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Saha 2013
Saha 2013
Saha 2013
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: In this paper, we design a model-based fault diagnosis scheme capable of real time detection of symmet-
Received 7 January 2012 rical and unsymmetrical faults in the transmission/distribution network of a sample power system com-
Received in revised form 30 August 2012 prising a single-machine connected to an infinite bus-bar. A generic state space linear model of the
Accepted 6 September 2012
system is first derived, and then a fault diagnosis scheme is designed, based on sliding mode observer
Available online 17 October 2012
(SMO) theory. Accuracy and real-time fault detection capabilities of the proposed fault diagnosis scheme
are illustrated through simulation studies.
Keywords:
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault
Fault diagnosis
Model based fault detection
Sliding mode observer
1. Introduction Traditional Relay based methods use the changes in voltage and
current (magnitudes and phase angles), active and reactive powers,
Power systems are large-scale systems consisting of generating system frequency, etc. to detect the occurrence of a fault [2].
units interlinked by transmission and distribution networks. Among the different kinds of relays the most commonly used
Faults, mostly unsymmetrical, occur frequently in the lines of these one for transmission/distribution line fault analysis is the imped-
networks. Such faults can cause significant disruption of power ance relay. The relay has an imbedded algorithm to extract the
supply and may destabilise an entire system if not detected and fundamental frequencies of measured voltage and current, from
isolated in near real-time. Real-time detection of faults is necessary which it determines the apparent impedance seen from its end.
to allow for the protection system to isolate the faulty line(s) This is then compared with a preset threshold in order to deter-
before major stability problems arise and disruptions to the power mine whether or not a fault has occurred. The main shortcomings
supply occur. Thus detection of faults is of a paramount impor- of such an approach are: (i) in severe faults such as those involving
tance from economic and operational view points. short circuit of lines to ground, the calculation of fundamental fre-
Power system transmission/distribution networks extend over quency component of the voltage and current signals may be unre-
large geographical areas to ensure power supply to distant loca- liable, which may lead to incorrect fault diagnosis, (ii) delays in
tions. They experience frequent short circuit faults due to light- response time may cause stability problems, especially rotor
ning, bush fire, physical damage to structure of towers carrying stability. In extreme cases (severe short circuit faults near major
the transmission lines, external object coming in contact with generation centres) delays may lead to blackouts, and (iii) accuracy
the lines, insulation damage, etc. Statistics show [1] that almost is usually below the desired 99% plus limit.
fifty percent of power system faults occur in the transmission Knowledge based fault detection [3–16] utilises prior knowledge
and distribution networks. Short circuit faults in these networks of the system quantities (voltages and currents and waveforms)
result in heavy currents being drawn by the faulty lines, which under different fault and system operating conditions. This knowl-
may cause significant damage to the lines and to other components edge is then used to train a learning system to identify abnormal
connected to them. For this reason fast and accurate fault detection conditions and classify them. Methods such as Artificial Neural Net-
and identification of such faults have received a lot of attention work [8,9,11–16], Fuzzy theory [6], Fuzzy Neural Network [5], and
from the research community over the past 3 decades. A summary Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems [9], have widely been used
of the main reported approaches is given below. for fault analysis in power systems. The above referenced
approaches however suffer from the following limitations: (i) the
dynamics of the excitation and speed governing systems are lar-
⇑ Corresponding author. gely ignored. As these are integral parts of any generating unit of
E-mail addresses: s.saha@student.unimelb.edu.au (S. Saha), aldeen@unimelb. power systems they have significant impact on the shape and
eu.au (M. Aldeen), tan.chee.pin@monash.edu (C.P. Tan). magnitude of three phase voltages and currents under fault
0142-0615/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2012.09.005
S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263 253
Nomenclature
ð1Þ ð1Þ
wd ; wq d and q axis flux linkages corresponding to positive se- v ð2Þ
QN negative sequence component of the stator voltage in QN
quence stator component axis of DN QN co-ordinate
ð1Þ
id ; ið1Þ
q d and q axis stator currents corresponding to positive DN QN co-ordinate rotates in negative sequence direction at
sequence stator component synchronous speed
v ð1Þ
d
ð1Þ
; vq d and q axis stator terminal voltage corresponding to R(2), L(2) resistance and inductance of negative sequence stator
positive sequence stator component circuit
ð1Þ ð0Þ
wf field winding flux linkage corresponding to positive se- IR zero sequence component of the stator current in real
quence stator component axis of zero sequence component
ð0Þ
ð1Þ ð1Þ
wD ; wG ; wQ
ð1Þ
damper winding flux linkages corresponding to II zero sequence component of the stator current in imag-
positive sequence stator component inary axis of zero sequence component
ð0Þ
ð1Þ
if field winding flux current corresponding to positive se- VR zero sequence component of the stator voltage in real
quence stator component axis of zero sequence component
ð0Þ
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
