated using von Mises criterion (see section 2.13.2). Note
from 2.13.2 that the equivalent stress is maximised when σb is negative, i.e. compressive.
Also, the equivalent stress shall not exceed α, where α is the limit value shown for Zone 1
in Table 2 of Section 2.13.2.
Therefore, the maximum allowable span length, [Lmax] occurs when σb is maximised such
that = σeq = α x SMYS. Substituting σb into the combined stress formula gives:
⎛σ h ⎛σ
2
2⎞ 2⎞
σ h 2 +⎜ −α Lmax ⎟ −σ h ⎜ h −α Lmax ⎟+ β Lmax =(%SMYS )
2 2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
3σ h
2
α 2 Lmax 4 + β Lmax 2 + =(%SMYS )

2
solving for Lmax :-
4
α = ws D
where : 20I
2
β = 3 w s2
2A
To determine the maximum allowable span length, under the functional plus environmental
conditions, the submerged weight should be combined with wave and current induced drag
lift and inertia forces, see section 2.13.5.
Therefore :- {
q = (W − FL ) + (FD + FM )
2 2
}
where: F = drag force due to 100 year return wave and current induced velocity (see
D
section 2.13.5)
FL = Lift force due to 100 year return wave and current conditions
FM = inertia force due to 100 year return wave and current conditions
The coefficients for drag, lift and inertia should be obtained from DNV Rules. Note, the
coefficient will be different than for an on-bottom pipeline due to the gap between bottom-of-
pipe and the seabed.
In accordance with Table 2 of Section 2.13.2, the equivalent stress shall not exceed 90% of
SMYS. Similar to the approach adopted for functional loads, Lmax can be solved:
3σ h
2
α 2 Lmax 4 + β Lmax + ≤(0.9SMYS )

2 2
α = ws D
where : 20I
2
β =3ws
and 2A2
The third load condition to be analysed is fatigue, due to vortex induced vibrations. These
vibrations only occur within certain ranges of cross-flow velocities. In order to determine
these ranges the natural frequency of the span or riser first needs to be established. The
first mode of vibration of a span with the "average" support condition is:
2.56 ⎛ E I ⎞
Fn = ⎜ ⎟
L2 ⎝ M ⎠
-1
Where: F =
n natural frequency [s ]
5
E =
Young's Modulus of elasticity = 2.05 x 10 [MPa]
M = virtual mass per unit length i.e., mass per unit length of pipeline
including the coatings and contents plus the mass per unit length
of displaced water [kg/m]
For a steady state flow, the frequency of the vortex shedding Fv can be evaluated using the
formula below:
Su
Fv =
D
-1
Where: Fv =
vortex shedding frequency in water [s ]
S = Strouhal number
u = steady current velocity, excluding wave induced current, [m/s]
The Strouhal Number depends on the drag coefficient Cd which in turn depends or the
Reynolds Number Re of the current flow. The span is considered safe if the span natural
frequency is 1.3 times the vortex induced frequency. Thus the span length should be less
than:
1/ 4
⎛ EI D2 ⎞
L=3.15⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟
⎝ MU ⎠
Where: U = Wave or current ratio
2.14 On-Bottom Stability
2.14.1 General
Submarine pipelines should have a submerged weight of sufficient magnitude to provide

adequate stability on bottom of the seabed. The required minimum weight can be achieved
by providing a concrete coating. The pipeline should have such a weight that it will not
move from its as installed position, apart from movements corresponding to permissible
deformation, thermal expansion (if applicable) and a limited amount of settlement after
installation.
2.14.2 Analysis
The on-bottom stability limit is reached when the water particle induced forces on the
pipeline are equal to the lateral (frictional) resistance of the pipe:
Fd + Fi = μ ( W − FL )
where Fd = drag force [N/m]
Fi = inertia force [N/m]
μ = pipe to soil friction factor

W = pipeline submerged weight [N/m]
FL = lift force [N/m]
The wave and current induced drag, inertia and lift forces are detailed in section 2.13.5.
These forces are time dependent, due to the periodicity of the waves. As the maxima for
the drag, inertia and lift forces are out-of-phase, the phase angles have to be taken into
account, when evaluating the above limit.
For gas lines, the on-bottom stability should be ensured under 100 year return wave and
current conditions. Oil pipelines should also meet this criterion, but in addition should be
stable during installation. The submerged weight of an oil line during installation is lower
than during operation, since the pipe is filled with air rather than oil during laying. In the
latter case, the 1 year return wave and current conditions are applied, as the installation
duration is short.
The soil friction factor varies with the pipeline surface material and seabed surface
condition. The following values are recommended:
μ = 1 for soft silty areas
μ = 0.7 for rocky, sandy areas
The hydrodynamic coefficients and safety factors are based on the simplified method
included in DNV's recommended practice. This method is nowadays applied in its entirety.
2.14.3 Concrete Weight Coating
The concrete weight coating requirements of each pipeline should be evaluated on an

individual basis. In general pipe sizes DN100, 150 and 200 have been found to require no
concrete coating, depending on the water depth and environmental conditions.
In some shallow water depths the DN100 and DN150 gas lines may need 25 mm or more
concrete if lying individually, for stability. If they are part of a bundle, attached to a flowline
or liquid filled line, it is usually not required. Also in soil conditions where the line will sink
wholly or partly the drag force and lift force will be reduced considerably. Initially however
the line is assumed to be laid on top of a well defined seabed.
3 3
The standard density for concrete coatings is 2243 kg/m (140 lb/ft ) but a more dense mix
3 3
of 3044 kg/m (190 lb/ft ) is also used where coating thickness has to be minimised. Water
absorption of upto 3% of the concrete weight is allowed but may not be applied when
designing the weight coating.
In deciding between a combination of concrete thickness and density, to give the required
submerged weight, the following points should be considered:
• The minimum practical thickness of concrete coating is 25 mm and for marginal cases
of instability without concrete coating, additional pipe wall thickness may be the most
economical solution.
• When sacrificial anodes are needed, it is desirable to have a concrete coating to give a
continuous external diameter.
• For laybarge installation, it is desirable to provide mechanical protection of the bitumen
corrosion coat by the application of a concrete coating.
Concrete coating and the field joint infill mode should follow the relevant VIETSOVPETRO
JV specification.
The submerged weight calculation routines should be included in the on-bottom stability
calculation. In case the steel wall thickness includes a corrosion allowance, the submerged
weight of the pipeline reduces with time. At the design stage, it may be assumed that, at
the end of the service life, 50 % of the corrosion allowance will still contribute to the
submerged weight, since the corrosion itself is usually not perfectly uniform.
2.14.4 Shore Approach
Selection of a shore approach and landfall location requires careful consideration of

