Accepted Manuscript

Policy Norms and Proposed ways to achieve goals of Indian Vehicle Emission
Program

Rutvik Lathia, Sujal Dadhaniya

PII: S0959-6526(18)33224-4
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.202
Reference: JCLP 14604

To appear in: Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 3 April 2018

Revised Date: 9 October 2018
Accepted Date: 17 October 2018

Please cite this article as: Lathia R, Dadhaniya S, Policy Norms and Proposed ways to achieve goals
of Indian Vehicle Emission Program, Journal of Cleaner Production (2018), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jclepro.2018.10.202.

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to
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1 Abstract
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3 Vehicular emission is one of the issues which emerge as the biggest challenge for not only

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4 developing countries but developed countries as well. India is facing dramatic political changes

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5 due to vehicular emission policies issued by the government i.e. leapfrog to the BS-VI, Odd-even

6 formula etc. So; this paper focuses on the set of instructions that may be helpful to tackle the

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7 emission problems for policymakers. This paper can be divided into two main parts - Policy

8 Briefing and Practices to reach the goal of the policies. Policy Briefing section is essential for the

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overview and to recognize the significant area of improvements. Practices section includes three
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10 practices - Replacement, Repowering, and Retrofitting - for controlling the emission which can

11 be proven as the best practices not only for India but for any developing country seeking changes
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12 in vehicular emissions. The proposed ways of modifications can achieve around 0.5% to 8% of
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13 the reduction in fuel usage and emission.

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14 Keywords:
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15

16 Bharat Stage - III, IV & VI;

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17 Vehicle Retrofitting;
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18 Vehicle Repowering;

19 Vehicle Replacement

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22 Abbreviation:

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24 BS: Bharat Stage

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25 CI Engine: Compression Ignition Engine

26 CNG: Compressed Natural Gas

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27 DOC: Diesel Oxidation Catalyst

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28 DPF: Diesel Particulate Filter

29 EGR: Engine Gas Recirculation

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30 ESC: European steady state cycle
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31 ETC: European Transient Cycle

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32 HC: Hydrocarbons
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33 HDV: Heavy Duty Vehicle

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34 ICCT: International Council on Clean Transportation

35 I/M: Inspection and Maintenance

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36 LDV: Light-Duty Vehicle

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37 MON: Motor Octane Number

38 OBD: On-Board Diagnostics

39 ORVR: Onboard Refueling Vapor Recovery

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40 PEM: Portable Emission Measurement

41 PM: Particulate Matter

42 PN: Particulate Number

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43 RON: Research Octane Number

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44 SCR: Selective Catalytic Reduction

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45 SI Engine: Spark Ignition Engine

46 WHSC: World Harmonized Stationary Cycle

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47 WHTC: World Harmonized Transient Cycle

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58 1. Introduction

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60 Global vehicle production is increasing day by day and likely to increase by 21 million units per

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61 year. This changing scenario has opened up new opportunities for the Indian automotive

62 industry. India is emerging as an attractive destination for new investments in this sector. The

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63 transport sector in India contributes 6.4% share in India's GDP of which road transport accounts

64 for 4.5–5% share (Malik and Tiwari, 2017). In 1950, road transport carried 15% of passenger

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65 and 14% of freight movements with the total network length of 0.4 million km. However, over

66 the past two decades, the road sector has evolved as a predominant mode of transport regarding

67
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the number of vehicles and road network length. This fact is evident from the fact that road
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68 transport now accounts for 86% of the passenger movements and 66% of freight movements
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69 with the total network length of 4.7 million km in 2011. The number of vehicles increased to 210

70 million with an annual growth rate of 9.8% between 2005 and 2015 (MoRTH, 2016). The
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71 objective of reducing pollution was not achieved to a large extent by the present system. Some
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72 reasons for this are: – Independent centers do not follow rigorous procedures due to inadequate

73 training – Equipment not subjected to periodic calibration by an independent authority – Lack of

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74 professionalism has led to malpractice – Tracking system of vehicles failing to meet norms. This

75 paper focuses on overview of the past and current emission control policies in India and
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76 suggested emission control to meet safety standards and fulfill the gap between the India and rest
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77 of the countries which are leading ahead like European countries and USA. In spite of the

78 dynamic role of the road sector in the global energy consumption and air emissions, the policy

79 environment of vehicles in India has been quite lethargic. For instance, the capital city of India,

80 Delhi has introduced time and again different policies like even-odd formula, time restriction,
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81 green tax and prohibition of freight vehicles older than 15 years, etc. Besides these policy

82 interventions, the benefits of these efforts remain questionable. Therefore, at present, there lies a

83 substantial scope of nationwide efforts through an improvement of vehicle emission standards

84 and fuel economy standards. Strict and timely implementation of these standards will

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85 consequently help to reduce fuel consumption, encourage technology advancements and reduce

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86 emissions.