iD ; iG ; iQ damper winding current linkages corresponding to VI zero sequence component of the stator voltage in imag-
positive sequence stator component inary axis of zero sequence component
r per unit resistance of the stator winding R(0), L(0) resistance and inductance of zero sequence stator cir-
rf per unit resistance of the field winding cuit
rD, rQ, rG per unit resistances of the damper windings d; d_ load angle and speed deviation respectively
ð2Þ Pm mechanical power input to the synchronous machine
iDN negative sequence component of the stator current in DN
axis of DN QN co-ordinate 0 initial value of any variable
ð2Þ
iQN negative sequence component of the stator current in QN Subscript R and I represents real and imaginary components
axis of DN QN co-ordinate
v ð2Þ
DN negative sequence component of the stator voltage in DN
axis of DN QN co-ordinate
conditions, (ii) synchronous machine models used in the above ref- after the occurrence of the fault. These types of faults are in con-
erenced approaches are simplified lower order models which do trast to mechanical faults such as fatigues, for example, which take
not describe the complete dynamics of the system and thus accu- a long time, possibly days or months, to evolve. We then design a
racy is an issue, and (iii) the above approaches require a large fault detection scheme based around the theory of robust sliding
amount of sampled signals (voltages/currents or both) after the mode observer (SMO). It is well known that SMO allows for mod-
occurrence of the fault. This may cause large delays due to the time elling as well parametric uncertainties, which power systems are
required to acquire the signals plus the time required to process routinely subject to, and thus provides a more practical design out-
them. Such time delays may render such approaches unsuitable come than other methods. We formulate the fault detection prob-
for real-time application. lem as an LMI optimisation problem, the solution to which
Model Based fault detection approaches have been applied to a provides the necessary information to construct the fault signal
variety of engineering systems over the last a few of decades on line and in real time.
[17–27] because of their online fault detection capability. These The rest of the paper is organised as follows. In Section 2 we will
approaches are based on the generation of a residual signals (using present linear fault dependent state space model of the example
observer theory) that reflect the difference between the actual and Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) power system, where the fault
estimated values of the output as an indicator of fault occurrence. signals appear affinely in the state equation, which is the main
Such approaches require comprehensive fault dependent state requirement for the design of model based fault detectors. Then
space models of the system under study [28]. Even though model in Section 3 we provide an overview of sliding mode observer
based fault detection approaches have been successfully imple- (SMO) theory to be followed by the design of a SMO based fault
mented in aerospace industry [26,27], chemical industry [24] for detection scheme in Section 4. Validation of online fault detection
on line fault detection, a very few model based fault detection ap- ability of the designed fault detector is presented through compre-
proaches have been reported in the open literature that adequately hensive simulation studies of different fault scenarios in Section 5.
deal with the problem of unsymmetrical fault detection in power Finally we conclude the paper in Section 6.
system transmission/distribution lines; note that the model based
power system fault detection approaches reported in [17–21] deal
2. State space model of power system
only with symmetrical faults. The main reason behind the absence
of progress in this area of application may be attributed to the lack
In this section we present for the first time a comprehensive
of development of fault dependent state space models suitable for
fault (symmetrical and unsymmetrical)-dependent state space
use in existing model-based fault detection design theory.
model for the SMIB power system depicted in Fig. 1. The model
In this paper we first derive a linear dynamical fault-dependent
model of the power system incorporating any type of symmetrical
and unsymmetrical faults in the transmission/distribution net- Infinite Bus
work. The derived model is capable of capturing the full dynamics Transmission Line 1
of the system over all time scales and thus is suitable for fault stud-
GU
ies of any kind, we focus in this paper on the most sever types of Transmission Line 2
faults that can be experienced in any power transmission/distribu- η
tion network, which are short circuit faults. These faults present a Fault
challenge because of the time scale involved; they need to be
detected and acted upon within 2–3 cycles, or around 40–60 ms Fig. 1. Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) power system.
254 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263
is unique, comprehensive and accurate which describes the SMIB Combining Eqs. (4) and (7) the final output equation is now ex-
power system behaviour under normal and any symmetrical and pressed as
unsymmetrical fault conditions. The accuracy is manifested in
y ¼ C x x þ C i Linv erse x þ Ey f ¼ ðC x þ C i Linv erse Þx þ Ey f ¼ Cx þ Ey f ð8Þ
the inclusion of rotor and stator dynamics in full before, during
and after the fault (symmetrical and unsymmetrical). Literature State space model derived above (Eqs. (6) and (8)) will be used to
search will show that such a state space model has not been re- design a sliding mode observer based fault detector. A brief over-
ported in the open literature before. view of sliding mode observer theory is presented in the following
Referring to Appendix A and combining the generating unit’s section.