bathymetry, seabed characteristics, wave and current data, location of other facilities,
onshore routing constraints, etc. Particular design aspects to be addressed are:
• Required length of trenched and buried section.
• Required burial depth, method(s) of trenching/burial, and selection of backfill material.
• Laybarge access, and length of pipe pull to shore.
• Pull loads, pull-in winch capacity and location.
• Onshore construction and tie-in procedures (if applicable).
• Alternative shore approach construction methods, such as remote pipe string
fabrication and tow-in.
In all cases the safety of the proposed design shall be adequately demonstrated.
For all shore approaches, an environmental impact study shall be conducted, assessing,
among others, the impact of temporary end permanent trenches on the stability of the
shoreline.
In general, good engineering judgement shall prevail in each situation end the required
length of trenches should be optimised to minimise cost while ensuring pipeline integrity
The stability afforded by the pipeline submerged weight should also be taken into
consideration.
Normally, a pipeline at an approach to the shore is buried to provide on-bottom stability.
The pipeline should have sufficient weight to prevent it from surfacing due to soil
liquefaction. The approach to shore should be perpendicular to the shoreline in order to
minimise coastal erosion especially where trenching is required.
Based on experience with shore approach design, it is recommended that the as-laid
Specific Gravity (SG) of the pipeline exceeds 1.8. The SG is defined as the weight in air
divided by the weight of the displaced water.
2.15 Riser design
2.15.1 Components
The riser is the vertical or near vertical section of a submarine pipeline which connects the
pipeline on the seabed with the facilities on an offshore platform or jacket.
The riser design factor is lower than the pipeline design factor (see section 2.10.3),
resulting in a thicker pipe or a higher grade material. The latter option has the advantage of
maintaining a constant internal bore for the complete pipeline system. Risers and
expansion spools shall be designed according to the requirements for Zone 2 areas as
shown in Table 2 of 2.13.2.
Risers typically are attached on the outside of the jacket and held in place by riser clamps
(guides). The riser is normally allowed to slide in the longitudinal direction within each
clamp (guide). The vertical loads are therefore normally taken up by the deck support.
Scouring underneath the riser bend and over a length of approximately 15 m underneath
the pipeline should be taken into account, resulting in the vertical support carrying
approximately 95% of the riser load, including the ESD and 7.5 m of pipeline length at the
seabed.
The riser clamps have in the past typically contained 6 mm polychloroprene ('neoprene')
rubber sheeting inside the clamp shell to isolate the riser from the cathodic protection
system of the jacket. Severe external corrosion is experienced underneath riser clamps in
the splashzone, probably because the clamps are fit tight to the riser, or disbondment
occurs giving rise to crevice type corrosion.
A more suitable material for clamp shells is composite thermoplastic sheeting (Ultra-high
Molecular Weight Polyethylene or UHMW-PE). This lining material consists of a double
layer sheet: a thermoplastic outer layer which is in contact with the riser and a natural
rubber inner layer which is glued to the clamp shell to aid installation. The thermoplastic
surface has a low friction coefficient which allows free sliding of the riser in contact with it
and is hence unlikely to cause frictional tearing of the paint coating.
The sheet is extended from the clamp shell over the flat flange faces as well and pre-drilled
holes in the sheet allow the clamp bolts to be passed through and tightened up over the
sheet thus locating it firmly inside the clamps.
To prevent boat impact on risers, a boat fender is normally provided. Alternatively, one
could consider locating the riser on the inside of the platform. The latter approach is,
however, not very practical from an installation and repair point of view.
Where the pipeline cathodic protection system is different from the system used for platform
cathodic protection, isolation of the two systems is required, in order to prevent any adverse
effects on the pipeline from stray current interference.
Whereas in the past insulation flanges have been used for this purpose, experience has
shown that these deteriorate in time and become ineffective. Hence monobloc insulation
joints shall be used instead where there is a requirement to isolate the pipeline from the
platform CP system. Many of the new risers are fitted with an ESD valve located at the
working height above the spider deck (about 3 m above mean sea level), where a perimeter
walkway is usually available. As a consequence, the insulation joint will be very close to
the ESD valve flange.
Typically a jacket has a 1:10 batter, usually resulting in the need for a 5° bend. A mitre not
exceeding 3° should only be used during the construction hook-up of the riser to
accommodate misalignment.
A knee brace is only necessary for the installation of risers. After installation, the knee
brace shall be removed by divers, to minimise operational stress levels.
All riser bends shall have a minimum radius of 5 pipe diameters (R=5D) to facilitate pigging
operations. However where space is limited on existing facilities a 3D bend radius may be
considered, subject to approval by VIETSOVPETRO JV.
2.15.2 Riser coating

The small diameter risers are usually Polyethylene (PE) coated and the large diameters
with coal-tar enamel and concrete. Concrete weight coating is only applied to ensure that
the riser is negatively buoyant under operational conditions.
The splash zone is the region which is most severely exposed to wave action, including the
tidal zone (approximately ± 6 m from mean sea level). In this zone a 12m riser joint is
installed with bonded, reinforced polychloroprene ('Neoprene', 'Splashtron' or equivalent)
rubber. Significant disbondment is experienced with this coating. Alternatives which may
be used are, for example, PE coating and monel cladding.
The section above the splashzone and the riser bends are normally asphalt enamel
painted.
2.15.3 Passive Fire Protection

The benefits of providing passive fire protection around the above water section of the riser
is to prevent escalation due to flame impingement from adjacent existing risers and to
enable personnel to evacuate the facility safely during such contingency. Historical data
which is applicable to the company offshore installations indicates that the highest risk area
for riser corrosion failure and collision damage is in the splash zone.
Passive fire protection (PFP) is required for all gas risers on manned facilities offshore
unless it can be demonstrated by an adequate and approved QRA that for a given
installation the risk is considered to be of little or no consequence to the safety of
personnel. It is also normally only required where the riser to be installed will be located
adjacent to existing risers. Such considerations should preferably be carried out during the
conceptual design stage of a project.
Passive fire protection, where required, shall be applied from at least -2.0m below MSL up
to the lower flange connection of the first ESD valve. Riser support members over this
length shall also be protected. The valve and actuator do not require protection. The PFP
system shall not accelerate corrosion of the riser. There shall be sufficient overlap between
the PFP and the splash-zone coating to prevent ingress of moisture.
The system shall stand up to exposure from a jet fire for a period of at least 30 minutes (i.e.
JF30) or longer as may pertain to the evacuation requirements of the facility concerned.
The surface temperature of the riser shall remain at < 200°C for the required duration of
exposure and the temperature of riser support members (clamps, etc) shall remain at <
400°C for the required duration of exposure.
All passive fire protection systems proposed by Vendors, Consultants or Contractors shall
be supported by certification and / or approval by an internationally recognised
Classification Society such as Lloyd's Register, Det norske Veritas or Bureau Veritas.
2.15.4 Pipeline approach and riser bend angle
The riser bottom bend angle depends on the jacket batter and the pipeline jacket approach
angle, as follows:
β = acos{cos(χ)sin(α)}
where β = riser bend angle
χ = angle between jacket face and pipeline in the

horizontal plane (0° is perpendicular to jacket face)
α = angle between jacket face and the vertical plane