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87 2. Briefing the policies

88 2.1. Past approach

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89 The ‘2003 - Auto Fuel Policy’ synchronized Indian regulations with those of Europe and
90 provides tighter fuel quality and emission standards towards the improved healthcare and with a
91 reduction of environmental effect. As of that, emission of particulate matter (PM10) and Nitrogen
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92 oxides (NOx) slowed down, even though the vehicle fleet became doubled during that time.
93 Around 21,500 untimely deaths were avoided due to the decrease in PM2.5 emissions (Bansal and
94 Bandivadekar, 2013a). One of the principal barriers to meet the most advanced European Union
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95 standard is sulfur content in fuel (Afionis and Stringer, 2012). In India, diesel has 350 ppm, and
96 petrol has 150 ppm of sulfur content in it. Transport sector contributes a significant share to
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97 environmental pollution (around 70%). Among these pollutants CO is the primary pollutant
98 coming from the transport sector, contributing 90% of the total emission. Hydrocarbons are next
99 to CO. Indian policies rely on two parallel standards - Bharat Stage-III (BS-III) and Bharat
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100 Stage-IV (BS-IV). BS-III (equivalent to Euro-3) was applied on most of the cities while BS-IV
101 was applied on mere 33 major cities having sulfur content for Diesel and Petrol limited to 50
102 ppm (Bansal and Bandivadekar, 2013a). This norm creates problem as it weakens the policy
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103 because vehicles have higher sulfur content fuel outside the BS-IV region and all Heavy-duty
104 vehicles are designed as per BS-III standards. One of the major problems with Indian fuel is
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105 adulteration, so new policies should ensure better quality of the fuel. Evaporative emissions are
106 needed to be addressed appropriately as it can become hazardous for the people nearby refueling
107 areas because fuel contains benzene. Innovation can provide a solution for this, like onboard
108 refueling vapor recovery (ORVR) systems and ethanol reformulated gasoline (Man et al., 2018).
109 Policies have significant effects on the emission of particulate matter. World class standards can
110 virtually eliminate PM2.5 – as implementation of Euro standards reduces 99% PM2.5/km from the
111 first implementation of Euro-1 (Bansal and Bandivadekar, 2013a). High emitting vehicles
112 account for a very small percentage of the total fleet, but they are responsible for larger portion
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113 of the pollution. These vehicles can be responsible for 50% of PM and carbon emission by 2020
114 (Kodjak, 2015; Yan et al., 2011). India has only 5% of the heavy-duty vehicle in the total fleet,
115 but those are responsible for 71% CO2 emission 74% particulate emission. According to current
116 regulations, India has been classified under group-II by the International Council on Clean
117 Transportation (ICCT). Groups were divided according to

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118 Table 1 (Kodjak, 2015).

119 According to the Global Burden of Diseases (GBD), the actual number of deaths in India was

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120 about 1.8 million in 2015. The expected number of deaths based on GDP in India was calculated

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121 to be 1.2 million. ICCT found that if India implements world class standards then annual PM and

122 NOx emission can be reduced up to 80% and annual Hydrocarbon and CO can be reduced up to

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123 68% and 78% respectively and over 280000 premature deaths can be avoided by 2030. Health
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124 benefits can be estimated to be US $ 700 billion- three times the cost of cleaner vehicle and low

125 sulfur fuel investment and can save 200 million metric tons of oil (~750 metric tons of CO2
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126 emission) (Bansal and Bandivadekar, 2013b).

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127
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Group Definition Countries

• Low sulfur fuels US, EU, Japan,

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Group I • World class standards Canada, South

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• Green Freight Program Korea

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• Low sulfur fuels planned India, Brazil, China,

Group II • World class standard is not available Russia, Australia,

Turkey
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• No low sulfur fuels South Africa,

Group III • No emission standard Indonesia, Saudi

Arabia

128

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129 Table 1 - Group, Definition, and Countries for clean fuel. (Kodjak, 2015)

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130 2.2. Bharat Stage-VI (The Present Approach)

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131

132 On February 19, 2016, Bharat Stage-VI (BS-VI) notification has been released by the Indian

133

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Ministry of Road Transport and Highways which will go into effect for vehicles which are
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134 manufactured after April 1, 2020. By this proposal, India leapfrogged BS-V and approved BS-VI

135 after BS-IV as BS-IV was implemented in 2017 nationwide. The proposed BS-VI standards are
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136 tightening the PM emission limit as well as introducing Particulate number (PN) limits for Heavy
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137 and light-duty vehicles, which is equivalent to the standards in Europe – likely to lead to more
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138 use of Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and tightening the in-service conformity test requirement.