linear dynamic equations (A.1)–(A.11), (A.15) and (A.16) with the
generic fault dependent network equations (A.17)–(A.23), a linear
fault dependent state equation for the SMIB power system can be 3. Sliding mode observer theory
expressed as follows
An observer is a mathematical model of any system capable of
x_ ¼ Ax x þ Ai I þ Bu þ Ex f ð1Þ estimating the states of that system, which are usually not avail-
where x is the state vector, u is the reference input vector, I is the able in real systems due to inaccessibility or infeasibility. In tradi-
current vector and f is the fault vector, defined as follows tional Luenberger observers [29], the difference between the actual
system output and the observer output (termed as the output esti-
x ¼ ½xw xd xex xgov xnegseq xzeroseq T mation error) is linearly fed back into the observer so that it can
h i
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ _ xex ¼ ½V R V A EFD V F ; adjust the output to follow that of the actual system. In sliding
xw ¼ wd wf wD wqð1Þ wG wQ ; xd ½d d;
h i h i mode observers, the output estimation error is fed back through
ð2Þ ð2Þ ð0Þ ð0Þ
xgov ¼ ½Pm P GV PSR ; xnegseq ¼ iDN iQ N ; xzeroseq ¼ IR II ; a nonlinear discontinuous term. Different sliding mode observer
h iT may be found in the literature, such as Utkin observer [30],
I ¼ id if iD iq iG iQ 0113 ; u ¼ ½V ref P ref T ; f ¼ ½fSLG f LLG f 3P T
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
Walcott–Zak observer [31] and Edwards–Spurgeon observer [32].
A brief overview of the Edwards et al. observer based fault recon-
The elements of matrices Ax 2 R1919 ; Ai 2 R1919 ; B 2 R192 and struction [33] approach is given in the following, and will be used
Ex 2 R193 are given in Appendix B. in this paper for fault detection.
Let the output variables be defined as Consider a dynamic system:
y ¼ ½d d_ T a jV a j jV b j jV c jT ð2Þ _
xðtÞ ¼ AxðtÞ þ BuðtÞ þ Ef ðtÞ
ð9Þ
where d represents the load angle, d_ is the speed deviation (both (d yðtÞ ¼ CxðtÞ
_ are state variables), Ta is the accelerating torque, jVaj, jVbj, jVcj
and dÞ where A 2 Rnn ; B 2 Rnm ; C 2 Rpn ; E 2 Rnq ; f 2 Rq ; p P q and pair
are the magnitudes of generating unit terminal phase voltages. The ðA; CÞ is assumed to be observable. f 2 Rq is the fault signal. Assume,
expressions for Ta and jVaj, jVbj, jVcj are given in Appendix C. without loss of generality, that the matrices C and E are full rank
From flux-current relationship we can write and the fault function f 2 Rq is unknown but bounded so that
h iT h iT
ð1Þ
id if
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
iD iq iG iQ
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
¼ L1 wd wf wD wqð1Þ wG wQ
ð1Þ
ð3Þ kf k 6 kaðt; y; uÞk ð10Þ
a(t, y, u) is a known function or a constant.
where
2 3
Ld Lad Lad 0 0 0 Theorem 1 [32]. If the following conditions are satisfied
6 L Lf Lad 0 0 0 7
6 ad 7
6 7 (i) rankðCEÞ ¼ rankðEÞ ¼ q; and
6 Lad Lad LD 0 0 0 7
L¼6
6 0
7 (ii) the zeros of ðA; E; CÞ (if any) are stable,then for the state-space
6 0 0 Lq Laq Laq 7
7 model described by (9) there exists a change of coordinates such
6 7
4 0 0 0 Laq LG Laq 5 that the triple ðA; E; CÞ can be re-written as:
0 0 0 Laq Laq LQ
A11 A12 0
Thus the current vector I may be written as a function of states x as A¼ ; E¼ ; C ¼ ½0 T;
A21 A22 M2
follows ð11Þ
0
I ¼ Linv erse x ð4Þ M2 ¼
Mo
where for the SMIB power systems
where A11 2 R , matrix T 2 Rpp is orthogonal, M2 2 Rpq ,
ðnpÞðnpÞ
" # qq
½L1 66 ½0613 and M o 2 R is invertible. Any unobservable modes of (A11, A21)
Linv erse ¼ ð5Þ are the invariant zeros of ðA; E; CÞ and are stable. Full proof is given
½0136 ½01313 1919 in [32].
By combining Eqs. (1) and (4) the final state equation is written as
A sliding mode observer [32] for the system (9) that is able to
x_ ¼ Ax x þ Ai Linv erse x þ Bu þ Ex f ¼ ðAx þ Ai Linv erse Þx þ Bu þ Ex f
reconstruct the fault f has been shown to have the following
¼ Ax þ Bu þ Ex f ð6Þ structure
It has been proven in [32] that a sliding motion will take place in ey
meq ¼ q ð22Þ
finite time on the surface Se ¼ fey ¼ e_ y ¼ 0g if the following condi- key k þ n
tions hold:
and n is a small positive scalar that governs the degree of accuracy
Condition (i): there exists a matrix P with the structure of meq [33]. Note that once sliding motion is achieved and main-
tained fe ? f as shown in [33].