(jacket batter).
Usually α = 5.7° for structures, so the following values result:
χ β
0° 84.3°
30° 85.1°
45° 86.0°
60° 87.2°
90° 90.0°
The bends are procured to the bending specification, which calls for a bend angle tolerance
of ±1 degree.
2.15.5 Riser Clamp Positions

The riser clamps are normally attached to the jacket horizontal bracings. The above water
clamp should preferably be well above mean sea level to prevent external corrosion of the
riser and clamp.
The height of the lowest riser clamp above the seabed should be sufficient to limit the
stresses induced in the riser during a 100 year storm.
A simplified approach to analyse these stress is to model the section of riser between the
seabed and the first riser clamp as a cantilever beam.
The bending moment M at the base of the riser (cantilever) due to a horizontal deflection
of the jacket at the clamp, during a 100 year storm, is given by:
3EIδ
M = 2
L
and associated bending stress is given by :
σ b = M2 ID
where M = bending moment [N m]

E = Young's Modulus of elasticity [N/m2]
4
I = moment of inertia [m ]
δ = horizontal deflection jacket at lowest clamp [m]
L = distance to lowest clamp [m]
D = outer steel diameter [m]
σ = bending stress [Pa]
b
The equivalent stress of the combined bending and hoop stress is not allowed to exceed
67% of the yield stress, i.e. the stress limit for risers when taking into account both the
functional and the environmental loads (see section 2.13.2).
From the formula, one can conclude that the first subsea clamp should be located as high
as possible, since the bending moment reduces quadratically with the distance L.
Additional bracing a few metres above sea bed should thus not be used. However, to avoid
vortex induced vibrations, the unsupported riser length should not exceed the following limit
(see section 2.13.9):
1
⎡ E Ig D 2 ⎤ 4
L=3.15⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣⎢ M U ⎦⎥
The above approach is not entirely conservative, as not all the environmental loads have
been taken into account; the wave and current induced drag forces have been neglected.
However, these forces are usually negligible. Nevertheless, for the design of large risers it
is recommended to perform a full finite element analysis, for example with the computer
program RISR or equivalent.
2.16 Corrosion
2.16.1 Design Life
A pipeline is designed for a limited functional lifetime, typically 30 years for offshore lines.
The major factors which govern the potential lifetime duration of a carbon steel pipeline are
composition of transported medium and the environmental conditions. Alternative materials
to carbon steel are briefly discussed in section 2.7.
When pipelines are taken out of service they are either mothballed (preserved with inhibited
water to arrest internal corrosion) or abandoned. As such they should not be generally
considered fit for purpose at a future date. Mothballed lines may be considered for re-use
subject to proof of mechanical integrity (by intelligent pigging or hydrotest to a sufficiently
high pressure so as to prove integrity with regard to existing defects). Abandoned pipelines
are considered to have been left in a state such that they are not in any way preserved from
ongoing corrosion or deterioration to their physical condition. Abandoned pipelines should
therefore not be re-used for transport of any product as they are considered as having been
scrapped at the point of abandonment.
2.16.2 Composition of Transported Medium
Hydrocarbons being transmitted through a pipeline consist of great varieties of components

such as methane, ethane, propane, iso-butane and so on. In addition, they also contain
corrosive elements such as water, dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide), and formation debris such as sand.
All internal corrosion problems which occur in oil field pipeline operations are due to the
presence of water.
Of the three dissolved gases mentioned, oxygen is by far the worst of the group. If present,
it can cause severe corrosion at very low concentrations (less than 1 ppm). It is a strong
and rapid oxidising agent in cathodic reactions.
When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonic acid, decreases the pH of the
water, and increases its corrosivity.
It is not as corrosive as oxygen, but usually results in pitting. Corrosion primarily caused by
dissolved carbon dioxide is commonly called "sweet" corrosion.
Hydrogen sulphide is very soluble in water, and when dissolved, behaves as a weak acid
and usually causes pitting. Attack due to the presence of dissolved hydrogen sulphide is
referred to as "sour" corrosion and normally takes the form of stress corrosion cracking or
hydrogen induced cracking. Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRBs) may occur in, or have
been introduced to, the formation water.
2.16.3 Environmental Conditions
External corrosion to offshore pipelines is prevented by coatings and cathodic protection

either by sacrificial anodes or by impressed current. The sections above water can only be
protected by external coatings. The splash zone area is protected by the 'Splashtron'
coating but any damage to this can result in rapid corrosion.
Onshore pipelines below-ground are generally only protected by external coatings although
at present sacrificial (magnesium) anodes or impressed current systems are being installed
on all new lines. The resistivity of the soil controls the corrosion of below-ground pipelines.
In general the higher the resistance of the soil the less likely is corrosion and the less effect
any cathodic protection measures may be. Typically, lower resistance soils are found in the
areas of rivers, ditches, and close to the shore.
Pipelines above-ground and on racks can only be protected by external coatings. These
coatings have to be resistant to sunlight and usually consist of polyurethane paints.
Surface laid pipelines are heavily prone to corrosive attack. The upper areas of coating are
degraded in the sun and the lower areas are kept continually moist. Many surface laid
pipelines are being removed.
2.16.4 Corrosion Inhibitors
Where the internal corrosion of carbon steel pipelines is expected to be high or bacterial
action is expected, chemical injection may be applied.
The effectiveness of inhibitors generally depends upon the flow regime existing in pipeline
and the level of wall-wetting.
In general if annular dispersed, slug, or bubbly type flow exists in a pipeline then continuous
inhibitor may be applied. If stratified flow conditions exist then batch inhibitor may be
considered. The computer program PIPESIM may be used for flow regime prediction.
2.16.5 External corrosion coatings
The corrosion coating system to be used on marine pipelines to provide protection against
external corrosion will depend upon the pipeline installation method, the method selected
for obtaining adequate specific gravity, time required for applying of coating, and cost. In
general, Polyethylene (PE) is used for small diameter pipelines not requiring any concrete
weight coatings. For the large diameter pipelines, asphalt enamel and wrap is applied, in
combination with a concrete coating. For the riser protection see section 2.15.3.
For onshore, below-ground pipelines are normally PE coated. For the field joints, the
application of heat shrink sleeves are preferred, but tapes might be acceptable. All above-
ground pipelines are painted in accordance with the painting specification. Air/ground
interfaces are taped following the tape specification.
For high-temperature service the use of polypropylene or EPDM coatings could be

considered.
Service temperature limits for external corrosion coatings are tabulated below:
Coating type Max. temperature [°C]

