Chemical Plant

Design
CH-402

Dr. Zahoor Ul Hussain

Lecture No.1
 About Course
Course Teacher: Dr. Zahoor Ul Hussain
Course duration : 60 Contact Hours

Course Objectives:
 To introduce the preliminary design of chemical process
plant to the students.
 To become familiar with major elements of plant design,
and engineering economics.
 Integrate flow sheet synthesis and process equipment
design concepts with the principles of engineering and
process economics
 Introduce methods to quantify concepts such as fixed
capital investment, cash-flow analysis, profitability
analysis and decision making.
 Course Outline
TOPICS No. of Periods (60)
Introduction to Plant Design.
 Process Design Development. 04
 General design consideration.
Plant Design Steps. 02
General Consideration In Plant Design. 12
Essential flow diagrams
 Block Flow Diagrams (BFD).
 Process Flow Diagrams (PFD). 06
 Piping & Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID),
 Equipment Descriptions and Standard Notations.
Process Integration. 02
Engineering Ethics. 02
Pinch Technology. 01
Optimum Design 01
Equipment Design
 General Design Factors and Specifications
 Rules of thumb in design
04
 Materials of Construction.
 Course Outline

Cost Estimation.
 Profitability Evaluation.
 Alternative Investments.
07
 Markets Survey and Plant Location.

Materials Selection and Equipment Fabrication 06

Materials Transfer, Handling, and Treatment, Equipment-Design
and Costs
06

Heat-Transfer Equipment-Design and Costs 07

 Books
Text Book (s):
• Max S. Peters Klaus D. Timmerhaus Plant Design and Economics
for Chemical Engineers 4th Ed. McGraw Hill Publications,
• Max S. Peters Klaus D. Timmerhaus Plant Design and Economics
for Chemical Engineers 5th Ed. McGraw Hill Publications,

Reference Books:
• Gavin Towler, Ray Sinnott “Chemical Engineering Design
Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design”
• R. K. SINNOTT “Chemical Engineering Design” Volume 6 Third
Edition
• “Flow of Fluids” Crane, 1988 Crane Co. Metric Edition
 Course Grades
Total Marks 100 (60 Final+40
sessional)
Assessment of Sessional Marks
Class performance 05
Homework assignments 05
Mid-term 20
Presentations/Viva 10
 INTRODUCTION
NATURE OF DESIGN

“Starting from a unclearly defined problem statement such

as a customer need or a set of experimental results, chemical
engineers can develop an understanding of the important
underlying physical science relevant to the problem and use
this understanding to create a plan of action and set of
detailed specifications which, if implemented, will lead to a
predicted financial outcome”.

• The creation of plans and specifications and the

prediction of the financial outcome if the plans were
implemented is the activity of chemical engineering
design.
 INTRODUCTION
NATURE OF DESIGN
 Is a creative activity,
 Can be one of the most rewarding and satisfying activities
undertaken by an Engineer.
 The design does not exist at the start of the project.
 The designer begins with a specific objective or customer
need in mind and, by developing and evaluating possible
designs, arrives at the best way of achieving that objective
a new chemical product or production process.
 These constraints on the possible solutions to a problem in
design arise in many ways. Some constraints will be fixed
and invariable.
 INTRODUCTION
NATURE OF DESIGN

 The constraints that are outside the designer’s influence

can be termed the external constraints.

 The internal constraints, over which the designer has

some control, such as choice of process, choice of
process conditions, materials, and equipment. (Shown in
Figure 1).
INTRODUCTION
NATURE OF DESIGN
 INTRODUCTION
Development of Design
The stages in the development of a design, from the initial
identification of the objective to the final design, are shown
diagrammatically in Figure.
 INTRODUCTION
Development of Design

 The Design Objective (The Need)

 Setting the Design Basis
 Generation of Possible Design Concepts
 Fitness Testing
 Economic Evaluation, Optimization, and Selection
 Detailed Design and Equipment Selection
 Procurement, Construction, and Operation
 INTRODUCTION
PLANT ENGINEERING

 Plant Engineering is a multidisciplinary field of

engineering concerned with the physical infrastructure of
industrial, commercial, institutional, healthcare, and
business facilities.
 It embraces the design, installation, operation,
maintenance, modification, construction, modernization,
and protection of physical facilities and equipment used to
produce a product or provide a service.
 INTRODUCTION
PLANT ENGINEERING
It includes the following areas of management:
 Design of facilities and systems
 Construction of facilities and systems
 Installation of facilities and systems
 Start up of systems
 Operation of systems
 Maintenance of facilities and systems
 Environmental controls
 Safety and health
 Security and fire protection
 Production processes and equipment (in industry)
 Regulatory compliance (local, state, and federal)
 Energy management and building control
 Administration, supervision, organization, planning.
 INTRODUCTION
PLANT ENGINEER