139 According to BS-VI for Petrol, minimum Research Octane Number (RON) is 91, and minimum
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140 Motor Octane Number (MON) is 81 while as maximum oxygen is 2.7% by mass. For Diesel,

141 density must be 820 to 860 kg/m3 at 15 °C. Overview of these standards is given in subsequent
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142 sections.
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143 2.2.1. For Light Duty Vehicles

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145 Light duty vehicle is defined as the vehicle with gross vehicle weight of less than 3500 kg. This

146 category includes light-duty passenger and commercial vehicles. Standards are specified for
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147 Diesel and Petrol engines separately which are equivalent to Euro 6. NOX limit is reduced by

148 68% compared to BS-IV. PM reduction value ranges from 83% to 93%. Particulate number

149 emission is set to 6*1011/km – will force to use DPF. While as the emission of CO and

150 Hydrocarbon remains unchanged from the value of BS-IV. In-service conformity testing using

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151 Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMs) is the most significant change appears in BS-

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152 VI. This testing provides laboratory-based emission testing maintained through real driving

153 conditions – not provided in BS-VI proposal but specified in AIS 137 standards. It also includes

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154 more stringent OBD (On Board Diagnostics) and durability requirements - proposed in two

155 phases - preliminary OBD will apply on 2020 and final OBD on 2023 which is also equivalent to

156
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Euro 6 threshold limits. OBD systems will be required to operate for minimum 10% of the
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157 vehicle operating time. Overview of standards for LDV engines is given in Table 2.
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CO HC HC+NOx NOx PM PN
Engine Type
g/km /km
0.5 0.17 0.08 0.0045 6x1011
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CI Engine 0.63 - 0.195 0.105 0.0045 6x1011

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0.74 0.215 0.125 0.0045 6x1011

1 0.1 0.06 0.0045 6x1011
6x1011
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SI Engine 1.81 0.13 - 0.075 0.0045

2.27 0.16 0.082 0.0045 6x1011
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159 Table 2 : Emission Standards for LDV Engines in BS-VI.

160 Source: (India: Light-duty: Emissions n.d.)

161 2.2.2. For Heavy Duty Vehicles

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163 Heavy duty vehicle is a vehicle with a gross vehicle weight more than 3500 kg – responsible for

164 the most substantial amount of pollution in India (Bansal and Bandivadekar, 2013b). PM and

165 NOx limits followed the Euro 6 standards. PM is reduced by 50% and 67% from the BS-IV for

166 the steady state test – 8*1011/KWh and transient dynamometer test – 6*1011/KWh which will

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167 lead to use of DPF systems (Bansal and Bandivadekar, 2013a). It also includes improvement in

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168 laboratory testing standards used for type approval – European Steady State Cycle (ESC) and

169 European Transient Cycle (ETC) will be replaced by World Harmonized Stationary Cycle

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170 (WHSC) and World Harmonized Transient Cycle (WHTC). Similar to the case of the light-duty

171 vehicles, heavy-duty vehicles also have OBD which will be applied in two phases although there

172
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isn’t any set value for the PM in preliminary phase – but it is specified in AIS 137 standards.
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173 Emission limits for HDV engines for test cycles are given in Table 3.
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Test CO HC CH4 NOx PM PN

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g/km /km
WHSC(CI) 1.5 0.13 - 0.4 0.01 8x1011
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WHTC(CI) 4 0.16 - 0.46 0.01 6x1011

WHTC(PI) 4 0.16 0.5 0.46 0.01 6x1011
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175 Table 3: Emission limits for HDV in BS-VI.

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176 Source: (“India: Heavy-duty: Emissions,” n.d.)

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177 2.2.3. Two-Wheeled Vehicles

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179 The largest fleet of vehicles in India is of Two-Wheeled Vehicles. BS-VI standards are made for

180 Petrol and Diesel Engine Two-Wheeled vehicles – separate standards are also set for the Spark

181 Ignition (SI) engine (Petrol engine) less than 50 CC having maximum speed of 50 km/h. For
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182 class 1-3 SI vehicles CO, NOx and HC limits are equivalent to Euro 5. 70% to 80% reduction in

183 NOx can be seen in BS-VI as compared to BS-IV standards. Hydrocarbon limit is set to 0.1 g/km,

184 and NOx limit for Compression Ignition (CI) engine (Diesel engine) is 0.09 g/km. OBD and

185 Durability requirement is set according to Euro 5.

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186 2.2.4. Three-wheeled Vehicles

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187

188 Small goods carrier and rickshaw are the part of three-wheeled vehicles. These vehicles can use a

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189 variety of fuels like Diesel, Petrol and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). PM reduction is about

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190 44% for CI engine, and evaporative emission limit for petrol is 1.5 g/km. BS-VI also specifies
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191 OBD and Durability requirement – 35000 km. There will be no change in test cycles for

192 approval.
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Vehicle Engine Type CO HC NOx PM

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SI Engine 1 0.1 0.06 0.0045

Two Wheeled
CI Engine 0.5 0.1 0.09 0.0045
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SI Engine 0.44 0.35 0.085 -

Three Wheeled
CI Engine 0.22 0.1 0.1 0.025
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194
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195 Table 4: Emission Standards for 2 and 3 Wheeled Vehicle for BS-VI, g/km. (“India:

196 Motorcycles: Emissions,” n.d.)

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198 Table 5 and

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199 Table 6 show fuel quality requirement of BS-II, III, IV and VI for Petrol and Diesel respectively
200 (CPCB, 2010).