Hot applied asphalt enamel 60
Fusion bonded epoxy or FBE 70
Polyethylene 65
Polypropylene or EPDM > 80
2.16.6 Cathodic Protection
A Cathodic Protection (CP) system provides a secondary protection against external

pipeline corrosion. The corrosion coating constitutes the primary protection. The CP
system can be classified as an impressed current system or a sacrificial anode system.
The impressed current system consists of an external current source, such as a battery, a
rectifier or a solar panel. The sacrificial anode system is based on the galvanic cell principle
created by connecting a sacrificial metal anode, with a potential lower than steel, to the
pipeline at regular intervals.
The pipelines have been normally protected by an impressed current system. A sacrificial
anode system was only applied if:
• it was not possible to install an impressed current system, because of lack of power
supply,
• an impressed current system induces stray current effects,
• the pipeline was in excess of 35 km in length.
The use of sacrificial anodes on all subsea pipelines are based upon the following reasons:
1. Elimination of monitoring and maintenance requirement (impressed current system)
2. Self-regulating nature of sacrificial anode system
3. No operator intervention for correct functioning
4. No risk from incorrect connection
The design, procurement and installation of a cathodic protection system is covered by

specifications for offshore lines and for all onshore/offshore pipelines.
Most of pipelines are electrically isolated from the upstream and downstream facilities by
insulating flanges. For the design of new offshore subsea pipelines the use of insulation
flanges is no longer sanctioned, for reasons already stated in Section 2.15.1.
Monobloc insulation joints shall therefore be used instead, which provide more reliable long
term electrical isolation between the subsea pipeline and the platform structure.
2.16.7 Strength Assessment
When internal or external corrosion has been found, a pipeline may still be operated
although in some cases this may require reduction of the maximum allowable operating
pressure, MAOP, or derating.
In determining the derating required, step one is to check the corrosion allowance designed
into the pipeline. The minimum steel wall thickness tm is equal to the nominal thickness
minus the corrosion allowance. If the remaining wall thickness exceeds the minimum
thickness, no derating is required. If the remaining thickness is less than the minimum, then
a derating equation is applied. The most common de-rating equation is contained in
Appendix L of the B31.8 code. Billiton Research Arnhem (BRA) has slightly modified the
formulae.
The BRA method is now used in preference to the B31.8 method. The MOP of the derated
pipeline shall be checked and confirmed to be below the derated MAOP.
2.17 Installation Analysis
A riser installation stress analysis shall be performed to ensure that the riser and adjacent
sections of pipeline are not overstressed at any stage. Stress limits are defined in Section
2.13.2.
If a large thermal offset is not required, the 'stalk on' method of installation shall be
considered as the base case. The analysis shall simulate all lifting and hold-hack lines,
supplemental buoyancy, and any other applied loads. Unless alternative data is available,
the following barge characteristics shall be assumed for davit lift of the pipeline end
• Barge length 122 metres

• Number of davits 5
If necessary, alternative installation methods such as J-tube pull, bending shoe, subsea
flanged tie-in, hyperbaric welding, etc. may be considered. Lift analyses of expansion
spools and risers shall be performed where relevant.
A dynamic load factor of 2.0 shall be applied to all static lift forces in accordance with API
RP 2A.
2.18 Pipeline pigging
2.18.1 Internal Diameter Inspection Pigs
Upon installation of a new pipeline it is necessary to ensure that no deformations or

obstructions are left in the pipeline. Dents or buckles create localised stress areas,
increase turbulence, and form potential pig blockages. (The term ‘pig’ is believed to have
been derived from ‘pipeline inspection gauge’).
Gauging pigs are used to ascertain the dimensional condition of the pipe internal diameter.
Such a pig is fitted with a thin aluminium plate with a diameter smaller than the pipe internal
diameter. If the gauging plate passes the line without any damage, the internal dimensional
condition is acceptable. It is important that the plate diameter selection is based on the
narrowest bore section (i.e. usually the thickest pipe wall) and will pass all the bends,
flanges and fittings.
Normally the diameter is based on the following formula:
D p =0.97{Do − 2(1.15t )} − 5
where Dp = diameter of the gauging plate [mm]
Do = nominal outer diameter steel pipe [mm]
t = nominal steel wall thickness [mm]
This diameter is based on a pipe diameter out-of-roundness of 3%, a wall thickness