RESPONSIBILITIES
 Design and modification of production system.
 Production system specification and selection.
 Installation and commissioning of Plant system.
 Operation and maintenance of services.
 Plant safety, Energy Conservation, Pollution Control and
Environmental Concerns.
 Process Troubleshooting and Optimization.
 INTRODUCTION
PLANT ENGINEER
Electrical Systems
 Circuit planning
 Power distribution
 Illumination
 Protective devices
 Instrumentation and control
 On-site power & co-gen
 Codes and standards.
Civil and structural
 Drainage & storm water
management
 Materials specification
 Structural design and analysis
 Construction practices
 Building and life safety codes
Mechanical Systems
 Heating, ventilating, air conditioning,
and refrigeration
 Steam/water/sewer & process piping
 Pumps, piping, and plumbing
 Compressors and compressed air
systems.
 Material handling and storage
 Fire protection
 Codes and standards
Maintenance
 Lubrication
 Maintenance programs and
management
 Preventive and predictive maintenance
practices
 Maintenance supplies, stores, and
inventory management
 Buildings and grounds
 Housekeeping
 Welding and joining
 INTRODUCTION
PLANT ENGINEER

Economics Administration and supervision

 Industrial equipment  Organization and manpower
specification and selection planning
 Estimating.  Labor relations
 Budgeting and forecasting.  Project administration and
 Energy management. management
 Purchasing.  Security services
 Financial management.  Record keeping
Environmental, safety, and health
management
 Noise control
 Air quality control
 Water quality control
 Solid waste handling
 Hazardous materials control
 Regulations, codes and standards
 Life safety, security, and fire
fighting systems
 PLANT LOCATION

 The geographical location of the final plant can have strong

influence on the success of an industrial venture.
 Primarily, the plant should be located where the minimum cost
of production and distribution can be obtained, but other
factors, such as room for expansion and safe living conditions for
plant operation as well as the surrounding community, are also
important.
 The choice of the final site should first be based on a complete
survey of the advantages and disadvantages of various
geographical areas and, ultimately, on the advantages and
disadvantages of available real estate.
 PLANT LOCATION
1. Raw materials availability
2. Markets
3. Energy availability
4. Climate
5. Transportation facilities
6. Water supply
7. Waste disposal
8. Labour supply
9. Taxation and legal restrictions
10. Site characteristics.
11. Flood and fire protection.
12. Community factors
 PLANT LAYOUT
 After the process flow diagrams are completed and before detailed
piping, structural, and electrical design can begin, the layout of
process units in a plant and the equipment within these process
units must be planned.
 Since each plant differs in many ways and no two plant sites are
exactly alike, there is no one ideal plant layout. However, proper
layout in each case will include arrangement of processing areas,
storage areas, and handling areas in efficient coordination and with
regard to such factors as.
1. New site development or addition to previously developed site
2. Type and quantity of products to be produced
3. Type of process and product control
4. Operational convenience and accessibility
 PLANT LAYOUT

5. Economic distribution of utilities and services

6. Type of buildings and building-code requirements
7. Health and safety considerations
8. Waste-disposal requirements
9. Auxiliary equipment
10. Space available and space required
11. Roads and railroads
12. Possible future expansion
 THE ORGANIZATION OF A CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
PROJECT

Phase 1: Process design

 It covers the steps from the initial selection of the process to be
used, through to the issuing of the process flowsheet and includes
the selection, specification, and chemical engineering design of
equipment.
 In a typical organization, this phase is the responsibility of the
Process Design Group, and the work is mainly done by chemical
engineers.
 The process design group may also be responsible for the
preparation of the piping and instrumentation diagrams.
 THE ORGANIZATION OF A CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
PROJECT

Phase 2: Plant design:

 It includes the detailed mechanical design of equipment; the
structural, civil, and electrical design; and the specification and
design of the ancillary services.
 These activities will be the responsibility of specialist design
groups, having expertise in the whole range of engineering
disciplines.
 Other specialist groups will be responsible for cost estimation, and
the purchase and procurement of equipment and materials.
 PROJECT DOCUMENTATION

General correspondence within the design group and with

i. Government departments
ii. Equipment vendors
iii.Site personnel
iv. The client