P11 P11 L
P¼ >0 ð14Þ
LT P 11 T T Po T þ LT P11 L 4. Design of fault detector
where In this section, we design a fault detector for the SMIB power
system developed in Section 2 using SMO theory overviewed in
P11 2 RðnpÞðnpÞ ; L ¼ ½Lo 0; Lo 2 RðnpÞðpqÞ Section 3 and power system data given in Appendix F.
Using the system data in the state and output equation will
that satisfies the following inequality show that the fault distribution matrix Ey in the output Eq. (8)
has full column rank q = 3. Thus there exists an orthogonal matrix
PðA Gl CÞ þ ðA Gl CÞT P < 0 ð15Þ T r 2 R66 such that
Condition (ii): The scalar q in the switching function m satisfies
0 y1 C1
the following inequality T r Ey ¼ ; Try ¼ ; TrC ¼ ð23Þ
Ey2 y2 C2
q > kPo TM2 k kf k ð16Þ
where Ey2 is a square and invertible matrix, and C1 and C2 are gen-
Based on the above development, the parameters that need to be eral matrices with no particular structure. For this system the trans-
designed to achieve fault detection are the positive scalar q, gain formation matrix has been found to be
Gl and Gn (see Eqs. (12) and (13)). In [34] the gain matrix Gn is
2 3
shown to have the following structure 0:5773 0:4235 0:6981 0 0 0
" # 6 0:5773 0:3929 0:7158
6 0 0 0 7
7
LT T 6 7
Gn ¼ P1
o ð17Þ 6 0:5774 0:8163 0:0177
6
0 0 0 7
7
TT Tr ¼ 6 ð24Þ
6 0 0 0 0:0177 0:7158 0:6981 7
7
6 7
4 0 0 0 0:8163 0:3929 0:4235 5
Now a statement of the design process [34] is given as follows
0 0 0 0:5774 0:5773 0:5773
Minimise trace(X) subject to the following inequalities: Pre-multiplying (8) with T r and partitioning conformably with (23)
yields
1
PA þ AT P C T V C þ PWP < 0 ð18Þ
y1 ¼ C 1 x ð25Þ
P In
<0 ð19Þ y2 ¼ C 2 x þ Ey2 f ð26Þ
In X
As shown in Eq. (8) the fault signal appears in the output equation
of the SMIB power system, therefore the SMO-based fault detector
P11 P 12
where P ¼ ; P 12 ¼ ½P 121 0; P 121 2 RðnpÞðpqÞ . The matrices in Section 3 cannot be applied directly to it. To overcome this minor
PT12 P 22
P11, P121, P22, X are variables to be solved, and they are all symmetric problem, we define a stable output filter driven by y2 as follows
except for P121. This set of matrix inequalities can be solved using y_ f ¼ Af yf þ Af y2 ¼ Af yf þ Af C 2 x þ Af Ey2 f ð27Þ
standard commercially available software such as the Robust Con-
trol toolbox in Matlab. Let for simplicity be chosen to be Af = Iq, where Iq is an identity ma-
After solutions for P11, P121, P22, X are obtained, the following are trix with dimension q = 3. Then by combining Eqs. (6), (8), (25) and
calculated (27) the following augmented state space system of order
¼ n þ q ¼ 19 þ 3 ¼ 22 is obtained.
n
Lo ¼ P1
11 P 121 " #
1 T 1 x_ A 0 x B Ex
Gl ¼ P C V ð20Þ ¼ þ uþ f
y_ f Af C 2 Af yf 0 Af Ey2
Po ¼ T P22 PT12 P1 T |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflfflfflffl
ffl {zfflfflfflffl
ffl }
11 P 12 T
x_ x
A Ex
" # " # ð28Þ
Consequently Gn is be calculated as shown in (17). y1 C1 0 x
¼
The matrices W and V are designer chosen weighting matrices yf 0 Iq yf
|fflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflffl}
and are symmetric positive definite. They are used to systemati- z
C
x
2 3
0:08I16 0163 0163 and accelerating torque Ta do not contain the fault signals. Thus
6 7 output estimation error is small and convergence is fast, see insets
W ¼ 4 0316 0:08I3 033 5; V ¼ 0:2I6 ð29Þ
0316 033 0:08I3 in Figs. 2–4. On the other hand the expressions of jVaj, jVbj, jVcj con-
tain the fault signal and thus will only converge after convergence
the gains ðGn 2 Rnq¼226 ; Gl 2 Rnq¼226 Þ are calculated as shown in of the fault signal. For this reason the initial estimation error takes
Appendix F. In the design process, the scalar parameters q and n relatively longer time to decay to zero.
associated with the nonlinear switching term are chosen as 900 Responses t = 10 25 s: Once the excitation system reference
and 0.01 respectively. Vref is increased by 5% of its nominal value at t = 10 s the excitation
system reacts by increasing the field winding voltage of the
5. Simulation and case study synchronous machine. This causes the terminal voltage of the
synchronous machine to increase by 5% as shown in Figs. 5–7. With
Now we investigate the performance of the SMO based fault the increase in terminal voltage the terminal power increases and
detector designed in Section 4. We consider the following chain thus the accelerating torque becomes negative. As a consequence
of events: (i) from time t = 0 10 s the SMIB system runs unper- the speed of the machine decreases and the load angle slips back.