tolerance of 15 %, and a clearance of 2.5 mm (includes 1.6mm clearance for the inner weld
bead).
If the gauging plate is damaged, it is difficult to trace the location of the dent or debris along
the pipeline. Under those circumstances, it is recommended to run a geometry inspection
pig. This pig measures the internal diameter over the entire length of the line, but is more
expensive.
2.18.2 Cleaning and Batching Pigs
Cleaning pigs are used to maintain the pipeline throughput efficiency and to minimise
internal corrosion. Batching pigs are used to separate one fluid from the other, for example
to de-water a pipeline using gas.
In a natural gas transmission line, compressor oil overflow can combine with dust, distillate,
and minute droplets of water in the gas stream and coat the inside of the pipe. Wax and
sand deposition in crude lines and liquid hold-up in 2-phase flowlines both increase
resistance to flow which in turn decreases pipeline efficiency and increases cost of
transmission.
Internal corrosion is intensified and corrosion control is made more difficult by the
accumulation of silt, sand, mud, completion fluids, stagnant water and bacterial deposits.
The majority of the chemicals used for corrosion inhibition are metal-surface active and are
adversely affected by the presence of these accumulations. For example in the case of
bacterial corrosion, deposits give shelter to bacteria permitting their population expansion.
Periodic cleaning of a pipeline will help considerably to control many of these corrosion
factors. Routine operational pigging for cleaning purposes should form part of the overall
plan for the maintenance of pipelines, and should be defined in the context of the Pipeline
Integrity Management System (PIMS).
It should be remembered that the cleaning operation can be carried out without seriously
affecting the operation of the pipeline or its throughput.
The frequency of cleaning pipelines can best be decided after an initial programme has
been carried out. During this period, careful records should be kept as to the amount and
nature of contaminating material removed. Frequency once established, can be changed
when operating conditions change (e.g. the introduction water injection). The high capital
cost of installing pipelines, together with their strategic value once they are operating, make
it imperative that corrosion is controlled as much as possible. Pipeline pigging, as outlined
above, has a significant role to play in extending pipeline life in exchange for a small
increase in operating costs.
PIMS recommends that pigging requirement and frequency are determined by the criticality
rating of each line which is based upon the risk and consequence of a line failure.
A wide range of cleaning and batching pigs are available such as a cup type, foam type and
sphere type.
Inflatable polyurethane spheres are commonly used. They can be sized to any pipe bore
within the same nominal pipe size. They are very useful in cases where an undersized
sphere is required. Correct inflation of these spheres is critical to the sphere's performance
and the inflating medium should be water. Before inflating the sphere, the sphere pump
and connections should have all air bled out and the sphere should not contain any air after
inflation. For cleaning operations spheres should be sized exactly on the pipe internal
diameter. For batching operations the sphere should be inflated some 3% greater than the
internal diameter of the pipe in which it will run and this should be checked with callipers.
Spheres may get stuck or hang at large branch tees, i.e., where branch diameter is similar
to run diameter. In these instances “sphere” tees are preferred.
In general, mandrel pigs such as cup pigs or bi-directional pigs are more efficient than
sphere pigs and where practicable these should be used in preference to the above.
It is essential to check the by-pass ports on pigs prior to insertion. For wax removal service
it may be desirable to secure a degree of by-pass flow to prevent wax scrapings combining
to seize the pig's transit.
On new pipelines it is recommended that a brush pig is run, with the aim of 'polishing' the
internal bore in order to obtain optimal pipeline efficiency and reduce scale accumulations.
Note, based on previous experience, the use of spring mounted brushes is not effective in
removing scale (do not provide enough pressure). Fixed brush pigs have been proven more
effective.
2.18.3 Corrosion Inspection Pigs

A number of corrosion inspection tools, e.g. intelligent pigs, have been developed to inspect
the wall condition of in-service lines. A log is made of the extent of both wall thickness loss
and defect size.
As an aid in the evaluation of corrosion inspection tools and to provide a check of the tool
calibration a 'pull through' rig where the tool is pulled through both before and after an
inspection run. This ensures that the tool calibration has not been altered during operation
and that it has produced consistent results. The test rig is also used to check on
interpretation of defects.
2.18.4 Pinger Pigs
Pinger pigs are used to locate a pipeline obstruction. By tracking the signal emitted from a
pinger mounted on the pig, the pig can be located when it becomes blocked at the
obstruction. The acoustic pingers usually used have a signal life of either 10 or 30 days.
They only emit an acoustic signal when they are wet and can therefore only be used for
liquid (hydrotest water) filled pipeline. The pinger can be installed inside a perforated
protection cage, usually mounted at the rear end of the pig in line with the pig body. For
bigger pipelines the pinger cage will be incorporated in the pig body.
2.18.5 Pipeline Design for Pigging

The simple rule when designing a pipeline which requires pigging: is keep the internal
diameter constant. In most pipelines this is simply not possible; changes in wall thickness
may be required to comply with codes and manufacturing tolerances. The rule should
therefore be modified to read; keep internal diameter variations to a minimum and
constantly check with pig vendors that their tools can tolerate the variations expected.
Particularly in the case of intelligent pigs it is essential to confirm with the vendor that the
pig can traverse the minimum bend radii in the pipeline system. On short-radius bends
additional wall thickness is allowed to compensate for thinning during the bend-forming
process. Such wall thicknesses may impinge on essential clearances.
Some specific recommendations are listed below:
• Check with manufacturer on tolerance of pig for internal diameter, dents, and bends for
the pipe size in question.
• Specify all fitting (flanges, tees) to have the nominal pipe inside diameter.
• Specify all tees to have guide bars following the standard drawing.
• Specify all valves to be full bore, in accordance with API 6D and with the nominal pipe
ID. If gate valves are selected the through conduit type should be specified. Wedge
type gate valves have cavities in which by-pass across the pig can occur causing the
pig to stop. This is particularly true when spheres are used.
• Fittings should never be located close together. A space of at least 3 pipe diameters of
straight pipe should be left between fittings.
• Bends shall normally be of 5D radius (5 times nominal diameter). This requirement

may be relaxed where topside space is limited, but only on a case-by-case basis. (See
section 2.15.1)
2.18.6 Pig Launcher and Receiver
Four pig launcher/receiver standard mechanical drawings are available, these are:-
i) Scraper Launcher/Receiver facilities (with double block and bleed)
ii) Scraper Launcher/Receiver Facilities (without double block and bleed)
iii) Intelligent Pig Launcher/Receiver Facilities (without double block and bleed)
iv) Intelligent Pig Launcher/Receiver Facilities (with double block and bleed)
In general, double block and bleed isolation is only required in high pressure, toxic or
critical service. For specific requirements refer to the EP safety manual. For operating
launchers/receivers refer to the relevant Operating Bulletins.
Additional considerations are:

• Drain pit - A drain complete with grate cover and drain piping connected to the oil
sump should be provided at the trap door.
• Closure - The trap door should be a quick opening type with a self-sealing
gasket, pressure locking device and hinge support designed for one
person operation.
• Hoisting - A suitable hoist and trolley arrangement should be provided for
handling DN400 and larger scrapers. Hoisting equipment or suitable
counter balance weights should be installed on inclined or vertical trap
closures where required.
• Service - Consideration should be given to provide a service platform on traps
above 1.5 m elevation for ease of operation.
• Thermal - A thermal relief valve is normally not provided on relief pig traps, firstly
because liquids should always be drained from the trap and secondly
because ambient temperature fluctuations are relatively small.
In line with operational experience, vertical launchers should not be used for the following
reasons:
• where intelligent pigs are used, these may 'flop' under considerable weight and damage
cups
• vertical door opening mechanisms have proved problematic
• traps cannot be fully drained and residue on valve balls can promote corrosion
• debris may become lodged in seats causing valve failure
• pig handling is generally not geared for vertical handling operations
On many onshore flowlines, ITAG launcher and receiver valve systems have been installed,
for cleaning and/or well fluid separation purposes only. The system basically consists of
one ball valve with an inlet, outlet and a pig insert/retrieve opening. The unit is relatively
easy to operate and is far less expensive than a conventional launcher/receiver unit. They
are not provided with isolation valves and bypasses to allow maintenance work without
shutting down the system.
2.18.7 Pipelines Requiring Pigging Facilities