Calculation sheets
i. Design calculations
ii. Cost estimates
iii. Material and energy balances.
 PROJECT DOCUMENTATION
Drawings
i. Flowsheet
ii. Piping and instrumentation diagrams
iii. Layout diagrams
iv. Plot/site plans
v. Equipment details
vi. Piping diagrams (isometrics)
vii. Architectural drawings
viii. Design sketches.
 PROJECT DOCUMENTATION
Specification sheets
i. The design basis
ii. Feed and product specifications
iii. An equipment list
iv. Sheets for equipment, such as heat exchangers, pumps, heaters,
etc.
Health, Safety and Environmental information:
i. Materials safety data sheets (MSDS forms)
ii. HAZOP or HAZAN documentation (see Chapter 9)
iii. Emissions assessments and permits
Purchase orders
i. Quotations
ii. Invoices
 PROJECT DOCUMENTATION
Process Manuals:
Process manuals are usually prepared by the process design group to
describe the process and the basis of the design. Together with the
flow sheet, they provide a complete technical description of the
process.
Operating Manuals:
Operating manuals give the detailed, step-by-step instructions for
operation of the process and equipment. They would normally be
prepared by the operating company personnel, but may also be issued
by a contractor or technology licensor as part of the technology
transfer package for a less-experienced client. The operating manuals
are used for operator instruction and training and for the preparation
of the formal plant operating instructions.
HAZOP STUDIES
LOSS PREVENTION
 The phrase loss prevention in the chemical industry is an
insurance term where the loss represents the financial loss
associated with an accident.
 This loss not only represents the cost of repairing or
replacing the damaged facility and taking care of all
damage claims, but also includes the loss of earnings from
lost production during the repair period and any associated
lost sales opportunities.
 The process designer must be aware of these hazards
and ensure that the risks involved with these hazards are
reduced to acceptable levels through the application of
engineering principles and proven engineering practice.
 In its simplest terms, loss prevention in process design can
be summarized under the following broad headings:
 Identification and assessment of the major hazards.
 Control of the hazards by the most appropriate means; for
example, containment, substitution, improved
maintenance, etc.
 Control of the process, i.e., prevention of hazardous
conditions in process operating variables by utilizing
automatic control and relief systems, interlocks, alarms,
etc.
 Limitation of the loss when an incident occurs.
 Identification can be as simple as asking “what-if’
questions at design reviews. It can also involve the use of a
checklist outlining the normal process hazards associated
with a specific piece of equipment.
 The hazard-assessment techniques include, hazard and
operability study (HAZOP), fault-tree analysis (FTA),
failure mode-and-effect analysis (FMEA), safety indexes,
and safety audits.
HAZOP STUDY
 The hazard and operability study, commonly referred to
as. the HAZOP study, is a systematic technique for
identifying all plant or equipment hazards and operability
problems.
 In this technique, each segment (pipeline, piece of
equipment, instrument, etc.) is carefully examined and all
possible deviations from normal operating conditions are
identified.
 This is accomplished by fully defining the intent of each
segment and then applying guide words to each segment
as follows:
 No or not-no part of the intent is achieved and nothing
else occurs (e.g., no flow)
 More-quantitative increase (e.g., higher temperature)
 Less-quantitative decrease (e.g., lower pressure)
 As well as-qualitative increase (e.g., an impurity)
 Part of-qualitative decrease (e.g., only one of two
components in mixture)
 Reverse- opposite (e.g., backflow)
 Other than- no part of the intent is achieved and
something completely different occurs (e.g., flow of wrong
material).
 These guide words are applied to flow, temperature,
pressure, liquid level, composition, and any other variable
affecting the process.
 Hazard assessment is a vital tool in loss prevention
throughout the life of the facility. Ideally, the assessment
should be conducted during the conceptual design
phase, final design stage, and prestartup period as well
as when the plant is in full operation.
 In the conceptual-design phase many potential hazards
can be identified and significant changes or corrections
made at minimal cost.
 Results of these assessments are key inputs to both site-
selection and plant layout decisions. The major hazards
usually include toxicity, fire, and explosions; however,
thermal radiation, noise, asphyxiation, and various
environmental concerns also need to be considered.
 A thorough hazard and risk assessment of a new facility is
essential during the final design stage.
 At this stage, the piping and instrument diagrams,
equipment details, and maintenance procedures are
finalized.
 Since equipment often has not been ordered, it is still
possible to make changes without incurring major
penalties or delays.
 A hazard assessment during the prestartup period should
be a final check rather than an initial assessment. This
review should include the status of recommended changes
from previous hazard studies and any significant design
changes made after the final design. If serious hazards are
identified at this time, it is unlikely that they can be
eliminated without significant cost or startup delay.
Assume that a HAZOP study is to be conducted on a new
flammable reagent storage tank and feed pump as presented by
the piping and instrument diagram shown in Fig. 3-1. In this
scheme, the reagent is unloaded from tank trucks into a
storage tank maintained under a slight positive pressure until it
is transferred to the reactor in the process. For simplification,
the system is divided into two elements-the tank T-l and the
pump P-l and the feedline. Application of the guide words to
these two elements is shown in Table 4 along with a listing of
the consequences that result from the process deviations.
Note that not all guide words are applicable to the process
deviations listed. Also, some of the consequences identified
with these process deviations have raised additional questions
that need resolution to determine whether or not a hazard
exists.
This will require either more detailed process information or
an estimation of release rates. For example, similar release
rates could be the consequence of either Event 3 07-3 open or
broken) or Event 4 (V-l open or broken); however, the total
quantity released through V-3 could be substantially reduced
over that with V-l open or broken by closing V-2. Of the 41
events listed in Table 4, Event 5 (tank rupture) and Event 24
(external fire) would provide the worst consequences since
both would result in instantaneous spills of the entire tank
contents.
CASE STUDY: SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
Using relevant guide words, perform the HAZOP study on Shell &
Tube heat exchanger
HAZOP on heat exchanger
Guide Word Deviation Causes Consequences Action
Temperature of
Less flow of Process fluid
Less
cooling water remains
constant
Failure of
More cooling
MORE cooling water
water
valve
More Pressure Installation
More Of on Process fluid high pressure
line alarm
Proper
Contamination
maintenance
Contamination of process fluid
and operator
line
alert
Corrosion of Hardness of
Corrosion
tube cooling water
HAZOP on heat exchanger Answer (1)
Guide Word Deviation Causes Consequences Action
Temperature of
High
Less flow of process fluid
Less Pipe blockage Temperature
cooling water remains
alarm
constant
Low
Failure of Temperature of Temperature
More cooling
More cooling water process fluid alarm
flow
valve decrease

