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Mechanics of Materials Lab: AB Ssignment
Mechanics of Materials Lab: AB Ssignment
LAB ASSIGNMENT
Muhammad Arslan
2017-ME-158
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Section - D
1
Contents
1- Introduction: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3
2- Theory: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
2.1 History:................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Cable Transport: ............................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Cable Propelled Transit: ................................................................................................................................................ 3
2.3.1 Top Supported: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.3.2 Bottom Supported:................................................................................................................................................................ 4
2.4 Advantages of Cable Transport: ................................................................................................................................. 4
2.5 Disadvantages of Cable Transport: ........................................................................................................................... 4
2.6 Cable car: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
2.7 Types of Cable car: ........................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.7.1 Aerial Lift: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
2.7.2 Railway System: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
2.8 Construction: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
2.8.1 Mono-cable technology: ...................................................................................................................................................... 6
2.8.2 Bi-cable or tri-cable technology: ..................................................................................................................................... 7
2.8.3 Grips:........................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.9 Mechanism: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.10 Stress: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
2.11 Strain: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
2.12 Hooke’s Law: ................................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.13 Effect of Temperature: ..............................................................................................................................................10
2.13.1 Thermal Stress: ................................................................................................................................................................10
2.13.2 Thermal Strain: ................................................................................................................................................................10
2.13.3 Effect of increase in temperature:............................................................................................................................11
2.13.4 Effect of decrease in temperature:...........................................................................................................................11
3- Problem: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 12
3.1 Method of Analysis: .......................................................................................................................................................12
3.1.1 Condition of Equilibrium:...................................................................................................................................................12
3.2 Free Body Diagram:.......................................................................................................................................................13
3.3 Calculations: .....................................................................................................................................................................13
3.4 Statics at point B and C: ...............................................................................................................................................14
3.5 Stress in the cable: .........................................................................................................................................................14
3.6 Strains in the cable: .......................................................................................................................................................15
4- Simulation Using Solidworks: ................................................................................................................................. 15
4.1 Stress and Strain at point A:.......................................................................................................................................15
4.3 Stress and Strain at point C: .......................................................................................................................................17
5- List of Accidents: .......................................................................................................................................................... 18
6- Comments: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 18
7- References: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Gondola Lift
Find out stress and strain produced in the wire connected between two poles, carrying
cable car with specified number of passengers in it.
2
1- Introduction:
Cable transportation is used for quick access to mountains equipped to ski slopes and connects the massive
of mountains for tourist attraction. It also represents a means of travel and entertainment, having an
important role in the development of mountain tourism, but also for winter tourism. Experiments remain
present in the life of a cable transport installation and after its introduction into production, to check the
stability of manufacturing technology, maintain quality and reliability, confirmed during certification. Any
changes to a product in mass production involve a review and approval based on appropriate tests. [1]
2- Theory:
2.1 History:
The first design of an aerial lift was by Croatian polymath Fausto Veranzio and the first operational aerial
tram was built in 1644 by Adam Wiebe in Gdańsk. It was moved by horses and used to move soil over the
river to build defences. It is called the first known cable lift in European history and precedes the invention
of steel cables. It is not known how long this lift was used. In any case, it would be another 230 years before
Germany would get the second cable lift, this newer version equipped with iron wire cable.
Other miningsystems were developed in the 1860s by Hodgson, and Andrew Smith Hallidie. Hallidie went
on to perfect a line of mining and people tramways after 1867 in California and Nevada.
The first gondola built in the United States for a ski resort was located at the Wildcat Mountain Ski Area. It
was a two-person gondola built in 1957 and serviced skiers until 1999. The lift was later demolished in
2004. The lift and its cabins were manufactured by a former Italian lift company: Carlevaro-Savio. One of
the longest gondola rides in the world, Gondelbahn Grindelwald-Männlichen, is in the Bernese
Oberlandin Switzerland and connects Grindelwald with Männlichen. [2]
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Figure 1 Top Supported [5]
2.3.2 Bottom Supported:
Bottom supported systems are supported by tracks or rails underneath, yet are still propelled by a cable.