Characteristics Unit BS-II BS-III BS-IV BS-VI

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2001 (selected 2005 (selected 2010 (selected
2020*
Implementation date cities), 2005 cities), 2010 cities),2017
(nationwide)

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(nationwide) (nationwide) (nationwide)

Kg/m3

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Density 15°C 710-770 720-775 720-775 720-775

RON min 88 91 91 91/95†

MON min 84
U 81 81 81/85†
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Sulfur, max ppm 500 150 50 10
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Lead, max g/L 0.013 0.005 0.005 0.005

% 3 (metro), 5
Benzene, max 1 1 1
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volume (nationwide)
Aromatics, %
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- 42 35 35
max volume
%
21/18†
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Olefin, max - 21/18 21/18

volume
Oxygen %
- 2.7 2.7 2.7
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Content, max mass

Reid Vapour
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Pressure
kPa 35-60 60 60 60
(RVP) @
37.8ºC, max
*
Proposed implementation date, fuel quality
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†
Fuel quality specification for regular/ premium gasoline
201 Table 5 - Indian Gasoline Specification required meeting Bharat Stage II, III, & IV

202 Emission Norms.

Source: (“INDIA: FUELS: DIESEL AND GASOLINE,” n.d.)

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203

Characteristics Unit BS-II BS-III BS-IV BS-VI†

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2001 2005 2010
(selected (selected (selected

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Implementation date 2020↑(nationwide)
cities), 2005 cities), 2010 cities), 2017
(nationwide) (nationwide) (nationwide)

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Ash, max % mass 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
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Carbon Residue
(Rams bottom) on
% mass 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
10% residue, max
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Cetane Number
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- 48* 51 51 51
(CN), min
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Cetane Index
- 46* 46 46 46
(CI), min
Distillation 95%
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vol. Recovery at °C - 360 360 370

°C, max
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Flashpoint Abel,
°C 35 35 35 35
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min
Kinematic
Cst 2.0-5.0 2.0-5.0 2.0-4.5 2-4.5
Viscosity @ 40 °C
820-860
Density @ 15 °C Kg/m3 820-845 820-845 820-860
(820-870)*
Total Sulfur, max mg/kg 500 350 50 10
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Water content,
mg/kg 0.05% vol 200 200 200
max
Cold filter
plugging point
(CFPP)

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a) Summer, max °C 18 18 18 18
b) Winter, max °C 6 6 6 6

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Total
contaminations, mg/kg - 24 24 24

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max
Oxidation
g/mg3 - 25 25 25

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stability, max
Polycyclic
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Aromatic
% mass - 11 11 11
Hydrocarbon
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(PAH), max
Lubricity,
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corrected wear
µm
scar diameter 460 460 460 460
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(microns)
(wsd 1,4) @ 60 °C,
max
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Copper Strip
Not worse
corrosion for 3 Rating Class I Class I Class I
than No. 1
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hrs @ 50 °C
Notes:
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† Proposed fuel quality

↑
Proposed implementation date
† This limit is applicable prior to addition of ignition improvers if used. In case a value exceeding the
limit is obtained on finished fuels in the market, ASTM D 4046 / ISO 13759 shall be used to establish
the presence of nitrate containing the compound. In such case, the present limit for carbon residue cannot
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be applied. However, the use of ignition improver does not exempt the manufacturer from meeting this
requirement prior to the addition of additives.
*For diesel process from Assam crude, either CN of 45 min. or Cl of 43 min. and density of 820-870
shall be applicable
204

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205 Table 6 - Indian Diesel Specification required meeting Bharat Stage II, III, & IV Emission

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206 Norms.

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207 Source: (“INDIA: FUELS: DIESEL AND GASOLINE,” n.d.)

208

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209 3. Best Practices to meet norms

210
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211 The automotive industries estimate that additional 500 billion Indian rupees are required for

212 vehicle upgradation and oil companies will have to invest around 400 billion Indian rupees for
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213 making better fuel to jump from standards of BS-III and BS-IV to BS-VI (Shao et al., 2016).
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214 Companies have to concentrate on the possible aspects to reach standards as high as BS-VI. In

215 recent years, the increasing emission of greenhouse gases has led to climate change and an
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216 increase in entropy (Lathia et al., 2015), which has become a primary environmental concern.
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217 Strategies to overcome this problem include reducing or avoiding the use of fossil fuels as
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218 energy sources (Câmara et al., 2013) and how we develop a management approach towards the

219 emission control - not only for vehicular emissions but also for the other types of emissions like

220 Industrial, HVAC etc. (Lathia and Mistry, 2016a, 2016b) Success in protecting the environment

221 depends on triumph in achieving sustainable production and consumption. Our expectations

222 depend on how this aim is achieved (Barber, 2007). Since India is a vast nation with large
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223 vehicle fleet and higher running time, it is nearly impossible to make a significant decrease in