turbed, (ii) at t = 10 s the reference of the excitation system (Vref) Since the synchronous machine is connected to the infinite bus
is increased by 5% of its nominal value, (iii) the governor system the speed must be synchronised with the bus in order to maintain
reference (Pref) is increased by 5% of its nominal value at time stability. This is achieved by the action of the speed governing sys-
t = 25 s, (iv) the SMIB system experiences SLG fault in phase a of tem, which opens the steam control valve and thus allows addi-
the transmission line 2 at time t = 50 s at a location half way along tional mechanical power to be injected into the rotor of the
the transmission line, (v) fault is cleared at time t = 70 s, (vi) once synchronous machine. The adjustment in the mechanical torque
the fault is cleared the SMIB system remains unperturbed till time will continue until equilibrium is attained as shown Fig. 4. Once
t = 100 s, (vii) at time t = 100 s the SMIB system experiences LLG equilibrium is achieved the speed is restored to its pre-disturbance
fault in phase b, phase c and ground of the transmission line 2 at value (speed deviation settles to zero) as shown in Fig. 3. Conse-
a location half way along the transmission line, (viii) fault is quently, the load angle stops slipping back further and reaches a
cleared at time t = 130 s. new state as shown in Fig. 2.
Initially the SMIB system is running in unperturbed condition As the observer states have already converged to the actual sys-
and hence the initial states of the linear SMIB system are zeros. tem states, the estimation of the outputs by the designed observer
The initial conditions of the sliding mode observer are chosen arbi- Figs. 2–7 (dotted lines) exactly match the actual outputs. From
trarily as follows (the governor and exciter systems are assumed to Fig. 8 it may be seen that the designed fault detector does not re-
remain in equilibrium): spond to the change in excitation system reference Vref, which is
expected.
^0 ¼ ½:01 :02 :03 :05 :02 :01 :002 :001 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0T
x Responses t = 25 50 s: Following the 5% step increase in gover-
nor reference Pref, the mechanical power input to the machine in-
The estimated system outputs (dotted lines) superimposed on the creases. This will cause the accelerating torque to be positive. As
actual system output (solid lines) are shown in Figs. 2–7. Estimation a consequence the speed and load angle increase. As the synchro-
of the fault signals (solid lines) and the actual fault signals (dotted nous machine is connected to the infinite bus the speed must be
lines) are shown in Fig. 8 superimposed on each other. decreased to maintain synchronism with the bus as shown in
As shown in Figs. 2–7 during time period t = 0 10 s the system Fig. 3. Consequently the accelerating torque settles back to zero
remains unperturbed (in equilibrium). Since initially the observer as shown in Fig. 4. However, the load angle settles to a new steady
states are different from the actual system a small mismatch (see state (Fig. 2) to absorb the increase in additional mechanical power
insets) exists between actual and estimated outputs. Once the ob- input in the form of stored kinetic energy.
server states converge to the actual system states the estimated Since there is no change in the excitation system reference, the
outputs as well as the fault signal converge to their true values. change in the terminal voltages is negligibly small as shown in
Responses t = 0 10 s: It may be noticed from Eq. (8) and the Figs. 5–7. It may be seen from the Figs. 2–7 that the estimates of
structure of output distribution matrix Ey (Appendix D) that the the output quantities by the observer following the step increase
expressions of output quantities load angle d, speed deviation d_ in Pref matches exactly the actual output of the system. From
0.05
Actual Output
0 Estimated Output using SMO
Initial mismatch between
actual and estimated
-4
x10 load angle
-0.05 10
5
Load Angle
-0.1
0
-0.15 -5
0 0.5 1
Time (Sec) -3
x 10
-0.2
-0.25
-0.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (Sec)
Fig. 2. Load angle (d) response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).
S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263 257
0.2
0.15
Actual Output
Estimated Output using SMO
0.1
Initial mismatch between
Speed Deviation actual and estimated
0.05 x 10
-4 speed deviation
15
0 10
5
-0.05 0
-5
-0.1 0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (Sec) x 10
-4
-0.15
-0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (sec)
_ response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).
Fig. 3. Speed deviation ðdÞ
2
Actual output
Estimation of output using SMO
1.5
Initial mismatch between
1 actual and estimated
accelerating torque
Accelerating Torque
0.02
0.5
0
0 -0.02
-0.04
0 0.5 1
-0.5 Time (Sec) x 10-9
-1
-1.5
-2
Fig. 4. Accelerating torque (Ta) response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).
0.8
Magnitude of Phase 'a' terminal voltage
Actual Output
0.6 Estimation of output using SMO
Initial Mismatch between
actual and estimated
0.4 magnitude of
phase 'a' terminal voltage
0.2 0.5
0
0
-0.5
0 5
-0.2 Time (Sec)
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (Sec)
Fig. 5. Magnitude of phase a terminal voltage of generator (Va) response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).