Failure of
More Pressure Install high
More Of process fluid Bursting of tube
on tube side pressure alarm
valve
Proper
Contamination Leakage of tube
Contamination maintenance
Contamination of process fluid and cooling
of process fluid and operator
line water goes in
alert
Corrosion of Hardness of Less cooling and Proper
Corrosion
tube cooling water crack of tube maintenance
HAZOP on heat exchanger Answer (2)
Guide Word Deviation Causes Consequences Action
Process fluid Install Temperature
Failure of inlet
No Cooling water temperature is indicator before and after
NONE cooling water
flow not lowered the process fluid line install
valve to open
accordingly TAH
Install Temperature
Failure of inlet Output of process
More cool water indicator before and after
MORE cooling water fluid temperature
flow process fluid line
valve to close too low
install TAH
Process fluid
LESS Less cooling water Pipe leakage temperature too Installation of flow meter
low
Reverse process Failure of process Install check valve (whether
REVERSE Product offset
fluid flow fluid inlet valve it is crucial have to check?)
Outlet
Process fluid Contamination in Proper maintenance and
CONTAMINATION temperature too
contamination cooling water operator alert
low
 Refer to the reactor
HAZOP Example shown.
The reaction is exothermic. A
cooling system is provided to
remove the excess energy of
reaction. In the event of cooling
function is lost, the
temperature of reactor would
increase. This would lead to an
increase in reaction rate leading
to additional energy release.
The result could be a runaway
reaction with pressure
exceeding the bursting pressure
of the reactor. The temperature
within the reactor is measured
and is used to control the
cooling water flow rate by a
valve.
Perform HAZOP study.
HAZOP on Reactor
Guide Word Deviation Causes Consequences Action
Temperature
NO No cooling increase in
reactor
Failure of water
Reverse cooling source resulting
REVERSE
flow in backward
flow
More cooling Install operator
MORE
flow on procedures
Check
Reactor maintenance
AS WELL AS
product in coils procedures and
schedules
Another
material Water source
OTHER THAN
besides cooling contaminated
water
HAZOP on Reactor (Answer)
Guide Word Deviation Causes Consequences Action
Cooling water Temperature
Install high temperature
NO No cooling valve increase in
alarm(TAH)
malfunction reactor
Failure of water Less cooling,
Reverse cooling
REVERSE source resulting possible runway Install check valve
flow
in backward flow reaction
Control valve
Too much
More cooling failure, operator Install operator on
MORE cooling, reactor
flow fails to take procedures
cool
action on alarm
Reactor product More pressure in Check maintenance
AS WELL AS Off-spec product
in coils reactor procedures and schedules

If less cooling, TAF will

May be cooling
Another material detect. If detected isolate
Water source ineffective and
OTHER THAN besides cooling water source.
contaminated effect on the
water
reaction
Back up water source?
Process Planning, Scheduling and
Flowsheet Design
Introduction
Process engineering design is the application of chemical,
mechanical, petroleum, gas and other engineering talents to the
process-related development, planning, designs and decisions required
for economical and effective completion of a process project.
 Process design engineers are organizationally located in research,
technical service, economic evaluation, as well as other specific
departments.
The Process Engineer has the following responsibilities:

1. Prepares studies of process cycles and systems for various product

production or improvements or changes in existing production units;
prepares material and heat balances.
2. Prepares economic studies associated with process performance.
designs and/or specifies items of equipment required to define the
process flowsheet or flow system; specifies corrosion resistant
materials of construction.
4. Evaluates competitive bids for equipment.
5. Evaluates operating data for existing or test equipment.
6. Guides flowsheet draftsmen in detailed flowsheet preparation.