224 emission through 2020 manufactured vehicles without a reduction in vehicle use (Schipper,

225 2011). It is found that reduction in car usage cannot significantly decrease the emissions

226 (Graham-Rowe et al., 2011). So, the government has to develop some models for the emission

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227 control. There are some concepts for the vehicular programs to the cleaner environment like

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228 vehicle replacement, retrofit, and repowering programs. Automakers and government can use

229 any one of these programs or simultaneously all of them but only correctly arranged program

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230 will be helpful to lower the emission otherwise it will reflect like 'license to pollute' (Egenhofer,

231 2007). Local governments have had to build up multiple approaches which capitalize on the cost

232
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benefits of pollution prevention to implement budget saving measures to continue implementing
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233 and promoting pollution prevention initiatives (Lathia and Dadhaniya, 2017). In some cases,

these cost savings have supported additional pollution prevention initiatives. Examples of such
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235 programs and strategies comprise formation of regional partnerships; approval of Countywide
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236 policies requiring contribution by all departments; environmental knowledge for all workforce
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237 (Kiss et al., 2013; Lane and Potter, 2007); reinvesting savings from one into other environmental

238 programs; employee recognition programs; and establishing annual performance goals (Moss,
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239 2008).
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240 3.1. Vehicle Replacement

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241

242 Vehicle replacement program is designed to eliminate the full fleet of old higher emitting

243 vehicle and replace them with the newer lower emitting vehicle. Since, newer cars are always

244 driven more than older cars (Schipper, 2011), this program can be useful and produce a

245 significant effect. It is the most straightforward program among all existing programs. Newer
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246 vehicle must meet lower emissive standards, say BS-VI standards - can be electrical or hybrid

247 vehicle that enforces zero emission concept and leads to commercialization of that vehicle also

248 (Lee et al., 2011; Schot et al., 1994) – the best approach is fuel cell electric vehicle (Lathia,

249 2016; Lathia et al., 2017). Mandatory vehicle replacement programs need to be introduced by the

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250 government as voluntary based programs would not be effective for a large group of people.

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251 Replaced vehicle must be equipped with better quality of engine, tyre, and structure also.

252 Replaced vehicle must show lesser emission during the whole life cycle and real-world

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253 condition. Experience of China and Europe has demonstrated that heavy-duty vehicle at a low

254 speed in an urban area cannot meet required NOx emission standards (Lowell, D.; Kamakate,

255
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2012). So, the government has to strengthen the testing requirement for the replacement vehicle
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256 otherwise significant reduction cannot be achieved. Additional difficulties will be faced during

program design, implementation and management phases (Böttcher and Müller, 2016;
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258 Spangenberg et al., 2010). For implementation and design, policymaker must consider power
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259 requirement and average usage of the present and replaced vehicles and must become careful
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260 about giving subsidies. Usage profile of the vehicle can be useful to control over the application

261 of the vehicles (especially in India). The subsidy can be varied according to vehicle types, region
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262 or budget and should be revised periodically to optimize participation. The subsidy would be in a

263 decreasing manner within the time limit and vehicle manufacturing year, so people will try to
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264 replace their vehicle as early as possible and environment benefit can be achieved within a short
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265 period. The older vehicle should be awarded lower subsidies than the newer one so, the vehicle

266 can be replaced without hesitation of new car holders. Subsidies with air pollution charging fee

267 can decrease emission too (Jia et al., 2018). The government may need to support a low-interest

268 loan for the replacement program. One of the best approaches is to classify high and low
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269 emitting zone, within low emitting zone high emitting vehicles must be prohibited or permitted

270 with fees. Higher subsidies should be provided within the low emitting zone so that it will

271 encourage replacement of vehicles. Some of the best vehicle replacement program is described

272 as shown in

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273 Table 7.

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274

Replacement program Year Vehicle Specialty

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Carl Moyer – US 1999 All Mandatory and Higher Subsidies

Scrappage Bonus – Germany 2009 LDV Low Emission Zones

National Scrappage Program

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LDV +
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– China 2009 HDV Vehicle age limit
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Local Scrappage Program – LDV +

China 2008 HDV Vehicle age limit + Low Emission Zones

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Low emission Zones + Subsidies based on

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Swap your Truck – Chile 2009 HDV types of Vehicle

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276 Table 7 - Replacement Programs with targeted Vehicles and Speciality of the policies

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278 Vehicle replacement program for India (especially for HDV) is given by ICCT (Shao et al.,
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279 2016). Proposed replacement program can be applied on 1.4 to 2.8 million HDVs. According to

280 them, all vehicles have to be periodically registered as well as regular inspection and

281 maintenance testing is also required. The program has mandatory as well as voluntary

282 components. Vehicles less than 10 years old are labeled as green, 10 to 15 years labeled as
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283 yellow and more than 15 years old labeled as red. Red labeled vehicles that fail two times in a

284 row in Inspection and Maintenance test (I/M test) (which was first introduced in 1951 in Japan)