Bottom supported cable technologies include:
i. Heritage Cable Car
ii. Funicular
iii. Hybrid Funicular
iv. Cable Liner
v. Mini Metro [4]
4
v. Expensive infrastructure
vi. No heating or air conditioning in cabins [7]
5
Figure 4 Gondola [11]
2.8 Construction:
Technologies differ depending on the number of cables and their function.
2.8.1 Mono-cable technology:
Mono cable technology is a term is used when a single cable is used to pull and support the cars. As
apparent in the name, Mono-cable Detachable Gondolas uses a detachable grip. This means cabins can
detach from the cable when in the station allowing for intermediary stations and turning. A Mono-cable
Detachable Gondolas utilizes a single cable which provides both support and propulsion. Mono-cable
Detachable Gondolas systems are generally supported by cylindrical towers, although custom
towers or lattice structures are also possible. Mono-cable systems are generally supported by cylindrical
towers, although custom towers or lattice structures are also possible. [13]
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2.8.2 Bi-cable or tri-cable technology:
Bi-cable or tri-cable technology terms are used when one cable is used to pull the cars whilst one or two
others support their weight. The Bi-cable Detachable Gondolas uses a detachable grip. This means cabins
can detach from the cable when in the station. A Bi-cable Detachable Gondolas has two cables, one which
provides support and a second which provides the system’s propulsion. Bi-cable Detachable Gondolas
systems are generally supported by cylindrical towers. Cost is slightly higher than a Mono-cable Detachable
Gondolas system. The Bi-cable technology still has a slight speed advantage over the Mono-cable
technology. [15]
2.8.3 Grips:
There are two types Figure 7 Bi-cable Gondola [16] of grips used in the
construction of the gondola.
2.8.3.1 Non-Detachable Grips:
A fixed grip is one that permanently connects a cable propelled transit vehicle to the cable. Because of this
direct connection, stopping or slowing a fixed grip vehicle involves stopping or slowing the entire system.
Aerial trams and pulsed gondolas both utilize fixed grip technologies. For an aerial tram, cabins are located
at opposing ends of the cable so that vehicles dock at the end stations at the same time. Generally fixed grip
systems can achieve greater speeds but have other limitations such as longer wait times and reduced
capacities, as compared to detachable grip systems. [17]
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departing the grip is re-engaged. This process is incredibly fluid, seamless and is virtually invisible to
riders. Since the design of the grip allows it to only open under a constant, targeted, external and specially-
designed force, a cabin with a detachable grip would never simply fall of the cable. [17]
2.10 Stress:
The term stress (s) is used to express the loading in terms of force applied to a certain cross-sectional area
of an object. From the perspective of loading, stress is the applied force or system of forces that tends to
deform a body. From the perspective of what is happening within a material, stress is the internal
distribution of forces within a body that balance and react to the loads applied to it. The stress distribution
may or may not be uniform, depending on the nature of the loading condition.
Example:
A bar loaded in pure tension will essentially have a uniform tensile stress distribution. However, a bar
loaded in bending will have a stress distribution that changes with distance perpendicular to the normal
axis. The stress in an axially loaded bar is simply equal to the applied force divided by the bar's cross-
sectional area. [21]
8
Figure 10 Stress [22]
2.11 Strain:
Strain is the response of a system to an applied stress. When a material is loaded with a force, it produces
a stress, which then causes a material to deform. Engineering strain is defined as the amount of
deformation in the direction of the applied force divided by the initial length of the material. This results
in a unitless number, although it is often left in the un simplified form, such as inches per inch or meters
per meter. For example, the strain in a bar that is being stretched in tension is the amount of elongation or
change in length divided by its original length. As in the case of stress, the strain distribution may or may
not be uniform in a complex structural element, depending on the nature of the loading condition. [23]
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Figure 12 Hooke's Law [26]
2.13 Effect of Temperature:
Static and dynamic mechanical properties of concrete are affected by temperature effect in practice.
Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the corresponding influence law and mechanism. Temperature
effects on cube compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, prism compressive strength, modulus of
elasticity, and frequency. [27]
10
Figure 14 Thermal Strain [31]
𝑙𝑡 = 316(1 + 13 × 10−6 × 5)
𝑙𝑡 = 316.02054 𝑚
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t = Rise in temperature
𝛼 = Co-efficient of thermal expansion = 13 × 10−6 /℃
𝐸 = 200 × 109 Pa
Now, put values in the above equation;
𝑙𝑡 = 316(1 − 13 × 10−6 × 5)
𝑙𝑡 = 315.983568 𝑚
𝛿𝑙 = 𝑙𝑜 − 𝑙𝑡
𝛿𝑙 = 0.01643𝑚
3- Problem:
Two gondolas are hung between two poles A and B. The distance between support towers is 300m. The
length of each cable segment under gondolas weighing WB = 7000 N and WC = 10000 N are DAB =
36.614 m, DBC = 218m and DCD = 61.4 m. The diameter of the cable is taken as 4cm. The cable sag at B is
∆B = 12m and that at C is ∆C = 22m. Find the stresses produced and also find the strain in the cables.
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∑ 𝑭𝒙 𝒊̂ + ∑ 𝑭𝒚 𝒋̂ = 𝟎
For this vector equation to be satisfied, the resultant force’s x and y components must both be equal to
zero. Hence,
∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎
∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎
These two equations can be solved for at most two unknowns, generally represented as angles and
magnitudes of forces shown on the particle’s free-body diagram. When applying each of the two equations
of equilibrium, we must account for the sense of direction of any component by using an algebraic sign
which corresponds to the arrowhead direction of the component along the x-y axis. [32]
L=300m
m
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∆𝑪
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟑 =
𝑫𝑪𝑫
∆𝐵
𝜃3 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝐷𝐴𝐵
𝜃3 = 20.998𝑜
3.4 Statics at point B and C:
Applying the equations of equilibrium at point B in the FBD. Summation of all forces on X-axis and
summation of all forces will be equal to zero.
∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎
−𝑇𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 ) + 𝑇𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃2 ) = 0
∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎
𝑇𝐴𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 ) − 𝑇𝐵𝐶 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃2 ) = 𝑊𝐵
Also, applying the equations of equilibrium at point C in the FBD. Summation of all forces on X-axis and
summation of all forces will be equal to zero.
∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎
−𝑇𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃2 ) + 𝑇𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃3 ) = 0
∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎
𝑇𝐵𝐶 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃2 ) + 𝑇𝐶𝐷 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃3 ) = 𝑊𝐶
Solving the above equations simultaneously, we get the values of 𝑇𝐴𝐵 , 𝑇𝐵𝐶 and 𝑇𝐶𝐷 .
𝑻𝑨𝑩 = 24619.2 𝑁
𝑻𝑩𝑪 = 23275.6 𝑁
𝑻𝑪𝑫 = 24927.32 𝑁
We can also check the equilibrium at point B and C by using the following equations. From this, we can
verify our results and can also make sure that our system is in equilibrium.
𝑇𝐴𝐵
𝜎𝐴𝐵 = = 19.6MPa
𝐴
𝑇𝐵𝐶
𝜎𝐵𝐶 = = 18.52 MPa
𝐴
𝑇𝐶𝐷
𝜎𝐶𝐷 = = 19.84 MPa
𝐴
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3.6 Strains in the cable:
Strain in the wire can be calculated in the wire using the formula of change in length.
𝑻×𝑳
𝜹𝒍 =
𝑨×𝑬
𝛿𝑙𝐴𝐵 = 3.6 𝑚𝑚
𝛿𝑙𝐵𝐶 = 20.2 𝑚𝑚
𝛿𝑙𝐶𝐷 = 6.1𝑚𝑚
𝜹𝒍
𝜺=
𝒍
𝜺𝐴𝐵 = 9.8 × 10−5
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Figure 17 Strain at point A
16
4.3 Stress and Strain at point C:
17
Figure 23 Strain at point D
5- List of Accidents:
The National Ski Areas Association reports 0.138 fatalities per 100 million miles transported compared
to 1.23 for cars.