The process engineer also develops tests and interprets data and
information from the research pilot plant. He aids in scaling-up the
research type flow cycle to one of commercial feasibility.
Process Design Scope
The term process design is used sometimes referred to as process
engineering. Yet in some process engineering operations, all process
design functions may not be carried out in detail. As discussed,
process design is intended to include
1. Process material and heat balances.
2. Process cycle development, correlation of pilot or research data, and
correlation of physical data.
3. Auxiliary services material and heat balances.
4. Flowsheet development and detailed completion.
5. Instrumentation as related to process performance, presentation and
interpretation of requirements to instrument specialists.
6. Process interpretation for proper mechanical, structural, civil, electrical,
instrument, etc., handling of the respective individual phases of the
project.
8. Preparation of specifications in proper form and/or detail for use by the
project team as well as for the purchasing function.
9. Evaluation of bids and recommendation of qualified vendor
Role of the Process Design Engineer
The process design engineer, in addition to being capable of
participating in evaluation of research and pilot plant data and the
conversion of this data into a proposed commercial process scheme,
must also:
1. Prepare heat and material balance studies for a proposed process,
both “by hand” and by use of computer programs.
2. Prepare rough cost economics, including preliminary sizing and
important details of equipment, factor to an order of magnitude capital
cost estimate , prepare a production cost estimate, and work with
economic evaluation representatives to establish a payout and the
financial economics of the proposed process.
3. Participate in layout planning for the proposed plant.
4. Prepare final detailed heat and material balances.
5.Prepare detailed sizing of all process equipment and possibly some
utility systems.
It is important that the process engineer visualize the flow and
processing of the fluids through the system and inside the various
items of equipment in order to adequately recognize what will take
place during the process.
6. Prepare/supervise preparation of draft of process flowsheets for
review by others.
7. Prepare/supervise preparation of piping or mechanical flow diagram
(or P and ID), with necessary preliminary sizing of all pipe lines,
distillation equipment, pumps, compressors, etc., and representation
of all instrumentation for detailing by instrument engineers.
8. Prepare mechanical and process specifications for all equipment,
tanks, pumps, compressors, separators, drying systems, refrigeration
systems. This must include the selection of materials of construction
and safety systems and the coordination of specifications with
instrumentation and electrical requirements.
9. Determine size and specifications for all safety relief valves and/or
rupture disks for process safety relief (including run-a-way reactions)
and relief in case of external fire.
10. Prepare valve code specifications for incorporation on item 6 above,
or select from existing company standards for the fluids and their
operating conditions.
11. Select from company insulation standards (or prepare, if necessary)
the insulation codes to be applied to each hot or cold pipe or equipment.
Note that insulation must be applied in some cases only to prevent
operating personnel from contacting the base equipment.
12. Establish field construction hydraulic test pressures for each process
equipment. Sometimes the equipment is blanked or blocked off, and no
test pressure is applied in the field, because all pressure equipment must
be tested in the fabricators’ or manufacturers’ shop per ASME Code.
13. Prepare drafts of line schedule and/or summary sheets , and
equipment summary schedules plus summary schedules for safety relief
valves and rupture disks, compressors and other major equipment.
14. Prepare detailed process and mechanical specifications for
developing proposals for purchase by the purchasing department.
The process design engineer actually interprets the process into
appropriate hardware (equipment) to accomplish the process
requirements. Therefore, the engineer must be interested in and
conversant with the layout of the plant; the relationship of equipment
for maintenance; the safety relationships of equipment in the
plant; the possibilities for fire and/or explosion; the possibilities
for external fire on the equipment areas of the plant; the existence of
hazardous conditions, including toxic materials and pollution, that
could arise; and, in general, the overall picture.
Flowsheets
 The flowsheet is the “road-map’’ of a process, and serves to identify
and focus the scope of the process for all interested and associated
functions of the project.
 As a project progresses, the various engineering disciplines read
their portions of responsibility from the flowsheet, although they
may not understand the process or other details relative to some of
the other phases of engineering.
 The flowsheet also describes the process to management as well as
those concerned with preparing economic studies for process
evaluation.
 A good process flowsheet pictorially and graphically identifies the
chemical process steps in proper sequence.
Types of Flowsheets
Block Diagrams
 A block diagram is the simplest form of presentation.
 Each block can represent a single piece of equipment or a complete
stage in the process.
 Block diagrams are useful for representing a process in a simplified
form in reports, textbooks, and presentations.
 The stream flow rates and compositions can be shown on the diagram
adjacent to the stream lines, when only a small amount of information
is to be shown, or tabulated separately.
 Block diagrams are often drawn using simple graphics programs such
as VisioTM or Microsoft PowerPointTM
Presentation of Stream Flow Rates
 The data on the flow rate of each individual component, on the total
stream flow rate, and the percentage composition can be shown on the
flowsheet in various ways.
 The simplest method, suitable for simple processes with few pieces of
equipment, is to tabulate the data in blocks alongside the process
stream lines, as shown in Figure.
 Only a limited amount of information can be shown this way, and it
is difficult to make neat alterations or to add additional data.
 A better method for the presentation of data on flowsheets is shown
in Figure.
 In this method each stream line is numbered and the data are
tabulated at the bottom of the sheet. Alterations and additions can be
easily made.
 This method is generally used by professional design offices. A
typical commercial flowsheet is shown in Figure.
Piping and Instrument diagram (P and I diagram or PID)