285 (Bauner, 2011) will not be able to get registration, and that leads to mandatory replacement

286 programs while as yellow and red labeled vehicles that pass I/M test will be eligible for

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287 voluntary based replacement programs. Given subsidies can be direct and indirect both. Direct

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288 subsidies will be in scrappage credit - direct cash, discount - and tax reduction - may become

289 more benefitted for both government and vehicle buyers (Irani and Chalak, 2015). Indirect

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290 subsidies will be in the form of I/M test waiver - 5-year test waiver for BS-VI vehicles - and in

291 driving limitations - free access to low emission zones - or others - parking privileges. This

292
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program can accelerate the rate of decreasing emission and provide very effective support to BS-
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293 VI norms. The recent study has found that a fuel price is vital factor for car use and emission

control than programs of fuel-efficient cars (Ryan et al., 2009) and authorities might find
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295 complexities in tax policies on fuel and car. Taxation on fuel led to four times more fuel saving
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296 and emission control than the same tax applied on the car (Johansson and Schipper, 1997;
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297 Sterner, 2007). So, policymakers have to be realized more about taxation on fuel than cars

298 (Montag, 2015).

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299
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300 3.2. Vehicle Retrofitting

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302 Unlike replacement programs, vehicle retrofitting doesn't offer advice to change the whole fleet;

303 it allows the vehicle to continue its work and increase usage cycle by installing additional

304 emission control systems like Catalytic and DPF systems. Since Policy always forces the

305 innovation - especially waste to resource innovation of the technology (Lee et al., 2010;
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306 Velenturf, 2016), this program can become more popular in recent years. It is more cost effective

307 and cheaper than vehicle replacements but required technology can become more complicated

308 due to the installment in an old vehicle. It might require different sizes of systems according to

309 types of the vehicle fleet. Most of the critics said that there is plenty of command and control

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310 abound (Jaffe et al., 2002). Some of them might agree that policies that are designed to command

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311 a certain level of performance beyond current technology, could be more proficient at providing

312 motivation to invest in industrial innovation (Ashford, 1993; Bauman et al., 2008; Jaffe et al.,

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313 2002; Lee et al., 2010; Montero, 2002) that boosts up not only retrofitting but also repowering.

314 Though it is nearly impossible for the government to replace the whole public transport fleet

315
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(requires lots of time and money), retrofitting is most suitable for public transport vehicles. Since
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316 retrofitted vehicles have to ensure durability requirement and it is challenging in older vehicles,

Lowell and Kamakate suggest retrofit programs only after the successful vehicle replacement
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317

318 program to avoid older vehicles (Lowell, D.; Kamakate, 2012). Retrofitting is mostly voluntary
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319 based and small-scale program because it requires more strict rules and policies. Some research
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320 suggests that catalytic converter technology is the only feasible technology which is capable of

321 reducing major pollutants likes NOx, HC, and CO (Mondt, 2000; Nill, J., Tiessen, 2005). The
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322 best retrofitting equipment can be described as following.

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323 3.2.1. ON-BOARD DIAGNOSTIC (OBD)

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324

325 India could take advantage of a key technology like On-board diagnostic (OBD) systems to

326 improve I/M process for vehicles meeting more stringent emission standards. OBD checks along

327 with the current test procedures can be implemented quickly and will lay the foundation for a

328 stronger, more effective program of inspection and maintenance in the future. OBD systems are a
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329 component of the electronic hardware installed in a vehicle. Electronic control units are included

330 in all modern vehicles to control a variety of functions, including fuel timing and the operation of

331 emission control devices (Atkinson, 2013). The OBD system processes readings from sensors in

332 the engine and the exhaust system to monitor and record the engine performance, fuel delivery

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333 system performance and functioning of the emission control system. This monitoring covers

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334 nearly all potential sources of excess vehicle emissions which are caused due to malfunctioning

335 of emission control components. Current OBD systems record faults and performance data in a

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336 standardized way and can provide technicians with this record via a diagnostic device that plugs

337 into an easily-accessed serial port, or the OBD port, which is standard to all vehicles (Chebli et

338
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al., 2013). The data downloaded from the OBD indicates whether the emission control system is
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339 functioning properly and furthermore it identifies the specific elements of the system that may be

malfunctioning. The simpler OBD I systems were introduced with BS III standards for new cars
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340

341 and trucks. The more comprehensive OBD II systems are required for cars and trucks meeting
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342 BS IV standards, and the proposed BS VI standards increase OBD II requirements.

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343 Complementing current I/M tests for vehicles with advanced emission control systems with OBD

344 checks introduces a relatively simple inspection process that addresses the shortcomings of
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345 current test procedures and brings India’s program more in line with international best practices

346 (Chebli et al., 2013).