258 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263
0.6
Actual Output
0 0
-0.5
-0.2 0 5
Time (Sec)
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (Sec)
Fig. 6. Magnitude of phase b terminal voltage of generator (Vb) response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).
0.6
Actual Output
magnitude of phase 'c' terminal voltage
-0.2 -0.5
0 5
Time (Sec)
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (Sec)
Fig. 7. Magnitude of phase c terminal voltage of generator (Vc) response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).
Fig. 8 it may be seen that the designed fault detector does not re- the fault signal resets itself to zero signifying the fact that the fault
spond to the change in speed governor system reference input Pref, is no longer there (cleared). Note also that the fault has been recon-
which is expected. structed in its entirety, and thus may be used for subsequent
Responses t = 50 70 s: As the SMIB system experiences a SLG analysis or control design.
fault in phase a of line 2 of the transmission network, the terminal Responses t = 100 130 s: When the LLG fault occurs between
voltage of the faulted phase undergoes an initial sag as shown in phases b and c of line 2, their terminal voltages undergo an initial
Fig. 5. The excitation system then acts to recover the sag by sag as shown in Figs. 5–7. This will cause the excitation system to
adjusting the field voltage. Consequently the abc phase terminal react by adjusting (increasing) the field voltage. As a result the
voltages settle to new steady states as shown in Figs. 5–7. initial sag is recovered and the voltages settle to a new steady
With the initial fault current rush, terminal power of the syn- state.
chronous machine increases immediately after the fault. This causes Immediately after the occurrence of the fault, the rush current
the accelerating torque to be negative, the speed to decrease and the causes the terminal power to increase, which in turn forces the
load angle to slip back from its pre fault value as shown in Figs. 2–4. accelerating torque to be negative, the speed to decrease and the
With the decrease in the speed, the speed governing system reacts load angle to slip further back as shown in Figs. 2–4. With the de-
by injecting additional mechanical power to force the machine crease in the speed, the speed governing system reacts by injecting
speed to synchronise with the infinite bus and thus drives the speed additional mechanical power until synchronism with the infinite
deviation to be zero. As a result the accelerating torque settles to bus is achieved.
zero and the load angle settles to a new steady state. Responses t = 130 150 s: Once the fault is cleared the output
Responses t = 70 100 s: Once the fault is cleared the output quantities settle, after some transients, to pre fault values as shown
quantities settle, after some transients, to pre fault values as shown in Figs. 2–7.
in Figs. 2–7. Fig. 8 shows clearly that the fault detector reacts immediately
Fig. 8 shows that the designed fault detector immediately and detects and reconstruct the LLG fault in real. Once the fault
responds to the SLG fault in real time. Once the fault is cleared is cleared the fault detector resets the output to zero recognising
S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263 259
initial mismatch
Actual Fault signal (solid lines) and their estimation (dotted lined) between
using designed fault detector actual and estimated fault signals
3 phase Fault 0.1 0.1
3 phase Fault
0
0
-0.1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 150 -0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5
-3
x 10
1 1
SLG Fault
SLG Fault
0
0
-1
-1
-2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 0 1 2 3 4 5
-3
x 10
1
1
LLG Fault
LLG Fault
0
0
-1
-1 -2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 150 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (Sec) Time (Sec)
Fig. 8. Actual fault signals and their estimation using SMO based fault detector.
the fact that the fault has been cleared. The estimated outputs by Further research is currently underway to extend these results
the fault detector match exactly the actual outputs of the system to multi-machine power systems with extensive transmission/dis-
as shown in Figs. 2–7. tribution networks.
The simulation studies above have demonstrated the following
key points:
Appendix A
(i) The validity and real time properties of the fault detector
designed in this paper. The following linear set of differential equations describes the
(ii) Convergence is instantaneous (real time) when the SMO is complete dynamics of the synchronous machine around an initial
permanently switched on. This is because the detector will operating point under any system condition (normal and fault).
converge to the true system and latches onto it and remain
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 _ ð1Þ ð1Þ
so as long as it is switched on. w_ d ¼ xb ð1 þ d_ 0 Þwð1Þ
q þ xb wq d þ xb md þ xb rid ðA:1Þ
(iii) The fault detector in insensitive to any other form of distur- ð1Þ xb r f ð1Þ
bances. It only reacts to faults and nothing else. w_ f ¼ EFD xb r f if ðA:2Þ
Lad
(iv) The fault detector will signal a fault when it occurs and the ð1Þ ð1Þ
signal remains on until the fault is cleared. w_ ¼ xb r D i
D D ðA:3Þ
(v) The fault detector is able to reconstruct the entire fault sig- ð1Þ ð1Þ0 _ ð1Þ
w_ ð1Þ
q ¼ xb ð1 þ d _0 Þwd x b wd d þx ð1Þ
m þx
b q b riq ðA:4Þ
nal in real time.
ð1Þ ð1Þ
w_ G ¼ x b r G iG ðA:5Þ
6. Conclusions
ð1Þ ð1Þ
w_ Q ¼ x b r Q iQ ðA:6Þ
In this paper we have presented for the first time a fault depen- !