 The Piping and Instrument diagram (P and I diagram or PID) shows

the engineering details of the equipment, instruments, piping, valves,
and fittings and their arrangement.
 It is often called the Engineering Flowsheet or Engineering Line
Diagram.
 The design of piping systems and the specification of the process
instrumentation and control systems are usually done by specialist
design groups.
The P and I diagram shows the arrangement of the process
equipment, piping, pumps, instruments, valves, and other fittings.
It should include
1. All process equipment, identified by an equipment number. The
equipment should be drawn roughly in proportion.
2. All pipes, identified by a line number. The pipe size and material of
construction should be shown. The material may be included as part of
the line identification number.
3. All valves, control and block valves, with an identification number.
The type and size should be shown. The type may be shown by the
symbol used for the valve or included in the code used for the valve
number.
4. Ancillary fittings that are part of the piping system, such as inline
sight-glasses, strainers, and steam traps, with an identification number.
5. Pumps, identified by a suitable code number.
6. All control loops and instruments, with an identification number.
 The P and I diagram will resemble the process flowsheet, but the
process information is not shown. The same equipment identification
numbers should be used on both diagrams.
 P&IDs are used by process technicians and instrument and electrical,
mechanical, safety, and engineering personnel.
 In both diagrams arrows show the flow of material and symbols show
tanks, valves, and other equipment.
 The symbols used vary somewhat from organization to organization.
So you may see several different symbols that all represent a motor.
Basic Symbols
Control Valves

Actuators
 Most control valves (final control elements) are actuated by
pneumatic signals using instrument air.
 Pneumatic actuators are preferred in situations in which electronic
controllers might cause a process hazard or electric power is not
available or reliable.
 Pneumatic controllers are also found in many older plants where
replacement with electronic controllers has not yet occurred.
 Motor actuators are used for larger valves, while digital and
solenoid actuators are used for valves that are switched from open
to closed.
 Many newer controllers use a combination of these approaches. For
example, a digital signal can be sent to a solenoid that opens or
shuts an instrument air line that then actuates a pneumatically
driven control valve.
 Instrument Lines

The instrument connecting lines are drawn in a manner to distinguish

them from
 Failure Mode
The direction of the arrow shows the position of the valve on failure of
the power supply.
Type of Instrument
The type of instrument is indicated on the circle representing the
instrument-controller by a letter code (see Table).
The first letter indicates the property measured, for example,
F = flow.
Subsequent letters indicate the function, for example,
I = indicating, RC = recorder controller
The letters AH or AL indicate high or low alarms.
 The P and I diagram shows all the components that make up a
control loop.
 For example, as shown in figure, a field-located pressure
transmitter connected to a shared display pressure indicator-
controller with operator access to adjustments and high and low
alarms. The pressure controller sends an electric signal to a fail-
closed diaphragm-actuated pressure control valve.
Notes:
1. The letters C, D, G, M, N, and O are not defined and can be used for
any user specified property.
2. The letter S as second or subsequent letter indicates a switch.
3. The letter Y as second or subsequent letter indicates a relay or a
compute function.
4. The letter Z is used for the final control element when this is not a
valve
Equipment symbols
Transmission line
Transmission line
Tag numbers indicate…
 How read labels in PFD
consider the unit operation P-101A/B and what each
number or letter means.
• P-101A/B identifies the equipment as a pump.
• P-101A/B indicates that the pump is located in area
100 of the plant.
• P-101A/B indicates that this specific pump is number
01 in unit 100.
• P-101A/B indicates that a backup pump is installed.
Thus, there are two identical pumps P-101A and P-
101B.
• One pump will be operating while the other is idle.
Temperature process p&id
HEAT TRANSFER
Fouling Factor
After heat-transfer equipment has been in service
for some time, dirt or scale may form on the heat-
transfer surfaces, causing additional resistance to
the flow of heat. To compensate for this possibility,
the design engineer can include a resistance, called