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347 3.2.2. Closed coupled Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) & Diesel Particulate Filter

348 (DPF)

349

350 To meet BS-VI norms, some researcher might advise the engine only with Exhaust Gas

351 Recirculation (EGR) having higher EGR rate nearly 40%. To maintain the air-fuel ratio, high
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352 boost pressure is required - leads to use of variable geometry turbocharger. But the whole system

353 is demanding advanced cooling equipment. High pressure leads to offset in PM reduction partly,

354 but for further decrement, DPF will be required, so EGR only is not the solution of BS-VI. The

355 best solution is SCR concept that does not require EGR that leads to high fuel economy and low

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356 PM emission. BS-VI norms require about 95% of the NOx conversion capable SCR (Cloudt et

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357 al., 2009). High conversion led to cold start and low-temperature conditions during WHTC but

358 closed coupled SCR can improve NOx conversion without cold start because it is based on the

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359 addition of small volume SCR likely to lead rapid heat up.

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360

361 Figure 1: Closed Coupled SCR Catalyst

362 As shown in Figure 1, after cc SCR, one large SCR is mounted downstream to reduce NOx. SCR

363 is the best alternative to EGR whereas EGR+SCR based technology is used for low cost and low

364 emission (Cloudt et al., 2009). Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) lowers the PM emission. The
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365 BS-VI norms not only bound particulate emission by mass but also by particle number, which

366 enables the use of DPF as an important component for after-treatment process. The particulate

367 matter in the DPF reacts with the NO2 contained in the exhaust gas. Depending on the

368 combustion process concept and working point, this continuous regeneration ensures a reduction

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369 in soot emission.

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370 3.3. Vehicle Repowering

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371

372 Vehicle repowering includes change and replacement of engine as well as emission control

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373 devices of the existing vehicle and sometimes changes in fuel type also. It is also a volunteer-
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374 based program. It may be considered as cost-effective for custom vehicles with specialized

375 equipment compared to retrofitting and replacement programs. It requires complex technology
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376 because of the generation gap between the engine and the existing system. Technology plays a

377 significant role in this program - as the efficiency of the engine increases, the engine burns less
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378 fuel and produces less emission. The main response of the automobile industry to this program so
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379 far has been the incremental improvement of energy efficiency of conventional internal

380 combustion engines (Köhler et al., 2013). Thus, engine efficiency improvement will result in
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381 environmental benefits. HDV has a significant effect on emission control and technology-driven
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382 forces so HDV must be taken into consideration (It can also affect the estimation of emission to
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383 the larger extent) (Frondel et al., 2011). Here are some of the probable area by which fuel

384 consumption and reduction in emission will occur through 2025-2030 for HDV diesel engines

385 that could be benefited for BS-VI vehicle.

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386 3.3.1. Optimization of combustion

387 Most of the losses in the engine occur in combustion process which results in high enthalpy

388 exhaust leading to the high conversion of emission because the high temperature causes more

389 conversion of HC. So, optimization of combustion will contribute in less enthalpy and less heat

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390 transfer losses. Thus, low-temperature combustion is admirable and for that, the several things to

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391 be satisfied are higher pressure injection, improved atomization, improved compression ratio,

392 and insulation improvement. These will lead to 2 to 4 % of less consumption and relative

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393 reduction of HC and NOx similar to that amount. (Edwards and Wagner, 2012; Lutsey et al.,

394 2014; Thiruvengadam et al., 2014)

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395 3.3.2. Friction

396 Contact of piston and cylinder, bearings and valves are subjected to friction which increases with
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397 speed and torque. Lessening the friction leads to less use of the cooling system and the increase

398 in work gain. It may be difficult to achieve this because this specification requires design
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399 optimization of piston-cylinder design or can be achieved by low viscous fluid and metal coating
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400 of the cylinder or piston with low friction material. It will result in 0.5 to 2% decrease in exhaust

401 and fuel consumption. (Edwards and Wagner, 2012; Lutsey et al., 2014; Thiruvengadam et al.,
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402 2014)
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403 3.3.3. Downsizing & Downspeeding of the Engine

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404 Vehicle improvements that decrease the road load power requirements shift to lower efficiency

405 regions. Replacing the engine with an engine with lower displacement, higher torque, and higher

406 power can force the engine to function at higher loads resulting in the high-efficiency engine.

407 Reducing the load will result in the lower displacement of the piston and higher power and

408 produce 1 to 4.5 % less emission and fuel consumption (Lutsey et al., 2014; Thiruvengadam et
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409 al., 2014). Downspeeding allows the lower friction losses and better thermal efficiency. One

410 thing is noted that torque must increase by downspeeding to keep power constant. It reduces

411 around 2 to 3% in emission and fuel consumption. (Stanton, 2013)

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412 3.3.4. Controls & Accessories

413 Numerous controls of the engine like intake and exhaust systems, injection, and thermal

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414 insulation can be a significant area for optimization of the engine. The perfectly calibrated

415 controller can reduce 1 to 4 % of emission and fuel consumption (Atkinson, 2013; Lutsey et al.,

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416 2014; Thiruvengadam et al., 2014). Accessories like oil & water pumps, fan, compressor and