The requirement for routine (operational) pigging on a given pipeline should be determined
from a corrosion assessment for the respective line.
The need for intelligent pigging is determined from a risk and consequence ranking
assessment (Pipe Line Criticality and Consequence of Failure,) in accordance with
VIETSOVPETRO JV Pipeline Integrity Management Manual.
The requirements for operational and intelligent pigging are specified in “Maintenance
Reference Plan” for each pipeline.
The decisions whether to install permanent or temporary pigging facilities are depend on
the specified pigging frequency. If pigging frequency of more than once a year is specified,
permanent pigging facilities shall be installed.
2.19 Pipeline Material Procurement
2.19.1 General
Standard requisition sheets shall be developed as of VIETSOVPETRO format, for onshore
and offshore pipeline long lead materials. These sheets are included in Request for
Engineering Documents (RED) sheets do not need to be prepared, since these
requirements are already covered by the referenced standards and/or buyer descriptions.
2.19.2 Linepipe and bends

The linepipe shall be in accordance with API Spec. 5L and for non-sour service or for sour
service.
The quantity of linepipe required has to be expressed in metres length and has to include a
construction allowance. The number of joints does not need to be defined, since they vary
in length.
Pipeline bends, preferably, have to be manufactured from the linepipe order. Alternatively,
the parent material can be supplied by the pipe bender. Hot induction bends should be
manufactured from the same parent material as the linepipe, i.e. have the same heat
number and kiln batch. All bends shall be supplied and manufactured in accordance with
ASME B31.4/31.8.
SSU will combine all parent material (bare steel) requirements into one order to be
processed by SIEP. It is not required to identify the welding method (seamless, ERW,
SAW), since all three methods are acceptable. The MESC number therefore does not need
to be indicated.
Coating of the linepipe shall be in accordance with the appropriate standard or
VIETSOVPETRO JV requirement/standard.
2.19.3 Flanges
Flanges shall be forged in accordance with ASTM A694.
To avoid differences in internal diameter of the pipeline versus the flange bore, the flange
material grade has to be equivalent to the linepipe material grade. In addition, the nominal
internal bore (or pipe wall thickness) should also be indicated on the requisition sheet.
2.19.4 Butt-weld fittings and Barred Tees
The butt-weld fittings for pipelines shall be manufactured in accordance with MSS-SP-75.
To avoid differences in internal diameter of the pipeline versus fitting bore, the fitting
material grade shall be equivalent to the linepipe material grade. The required wall
thickness shall be specified on the requisition sheet.
Barred tees shall be constructed from a material grade equivalent to the linepipe material
grade. Furthermore, bars need to be welded into the tee.
2.19.5 Launcher and Receivers.

The long lead items for pig launchers and receivers include a barred tee, full bore valves,
barrels, reducers and trap closures.
The small end of the barrel has to be constructed from bare linepipe. The larger end of the
barrel can be constructed from standard piping or linepipe material. The reducer material
should be equivalent to the linepipe material. The wall thickness of the reducer has to be
selected such that the allowable stress levels in the large end are not exceeded.
2.20 Pipeline Design Data
2.20.1 Allocation of PID number for new pipelines
For all new pipelines a unique 4-digit Pipeline Identification (PID) number shall be obtained
from and allocated by the custodian of the Corporate Pipeline Database (CPD).
The pipeline engineer shall notify the custodian concerned of the new pipeline in writing,
who in turn shall inform the project and design consultants of the same. The PID shall be
shown on all drawings, charts and schematics, and in all design documentation as
appropriate.
2.20.2 Pipeline Data Sheets
Pipeline data sheets summarise the pipeline design, by listing the key parameters. They
are usually developed at the end of conceptual design.
A typical offshore pipeline data sheets is shown below:
General
a. Field location
b. Service
c. Facility From and To
d. Nominal Diameter (DN)
e. Length (including risers)
Pipeline Design Data

a. Design Life
b. Design temperature
c. Design pressure
d. Corrosion Allowance
e. Pipeline intelligently piggable
f. Cathodic Protection Type
Environmental data at Location-1

a. Water depth
b. Significant wave height (100 years)
c. Significant wave peak period (100 years)
d. Maximum wave height (100 years)
e. Surface current (100 years)
Pipeline Data
a. Pipeline outside diameter (steel)
b. Pipeline steel wall thickness
c. Length (riser base to riser base)
d. Line pipe material and grade
e. Specified minimum yield strength (SMYS)
f. Anti-Corrosion Coating Type
g. Anti-Corrosion Coating Thickness
h. Density of corrosion coating
i. Weight Coating Thickness
j. Concrete density
k. Pipeline empty weight in air
l. Pipeline submerged weight (empty)
m. Pipeline submerged weight (product)
Riser data
a. Riser outside diameter (steel)
b. Riser Wall Thickness
c. Riser Material and Grade
d. Specified minimum yield strength (SMYS)
e. Riser Min Bend Radius
f. Riser bend angle-1 and 2
g. Flange rating
Installation data
a. Pipeline installation method
b. Riser setting method
c. Gauging plate size
d. Hydrostatic test pressure
e. Hydrostatic test duration
2.21 Hydrostatic Testing
Hydrostatic pressure testing is the accepted method of demonstrating the structural integrity of
pipelines after the completion of construction. Prior to commencing the hydrostatic test the pipeline
should have been adequately cleaned of construction debris and have successfully passed a
gauging plate (preferably aluminium) of 95 percent minimum internal diameter undamaged through
the section to be tested.
2.21.1 Testing Requirements