ð2Þ
dent state space model for a SMIB power system that is suitable for _ið2Þ ¼ x R ið2Þ þ ið2Þ þ d_ 0 ið2Þ þ ið2Þ0 d_ 1 v ð2Þ ðA:7Þ
DN b DN QN QN QN DN
use in fault detection studies. The model is then used to design a Lð2Þ Lð2Þ
!
fault detector which has been proven to be capable of detecting ð2Þ
any type (symmetrical and unsymmetrical) of faults in a transmis- _ið2Þ ¼ xb R ið2Þ ið2Þ d_ 0 ið2Þ ið2Þ0 d_ 1 v ð2Þ ðA:8Þ
QN ð2Þ QN DN DN DN QN
L Lð2Þ
sion line of the power system in real time. Such a fault detector has !
not been reported in the literature. ð0Þ
ð0Þ ð0Þ R ð0Þ 1 ð0Þ
Designed fault detector is tested, through extensive simula- I_R ¼ xb IR ð0Þ þ II ð0Þ V R ðA:9Þ
L L
tions, on the power system under study where disturbances and !
ð0Þ
unsymmetrical faults are applied. The simulation studies quite _Ið0Þ ¼ xb Ið0Þ R Ið0Þ 1 V ð0Þ ðA:10Þ
clearly demonstrate that the designed fault locator is only sensitive I I R I
Lð0Þ Lð0Þ
to faults and not to any other external disturbance, such changes in
the reference inputs, load demands, noise, etc. Furthermore the €d ¼ xb kd d_ þ xb T m T e T ð2Þ ðA:11Þ
b
fault detector is capable of reconstructing the fault signal accu- 2H 2H
rately and in real time. In addition it has also been shown that Following expressions (A.12)–(A.14) describe the change in
the fault detector can act as a state estimator where the states electrical, mechanical and negative sequence breaking torque
and outputs can be reconstructed in their entireties. around initial operating point.
260 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ DP LLG ¼@ ð1Þ
A;
v ð1Þ
q ¼ v q id iq þ v q iq iq þ v q d d þ v q f SLG
fSLG þ v q fLLG fLLG þ vq f3P f3P ðA:18Þ Y ð1Þ
þZ LLG ð1; 4Þ 1L2g V B V B
ð1Þ
0 1
where ð1Þ
Y
¼ @ V B V B A ; An
L1 ð1Þ ð1Þ
BP 3P SLG ¼ Z SLG ð2; 1Þ
v ð1Þ
d id ¼
ð1Þ
VR id sin d0 V I
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
cos d0 ; v d iq ¼ V R iq sin d0 V I iq cos d0 ;
id
ð1Þ ð1Þ
Y L1 þ g1 Y L2
ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0
v ð1Þ ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ 0
d d ¼ V R d sin d V I d cos d þ V R cos d0 þ V I sin d0 ;
An LLG ¼ Z LLG ð2; 1Þ; Bn SLG ¼ Z SLG ð2; 2Þ; Bn LLG ¼ Z LLG ð2; 2Þ; Cn SLG ¼ Z SLG ð2; 3Þ;
v ð1Þ ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ
d fSLG ¼ V R fSLG sin d V I fSLG cos d
0
;
0 1
Z SLG ð2; 1ÞY L1 V B
ð1Þ ð1Þ
v d fLLG ¼ V R fLLG sin d V I fLLG cos d ; v ð1Þ
ð1Þ ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ
d f3P ¼ V R f3P sin d V I f3P cos d
0
;
Cn ¼ Z LLG ð2; 3Þ; Dn ¼@ A;
LLG SLG Y
ð1Þ
ð1Þ
v ð1Þ
¼
ð1Þ
V I id sin d þ 0 ð1Þ
V R id cos d ; v0 ð1Þ
¼
ð1Þ
V I iq sin d þ0 ð1Þ
V R iq 0
cos d ; þZ SLG ð2; 4Þ 1L2g V B
q id q iq 0 ð1Þ ð1Þ
1
v ð1Þ
¼
ð1Þ
VI d sin d þ 0 ð1Þ
VR d 0
cos d þ
ð1Þ0
VI cos d 0 ð1Þ0
VR sin d ; 0 Z LLG ð2; 1ÞY L1 V B
q d
Dn LLG ¼@ Y
ð1Þ
A;
ð1Þ
v ð1Þ
q f SLG
ð1Þ ð1Þ
¼ V I fSLG sin d0 þ V R fSLG cos d0 þZ LLG ð2; 4Þ 1L2g V B
v ð1Þ ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ
q fLLG ¼ V I fLLG sin d þ V R fLLG cos d
0 ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
; v q f3P ¼ V I f3P sin d0 þ V R f3P cos d0
Az SLG ¼ Z SLG ð3; 1Þ; Az LLG ¼ Z LLG ð3; 1Þ; Bz SLG ¼ Z SLG ð3; 2Þ;
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
V R id ¼ sin d0 Z L R þ Z L I cos d0 ; V R iq ¼ cos d0 Z L R Z L I sin d0 Bz LLG ¼ Z LLG ð3; 2Þ; Cz SLG ¼ Z SLG ð3; 3Þ; Cz LLG ¼ Z LLG ð3; 3Þ;
!