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417 power steering create an extra amount of load on the system. Thus an improvement in design,
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418 use of inertia and variable flow pump concept can reduce emissions to 0.5 to 4 % and save fuel

419 near to that amount (Kies et al., 2013; Lutsey et al., 2014).
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420 3.3.5. Turbocharger & Turbo compounding

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421 A turbocharger uses the exhaust gas to increase intake pressure and efficiency, so it can

422 contribute to reducing losses of pumping, coolant, and exhaust. Asymmetric turbocharger
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423 systems and Variable Geometry Turbocharger can become useful for further functioning
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424 requirement and reduction of 1 to 5 % of emission can be achieved (Chebli et al., 2013). Unlike

425 turbo-charging, turbo compounding uses the exhaust gas to run crankshaft or store electricity in
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426 the storage unit. Utilization of these systems can reduce 0.5 to 5 % of emission. (Lutsey et al.,
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427 2014; Thiruvengadam et al., 2014)

428 3.3.6. Utilization of Exhaust Gases

429 Utilization of exhaust is being done by waste heat recovery i.e. converting the heat of exhaust

430 into mechanical work. Most famous Rankine cycle heat recovery system can reduce the load on

431 the system and emission from 2 to 8 % (Lutsey et al., 2014; Thiruvengadam et al., 2014). Some
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432 after treatment processes of exhaust like SCR and DPF improvement can reduce 2 to 4 % of

433 emission. (Atkinson, 2013)

434 3.3.7. Water in diesel emulsion

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435 The concentration of NOx can be reduced by the water in diesel emulation because of the high

436 latent heat capacity of the water particle will result in lower temperature. Around 20 to 35% of

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437 the reduction in NOx had been found in many recent studies (Farfaletti et al., 2005; Park et al.,

438 2012; Samec, 2002; Vellaiyan and Amirthagadeswaran, 2016). Soot emission can be reduced by

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439 81% by water in diesel emulsion (Ochoterena et al., 2010). Although incomplete combustion will

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440 lead to increase in CO and HC emission (Cui et al., 2009; Subramanian, 2011), some researchers
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441 may find a reduction in these emissions due to the micro-explosive phenomenon (Attia and

442 Kulchitskiy, 2014). This topic may be contradictory to some researchers so, more research is
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443 needed.
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444 4. Conclusion
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445

446 This paper presented and evaluated some programs which can be implemented in India for the
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447 bettwe emission policy. The best practices and experience presented here are intended to serve as
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448 guidelines for policymakers to consider when developing vehicle programs. Simultaneous use of
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449 all 3 approaches – Replacement, Repowering, and Retrofitting - is suitable in case of India but

450 the implementation of any one program cannot improve vehicle emission problem significantly.

451 Mentioned three practices for controlling the emission can be proven as the best practices not

452 only for India but for any developing country seeking changes in vehicular emissions. Mandatory

453 one, Vehicle Replacement program can only be used for an older vehicle (necessary in India) and
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454 it can reduce the significant amount of emission. Through the government policies, relaxation in

455 taxes, testing facilities, emission zones, this program can become the heart of India's vehicle

456 emission programs. Vehicle retrofitting program can be used for the vehicles which are not very

457 old but have fewer technologies that control emission. The best approach is to mount On-Board

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458 Diagnostics (OBD), Closed Coupled Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) & Diesel Particulate

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459 Filter (DPF) on the vehicle. Vehicle repowering is more closely related to technological

460 advancement than the other two programs. The proposed ways of modifications can achieve

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461 around 0.5 to 8% of the reduction in fuel usage and emission. It is clear that one successful

462 program cannot reduce sufficient emission through its lifecycle. For the better results, all three

463
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programs must go simultaneously. To maximize the benefits, all programs must include the
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464 following proposals.

•
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465 Replacement vehicles or technologies should be as emission free as possible.

466 • Economic incentives should be carefully improved to maximize both environmental

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467 benefits and cost-effectiveness.

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468 • There should be simultaneous use of all three programs – Replacement, Retrofitting and

469 Repowering.
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470 • Policies with additional incentives such as low emission zones can be helpful to achieve

471 emission goal much faster.

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472 • Enlisted areas where progression is needed must be encouraged by the government as
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473 well as private sectors (mainly for Research).

474 5. Acknowledgments
475
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476 The Authors are grateful to Mandar Patil, Siddharth Sharma, Himraj Bhagawati and Rahul Jha

477 for their valuable suggestions on the editing of this article as well as for proof-reading. We thank

478 the Editor and five Anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments, which helped us to

479 improve this article.

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480 6. References
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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Policy Norms and Proposed ways to

achieve goals of Indian Vehicle
Emission Program

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Rutvik Lathia

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corresponding author

Chandubhai S Patel Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, CHARUSAT

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University, Changa, India.
+919428427315
rutviklathia@gmail.com

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Sujal Dadhaniya
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Chandubhai S Patel Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, CHARUSAT

University, Changa, India.
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