The minimum requirements for testing are detailed in the relevant sections of the ANSI B31 .4 and
B31.8 Codes and include test mediums other than water. Extreme caution should be exercised if
testing with air or gas due to the enormous release of energy in the event of any pipeline failure.
A strength test and a leak test (commonly at a lower pressure) may be conducted separately but
these can be combined into a single test at the higher strength test pressure provided the
necessary test procedures have been established. The minimum recommended duration for a
strength test, leak test or combined strength/leak test is 24 hours.
For very long pipeline test section lengths, particularly of the larger diameter, leak test durations
should be increased after giving due consideration to the volumetric content of the test section, its
location and to the detectability of possible small leaks. Variations in pressure during the strength
test can be compensated for by the addition or removal of test water to maintain the correct
pressure.
For the leak test or combined leak/strength test it is not permissible to add water to the test section
but water can be removed if pressure build-up is excessive. However any water that is removed
should be measured and taken into account in the test evaluation. In general large pressure
increases are unlikely to occur unless a significant proportion of the pipeline is exposed to ambient
effects.
In determining test section lengths, the profile of the pipeline and hence static head pressures are
to be taken into account, such that the minimum requirements of the Code are maintained while
not exceeding the maximum test pressure. The test pressure itself should not exceed the pipe mill
hydrostatic tests (normally 95 percent SMYS based on nominal wall thickness for SIPM
specification pipe).
Heavier wall thickness pipe installed at special crossings, e.g. roads, can be tested at the same
pressure and time as the main pipeline subject to any special provisions in the design or as
required by local regulatory authorities. Valves included in a test section should be in the open
position.
In some instances valves are used to segment a completed pipeline for testing purposes. In such
cases it is necessary to ensure that the differential pressure across the valve is within its design
allowance and that special provisions are made to monitor possible leakage across the valve.
Scraper trap facilities included in any test section are to be tested to the same design code as the
pipeline. Depending on the quality of the water to be used for hydrostatic testing and/or the length
of time it is likely to remain in the pipeline after testing consideration should be given to protecting
the pipeline by the addition of inhibitors, biocides and oxygen scavengers. Water analysis should
be carried out to determine these requirements.
2.21.2 Test Equipment and Instrumentation
FIGURE 7: TYPICAL SCHEMATIC OF TEST SECTION
Legend:
PI = pressure gauge, range 1½ times test pressure
PR = pressure recorder, range 1½ times test pressure recording time 24 hrs. min.
DWT = dead weight tester, accuracy 0.01 bar, with current calibration certificate
Tl1 = pipeskin temperature probes, sensitivity 0.1ºC
Tl2 = intermediate pipeskin temperature probes (onshore pipelines only)
Tl3 = ambient temperature measurement, sensitivity 0.5 ºC
M = volumetric measurement device during pipeline pressurizing i.e. flowmeter or pump
stroke counter
2.21.3 Determination of Residual Air Volume in Pipeline

The presence of residual air in the pipeline test section will influence the behavior of the test
section during the leak test hold period and will tend to disguise the presence of small leaks. It is
necessary, therefore, to demonstrate that the quantity of residual air that may be present in a
pipeline is below a minimum acceptable value prior to commencing the leak test hold period.
The method for calculating the residual air volume is demonstrated in Figure 8.0.
FIGURE 8: DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL AIR VOLUME
Method:
The air content shall be determined by constructing a pressure/volume plot from atmospheric
pressure up to the linear section of the pressure volume plot curve and extrapolating back to the
axis. The volume of the air shall then be read directly from the horizontal axis and compared with
the total volume of the section.
The maximum residual air contained in the system when filled with water shall not exceed 0.5% of
the calculated volume of the system. If the air content is found to exceed this volume the section of
pipeline shall be refilled.
In special circumstances where the availability of water is very limited and it is not practical to refill
the pipeline it is possible to proceed with the leak test. However due allowance for the presence of
residual air should be included in the evaluation method and where necessary the leak test
duration extended accordingly.
2.21.4 Hydrostatic Leak Test Evaluation

Prior to commencing the leak test hold period, sufficient time should have been allowed for the
pipeline and its contents to stabilise to the prevailing surrounding temperature. Once stabilised the
leak test is commenced and, provided the pipeline does not contain a leak or excessive quantities
of air, any variations in the test pressure over the hold period should be as a result of minor
temperature fluctuations.
To determine whether any pressure variations are a result of temperature fluctuation or whether a
leak is present, the pressure/volume and temperature/volume relationship for the particular pipeline
test section must be considered.
For an infinitely long, fully restrained pipeline this relationship is governed by the following
equations:
Where:
DV = incremental volume, m³
Dp = incremental pressure, bar
DT = incremental temperature, °C
V = pipeline fill volume, m³
D = pipeline outside diameter, m
E = Young’s elastic modulus of steel, bar
t = pipe wall thickness, m
n = Poisson ratio, -
B = bulk modulus of water, bar
G = volumetric expansion of water, °C-1
a = linear expansion of steels, °C-1
By comparison of the incremental volume changes due to pressure and temperature fluctuations
over the leak test hold period, the acceptability of the test can be established.
In the event of there being any doubt after evaluation of the hold period, the test should be
extended until such time as the acceptability is adequately demonstrated or alternatively the
presence of a leak is confirmed. In the latter event the leak has to be located and removed from
the pipeline prior to retesting.
For reference values of the bulk modulus and volumetric expansion of both fresh water and sea
water are given in Figures 9 to 12.
FIGURE-9 BULK MODULUS OF FRESH WATER

AS A FUNCTION OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
FIGURE-10 BULK MODULUS OF SEA WATER

AS A FUNCTION OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
FIGURE-11 VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION COEEFICIENT OF FRESH WATER

AS A FUNCTIONAL OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
FIGURE-12 VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION COEEFICIENT OF SEA WATER

AS A FUNCTIONAL OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
2.21.5 Location of Leaks during Hydrostatic Testing

While the incidence of leakages/failures during hydrostatic testing is relatively low, its occurrence
can cause considerable delays and additional costs.
To minimise potential delay and cost it is prudent to formulate a contingency plan at an early stage
in the project which can be swiftly put into action if required.
Such a contingency plan could, for example, include the addition of a dye to the test water in an
offshore pipeline so that in the event of a leak occurring it would not become necessary to refill the
pipeline with water containing dye. A variety of techniques are available for locating leaks both in
onshore and offshore pipelines.
Below Table summarises the presently available techniques together with some pertinent
information.
Table 2.21.5 - Summary of methods for the location of leaks during hydrostatic:
2.21.6 Testing After New Construction