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ
V R d ¼ iq Z L R sin d0 id Z L I sin d0 iq Z L I cos d0 þ id Z L R cos d0 ð1Þ Y L2 ð1Þ
ð1Þ
Dz SLG ¼ Z SLG ð3; 1ÞY L1 V B þ Z SLG ð3; 4Þ V ;
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 1g B
V R fSLG ¼ AP SLG R IR AP SLG I II þ DP SLG R ; !
Y
ð1Þ
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
V R fLLG ¼ AP LLG R IR AP LLG I II þ DP LLG R Dz LLG ¼ Z LLG ð3; 1ÞY L1 V B þ Z LLG ð3; 4Þ L2 V B
1g
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
V I id ¼ sin d0 Z L I Z L R cos d0 ; V I iq ¼ cos d0 Z L I þ Z L R sin d0
0 02 311
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ Y
ð1Þ
Y L2
ð1Þ
V I d ¼ id Z L R sin d0 þ iq Z L R cos d0 þ id Z L I cos d0 iq Z L I sin d0 B6 Y L1 þ g
ð1Þ
L2
0 0 g 0 0 0 7C
B6 ð2Þ
ð2Þ
Y L2
ð2Þ
Y L2 7C
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 B6 0 Y þ 0 0 0 07 C
V I fSLG ¼ AP SLG R II þ AP SLG I IR þ DP SLG I ; B6 L1 g g 7C
B6 ð0Þ Y
ð0Þ
Y L2
ð0Þ
7C
B6 0 0 Y L1 þ gL2 0 0 g 0 7C
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 B6 7C
V I fLLG ¼ AP LLG R II þ AP LLG I IR þ DP LLG I Z SLG ¼ B6 Y
ð1Þ ð1Þ
Y L2 Y
ð1Þ
7C
B6 gL2 0 0 þ 1L2g 0 0 1 7C
B6 ð2Þ
g ð2Þ ð2Þ 7C
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 B6 0
Y L2
0 0
Y L2 Y
0 17 C
V R f3P ¼ AP 3P R IR AP 3P I II þ BP 3P R ; B6 g g þ 1L2g 7C
B6 ð0Þ ð0Þ ð0Þ 7C
@4 0 0
Y
gL2 0 0
Y L2 Y
þ 1L2g 1 A
5
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 g
V I f3P ¼ AP 3P R II þ AP 3P I IR þ BP 3P I 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263 261
Db ¼ AVb V R
ð1Þ
þ BVb V I
ð1Þ
þ C Vb V R
ð2Þ
þ DVb V I
ð2Þ
þ EVb V R
ð0Þ ð0Þ
þ F Vb V I Rated Voltage 13.8 kV, Rated MVA 100 MVA, Rated Frequency
fSLG fSLG fSLG fSLG fSLG fSLG
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ ð0Þ ð0Þ
f = 60 Hz, Damping Coefficient kd = 1, Inertia Constant
Eb ¼ AVb V R fLLG
þ BVb V I fLLG
þ C Vb V R fLLG
þ DVb V I fLLG
þ EVb V R fLLG
þ F Vb V I fLLG H = 2.37 KW s/KVA
ð1Þ ð1Þ
F b ¼ AVb V R fLLG
þ BVb V I fLLG
; AVb ¼ 0:5kb1 kb3 0:866kb2 kb3 ; Excitation System Data (pu)
BVb ¼ 0:5kb2 kb3 þ 0:866kb1 kb3 T R ¼ 0:001; K A ¼ 400; T A ¼ 0:05; K F ¼ 0:04;
C Vb ¼ 0:5kb1 kb3 þ 0:866kb2 kb3 ; DVb ¼ 0:5kb2 kb3 0:866kb1 kb3 ; T F ¼ 1; K E ¼ 1; T E ¼ 0:613
EVb ¼ kb1 kb3 ; F Vb ¼ kb2 kb3 Governor System Data (pu)
ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0
kb1 ¼ 0:5V R þ 0:866V I ; kb2 ¼ 0:5V R 0:866V I ; Rgov ¼ 0:05; T SR ¼ 0:1; T SM ¼ 0:25; T ST ¼ 1
1
kb3 ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Transmission line data (pu)
2 2
ðkb1 Þ þ ðkb2 Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ
Z L1 ¼ Z L2 ¼ 0:02 þ j0:2; Z L1 ¼ Z L2 ¼ 0:02 þ j0:2;
ð1Þ ð1Þ
jV c j ¼ Ac d þ Bc id þ C c iq þ Dc fSLG þ Ec fLLG þ F c f3P ðC:4Þ ð0Þ ð0Þ
Z L1 ¼ Z L2 ¼ 0:06 þ j0:6
where
2 3
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