October 22, 1979: One person was killed and 17 other injured when two gondolas fell from the "Swiss
Sky Ride" at the Texas State Fair. Winds gusting to 40 miles per hour caused three cars to collide and
two fell on midway games below the cable.
January 29, 1983: The Singapore Cable Car disaster, which saw seven people killed when two cabins
plunged into the sea after the cableway was hit by a Panamanian-registered oil rig being towed.
September 5, 2005: Nine people died and ten were injured when a 750 kg concrete block was
accidentally dropped by a construction helicopter in Sölden, Austria. Hundreds had to be evacuated
from the lift.
July 13, 2006: Five people, including a three-year-old girl, were injured after two cable cars collided and
one crashed to the ground. The accident took place at the Nevis Range, near Fort William in
northwest Scotland. There were no fatalities and the gondola was deemed safe for operation shortly
after the accident.
February 18, 2007: A gondola car derailed from the cable at Ski Apache in New Mexico and rolled
backwards hitting another car. Eight people were involved in the crash but only two suffered minor
injuries.
March 2, 2008: A man fell out of a gondola in Chamonix and died, perhaps after he and one of his friends
leaned on and broke the plexiglass window. [34]
6- Comments:
The errors in the readings may be due to the following readings:
i. The density of the cable may not be uniform throughout.
ii. The temperature is not constant which may result in slight expansion of the cable.
iii. The error may be due to frictional effects between wire and the gondola.
iv. The cable might be less rigid and strong due to negligence of the manufacturer.
7- References:
[1] http://aspeckt.unitbv.ro/jspui/bitstream/123456789/407/1/393%20-%20396%2C%20Hodirnau%201.pdf
[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondola_lift
[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_transport
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[4] http://gondolaproject.com/learn-the-basics-what-is-cable-propelled-transit/
[5] https://unofficialnetworks.com/2014/03/10/whos-ski-lift-world/
[6] https://liftblog.com/2016/07/14/leitner-poma-minimetro-debuts-at-miami-international-airport/
[7] https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1a2b/56222bad70bae34b669f57c5cef6ed6b999e.pdf
[8] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_car
[9] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_lift
[10] https://www.jacksonholewy.com/directory/jackson-hole-mountain-resort-aerial-tram/
[11] https://mpora.com/skiing/ski-lifts-explained
[12] https://sf.curbed.com/2017/9/20/16338488/cable-cars-facts-sf
[13] http://gondolaproject.com/mdg/
[14] https://www.skiarlberg.at/en/regions/flexenbahn
[15] http://gondolaproject.com/bdg/
[16] https://www.doppelmayr.com/en/products/3s-gondola-lift/
[17] http://gondolaproject.com/grips/
[18] https://www.leitner-ropeways.com/en/products/fixed-grip-chairlifts-26/
[19] https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/detachable-grip-ropeway-9237791130.html
[20] https://www.tititudorancea.com/z/aerial_tramway_69.htm
[21] https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Mechanical/StressStrain.htm
[22] https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Mechanical/StressStrain.htm
[23] https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Mechanical/StressStrain.htm
[24] https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Mechanical/StressStrain.htm
[25] https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/hookes-law-5
[26] https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/hookes-law-5
[27] https://www.hindawi.com/journals/amse/2014/191360/
[28] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_stress
[29] https://www.comsol.com/multiphysics/thermal-expansion-and-thermal-stresses
[30] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansion
[31] http://emweb.unl.edu/NEGAHBAN/Em325/05-Thermal-strain/Thermal%20strain.htm
[32] Engineering Mechanics Statics 10th Edition (Tenth Edition) by R.C. Hibbeler
[33] Mechanics of Materials (8th Edition) James M. Gere, Barry J. Goodno
[34] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondola_lift
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