(a) Systems or Parts of Systems
(1) All liquid transportation piping systems within the scope of this Code, regardless of
stress, shall be tested after construction. Carbon dioxide systems shall be
hydrostatically tested.
(2) Systems to be operated at a hoop stress of more than 20% of the specified
minimum yield strength of the pipe shall be hydrostatically tested.
(3) Systems to be operated at a hoop stress of 20% or less of specified minimum yield
strength of the pipe may be subjected to a leak test in lieu of the hydrostatic test.
(4) When testing piping, in no case shall the test pressure exceed that stipulated in the
standards of material specifications (except pipe) incorporated.
(5) Equipment not to be subjected to test pressure shall be disconnected from the
piping or otherwise isolated. Valves may be used if valve, including closing
mechanism, is suitable for the test pressure.
(b) Testing Tie-h. Because it is sometimes necessary to divide a pipeline into test sections
and install test heads, connecting piping, and other necessary appurtenances for testing, or
to install a pre-tested replacement section, it is not required that tie-in welds be tested;
however, tie-in welds and girth welds joining lengths of pre-tested pipe shall be inspected
by radiographic or other accepted nondestructive methods if system is not pressure tested
after tie-in. After such inspection, the joint shall be coated and inspected before backfilling.
(c) Testing Controls and Protective Equipment. All controls and protective equipment,
including pressure limiting devices, regulators, controllers, relief valves, and other
safety devices, shall be tested to determine that they are in good mechanical condition; of
adequate capacity, effectiveness, and reliability of operation for the service in which
they are employed; functioning at the correct pressure; and properly installed and
protected from foreign materials or other conditions that might prevent proper operation.
2.21.7 Hydrostatic Testing of Internal Pressure Piping

(a) Portions of piping systems to be operated at a hoop stress of more than 20% of the
specified minimum yield strength of the pipe shall be subjected at any point to a hydrostatic
proof test equivalent to not less than 1.25 times the internal design pressure at that point for
not less than 4 hr. When lines are tested at pressures that develop a hoop stress, based on
nominal wall thickness, in excess of W% of the specified minimum yield strength of the
pipe, special care shall be used to prevent overstrain of the pipe.
(1) Those portions of piping systems where all of the pressured components are
visually inspected during the proof test determine that here is no leakage require no
further test. This can include lengths of pipe that are pre-tested for user’s
replacement sections.
(2) On those portions of piping systems not visually inspected while under test, the
proof test shall be followed by a reduced pressure leak test equivalent to not less
than 1.1 times the internal design pressure for not less than 4 hr.
(b) API RP 11 10 may be used for guidance for the hydrostatic test.
(c) The hydrostatic test shall be conducted with water, except liquid petroleum that does not
vaporize rapidly may be used provided:
(1) The pipeline section under test is not offshore and is outside of cities and other
populated areas, and each building within 300 ft (90 m) of the test section is
unoccupied while the test pressure is equal to or greater than a pressure which
produces a hoop stress of 50% of the specific minimum yield strength of the pipe;
(2) The test section is kept under surveillance by regular patrols during test; and
(3) Communication is maintained along the test section.
(d) If the testing medium in the system will be subject to thermal expansion during the test,
provisions shall be made for relief of excess pressure. Effects of temperature changes shall
be taken into account when interpretations are made of recorded test pressures.
(e) After completion of the hydrostatic test, it is important in cold weather that the lines, valves,
and fittings be drained completely of any water to avoid damage due to freezing.
(f) Carbon dioxide pipelines, valves, and fittings shall be dewatered and dried prior to placing
in service to prevent the possibility of forming a corrosive compound from carbon dioxide
and water.
2.21.8 Testing of Fabricated Items

(a) Fabricated items such as scraper traps, manifolds, volume chambers, etc., shall be
hydrostatically tested to limits equal to or greater than those required of the completed
system. This test may be conducted separately or as a part of the completed system.
2.21.9 Testing of Replacement Pipe Sections.

When a scheduled repair to a pipeline is made by cutting out a section of the pipe as a
cylinder and replacing it with another section of pipe, the replacement section of pipe shall
be subjected to a pressure test. The tests may be made on the pipe prior to installation
provided radiographic or other acceptable nondestructive tests (visual inspection excepted)
are made on all tie in butt welds after installation.

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RULES FOR OPERATION, INSPECTION AND Doc. No.

2.13 Stresses and loads 33

2.1 Codes and Standards

The basic design standards being followed are:

ASME B.31.8: Gas transmission and distribution piping systems

DNV ‘81 Rules: Rules for Submarine Pipeline Systems

A comprehensive list of applicable codes and standards is included as reference in section

2.2 Design Stages

FIGURE 2 OFFSHORE PIPELINES CATEGORY

2.2.1 Front End Design

2.2.2 Conceptual Design

• Prepare Process Engineering Flow Diagram, showing pig traps, overpressure

• Select preliminary route based on 1:10,000 or relevant scale maps,

• Finalise alignment sheets, approach drawings, riser drawings, and general

• Prepare pre-commissioning procedure,

2.3 Pipeline Routing Offshore

2.3.1 Preliminary Routing

Approximate routing should be indicated on hydrographic charts (scale 1:10,000), showing

• The curve radius which can be maintained in equilibrium during installation.

T = on bottom lay tension

f = lateral pipe-soil friction coefficient

w = submerged weight of pipeline when empty

For pipeline routing tolerance requirements see Section 2.5.

2.3.3 Shore Approaches

2.3.4 Existing Pipelines and Structures

2.3.5 Platform approaches and riser location

• The location of the facilities on the platform to be connected to the pipeline.

• Consideration is to be given to reduce risk of damage from dropped objects or dragged

a) Water depth: From 0 up to 24 metres

DN 100, 150, 200 : 1.0 m

b) Water depth: From 24 up to 46 metres

DN 100, 150, 200 : 1.2 m

c) Water depth: 46-76 metres

DN 150, 200 : 1.5 m

2.3.8 Final offshore routing

2.4 Pipeline Routing Onshore

2.4.2 Route Information

2.4.3 Permanent Right-of-Way

A permanent Right-of-Way (ROW) corridor of 8 m (some 4 m each side of the line) is

2.4.4 Block Valve Stations

2.4.5 Final Routing

2.5 Pipeline Routing Tolerance Requirements

• Minimum offset of new pipeline from nearest existing pipeline: 15m

• Maximum offset of new pipeline from nearest existing pipeline: 50m

Where the pipeline is installed adjacent / parallel to an existing pipeline a minimum

2.5.2 Platform Approaches

• From 150m of the riser to the riser tie-in: 3m

2.6 Geotechnical Site Investigation

FIGURE 3: GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN PHASE

However in areas where little information is available a preliminary investigation is required.

The geotechnical investigation will normally be performed on completion of the geophysical

The geotechnical survey will typically encompass:

2.7.1 Carbon Steel

Basic carbon steel properties are:

• Density = 7850 kg/m3

Other mechanical properties reported by the pipe mill are:

• For linepipe of up to 12" Nominal Diameter (DN300) X52 grade

2.7.2 Glass Reinforced Plastic

2.7.3 Corrosion Resistant Alloys

HDPE High Density Polyethylene

All have different properties and manufacturers’ catalogues should be consulted.

2.8 Leak Detection and Isolation Systems