a dirt, scale, or fouling factor, when determining an
overall coefficient of heat transfer.
When the correct fouling factors are used, the
equipment should be capable of transferring more
than the required amount of heat when the
equipment is clean. At the end of approximately
1 year of service, the capacity will have decreased
to the design value, and a shutdown for cleaning
will be necessary.
Film Coefficients for Fluids in Pipes and
Tubes (No Change in Phase)
PRESSURE DROP IN HEAT EXCHANGERS
The major cause of pressure drop in heat exchangers
is
Friction resulting from flow of fluids through the
exchanger tubes and shell.
Friction due to sudden expansion, sudden
contraction, causes a pressure drop.
Changes in vertical head and kinetic energy can
influence the pressure drop, but these effects are
ordinarily relatively small and can be neglected in
many design calculations.
Tube-side Pressure Drop
It is convenient to express the pressure drop for
heat exchangers in a form similar to the Fanning
equation. Because the transfer of heat is involved, a
factor must be included for the effect of temperature
change on the friction factor. Under these
conditions, the pressure drop through the tube
passes (i.e., tube side) of a heat exchanger may be
expressed as follows (subscript i refers to inside of
tubes at bulk temperature):
Shell-side Pressure Drop
 The pressure drop due to friction when a fluid is flowing
parallel to and outside of tubes can be calculated in the
normal manner by using a mean diameter equal to four
times the hydraulic radius of the system and by
including all frictional effects due to contraction and
expansion.
 In heat exchangers, however, the fluid flow on the shell
side is usually across the tubes, and many types and
arrangements of baffles may be used. As a result, no
single explicit equation can be given for evaluating
pressure drop on the shell side of all heat exchangers.
For the case of flow across tubes, the following equation
can be used to approximate the pressure drop due to
friction (subscript o refers to outside of tubes at bulk
temperature):
CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTION OF HEAT-TRANSFER
EQUIPMENT
When the design engineer selects heat-
transfer equipment, it is necessary to consider
the basic process-design variables and also
many other factors, such as
 temperature strains,
 thickness of tubes and shell,
 types of baffles,
 tube pitch, and
 standard tube lengths.
The following list presents the basic information that should be supplied to a
fabricator in order to obtain a price estimate or firm quotation on a proposal heat
exchanger: Process information
Fluids to be used
(a) Include fluid properties
if they are not readily
available to the fabricator.
Flow rates or amounts of
fluids
Entrance and exit
temperatures
Amount of vaporization or
condensation.
Operating pressures and
allowable pressure drops.
Fouling factors
Rate of heat transfer
Mechanical information
Size of tubes
Diameter
Length
Wall thickness
Tube layout and pitch
Horizontal tubes
Vertical tubes
Maximum and minimum
temperatures and
pressures
Necessary corrosion
allowance
Special codes involved
Recommended materials
of construction.
 CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTION OF
HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT
 When the design engineer selects heat-transfer
equipment, it is necessary to consider the basic process-
design variables and also many other factors, such as
 temperature strains,
 thickness of tubes and shell,
 types of baffles, tube pitch, and
 standard tube lengths.
 Under ordinary conditions, the mechanical design of
an exchanger should meet the requirements of the ASME or
API-ASME Safety Codes.
 The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association
(TEMA) publishes standards on general design methods
and fabrication materials for tubular heat exchangers.
Tube Size and Pitch
 The standard length of tubes in a shell-and-tube heat
exchanger is 8, 12, or 16 ft, and these standard-length
tubes are available in a variety of different diameters and
wall thickness.
 Exchangers with small-diameter tubes are less
expensive per square foot of heat-transfer surface than
those with large-diameter tubes, because a given surface
can be fitted into a smaller shell diameter; however, the
small-diameter tubes are more difficult to clean.
 A tube diameter of 3/4 or 1 in. OD is the most common
size, but outside diameters ranging from 5/8 to 13 in. are
found in many industrial installations.
 Tube-wall thickness is usually specified by the
Birmingham wire gauge.
 Pressure, temperature, corrosion, and allowances for
expanding the individual tubes into the tube sheets must
be taken into consideration when the thickness is
determined.

Tube pitch
Tube pitch is defined as the shortest center-to-center
distance between adjacent tubes, while the shortest distance
between two tubes is designated as the clearance. In most
shell-and-tube exchangers, the pitch is in the range of 1.25
to 1.50 times the tube diameter. The clearance should not
be less than one-fourth of the tube diameter.
 Tubes are commonly laid out on a square pattern or on a
triangular pattern, as shown in Fig. Although a square
pitch has the advantage of easier external cleaning, the
triangular pitch is sometimes preferred because it
permits the use of more tubes in a given shell diameter.

Shell Size
 For shell diameters up to 24 in., nominal pipe sizes apply
to the shell.
 Inside diameters are usually indicated, and schedule
number or wall thickness should also be designated.
 In general, a shell thickness of 3/8 in. is used for shell
diameters between 12 and 24 in. unless the fluids are
extremely corrosive or the operating pressure on the
shell side exceeds 300 psig.
Thermal Strains
 Thermal expansion can occur when materials, such as
the metal components of a heat exchanger, are heated.
For example, in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger,
thermal expansion can cause an elongation of both the
tube bundle and the shell as the temperature of the unit
is increased.
 Because the tube bundle and the shell may expand by
different amounts, some arrangement may be necessary
to reduce thermal strains.
 Temperature stresses due to tube elongation can also be
avoided by using U-shaped tubes, and some exchangers
have a U-type bellows loop or ring in the shell to handle
thermal elongation of the shell.
 Use of the fixed-head type of exchanger should be limited
to exchangers with short tubes or to cases in which the
maximum temperature difference between shell and
tubes is less than 50°F.
 In general, floating-head exchangers with removable
bundles are recommended for most services.
Cleaning and Maintenance
 Heat exchangers require periodic cleaning, tube
replacements, or other maintenance work.
 The inside of straight tubes can be cleaned easily by
forcing a wire brush through the tubes, but cleaning of
the outside of the tubes usually requires removal of the
entire tube bundle from the exchanger.
 Consequently, many exchangers are provided with
removable tube bundles, and the pitch and arrangement
of the tubes are often dictated by the amount and type
of cleaning that are required
Baffles
 Although the presence of baffles in the shell side of a
shell-and-tube exchanger increases the pressure drop
on the shell side, the advantage of better mixing of the
fluid and increased turbulence more than offsets the
pressure-drop disadvantage.
 The distance between baffles is known as the bugle
spacing.
 In general, baffle spacing is not greater than a distance
equal to the diameter of the shell or less than one-fifth
of the shell diameter.
 The most common type of baffle used in heat exchangers
is the segmental baffle, illustrated in Fig.
 Many segmental baffles have a baffle height that is 75
percent of the inside diameter of the shell. This
arrangement is designated as 25 percent cut segmental
baffles.
 Other types of baffles include the disk-and doughnut
baffle and the orifice baffle, shown in Figs.
 Segmental and disk-and-doughnut baffles contain tube-
pass holes of size close to that of the diameter of the
tubes.
 Fluid Velocities and Location of Fluids
 The major factors involved in determining the best
location for fluids in a heat exchanger are
 the fouling and corrosion characteristics of the fluids,
 pressure drop across the unit,
 materials costs.
 When one of the fluids is highly corrosive, it should flow
inside the tubes to avoid the expense of corrosion-
resistant materials of construction on the shell side.
 Because cleaning inside tubes is easier than external
cleaning, consideration should always be given to locating
the fluid with the greatest fouling tendencies inside the
tubes.
 If the other factors are equal and one fluid is under high
pressure, the expense of a high-pressure shell
construction can be avoided by passing the high-pressure
fluid through the tubes.
 The velocities of the fluids passing through the shell side
and the tube side of an exchanger can have a large
influence on the heat-transfer coefficients and the
pressure drop.
 If one of the fluids is much more viscous than the other,
pressure drop on the tube side may be excessive when
the viscous fluid is passed through the tubes at the
velocity necessary for adequate rates of heat transfer.
 The effects of fluid velocities and viscosities, therefore,
must be considered carefully before a final decision is
made concerning the best routing of the fluids
Ineffective Surface
 In the course of heating a fluid, noncondensable gases,
such as absorbed air, may be evolved. If these gases are
not removed, they can collect in the exchanger and form
an effective blanket around some of the heat-transfer
surface.
 Adequate provision, therefore, should be made for
venting noncondensables.
 The heat-transfer surface can also become ineffective
because of build-up of condensate when condensing
vapors are involved.
 Consequently, drains, steam traps with bypasses, and
sight glasses to indicate condensate level are often
necessary auxiliaries on heat exchangers.
 When high pressures are used, relief valves or rupture
disks may be essential for protection.
 Inadequate baffling on the shell side of an exchanger can
result in poor distribution of the shell-side fluid, with a
resulting ineffective use of the available surface area.
HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT COSTS
The major factors that can influence the cost for heat-
transfer equipment are indicated in the following list:
1. Heat-transfer area
2. Tube diameter and gauge
3. Tube length
4. Pressure
5. Materials of construction for tubes and shell
6. Degree and type of baffling
7. Supports, auxiliaries, and installation
8. Special features, such as floating heads; removable
bundles; multipass, finned surfaces; and U bends
Estimation of film coefficient and pressure drop
inside tubes in a shell-and-tube exchanger.
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
Estimation of film coefficient and pressure drop on
shell side in a shell-and-tube exchanger
Material of construction
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION, SELECTION &
FABRICATION
 The designer of any product, other than software
must get involved with material selection.
 Only occasionally will the exact grade of material
be specified by the customer.
 Even then the designer must understand the
material to be able to design the product.
Decisions, decisions!
 So many materials, so much information.
 How do we decide?
 How do we begin to choose?
 First we need to look at the function of the
product – product analysis
 Possible Materials
 Steel
 Aluminium
 Glass
 Plastic
 Material Properties:
 The most important characteristics to be considered
when selecting a material of construction are:
 Mechanical properties:
 Strength-tensile strength
 Stiffness-elastic modulus (Young's modulus)
 Toughness-fracture resistance
 Hardness-wear resistance
 Fatigue resistance
 Creep resistance
 The effect of high and low temperatures on the
mechanical properties
 Corrosion resistance
 Any special properties required; such as, thermal
conductivity, electrical resistance, magnetic properties
 Ease of fabrication-forming, welding, casting
 Availability in standard sizes-plates, sections, tubes
 Cost
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
 Tensile strength
 Stiffness
 Toughness
 Hardness
 Fatigue
 Creep
 Tensile strength
The tensile strength (tensile stress) is a measure of
the basic strength of a material. It is the maximum stress
that the material will withstand, measured by a standard
tensile test.

Stiffness
Stiffness is the ability to resist bending and
buckling. It is a function of the elastic modulus of the
material and the shape of the cross-section of the
member (the second moment of area).
Toughness
 Toughness is associated with tensile strength, and is a
measure of the material's resistance to crack
propagation.
 The crystal structure of ductile materials, such as
steel, aluminium and copper, is such that they stop
the propagation of a crack by local yielding at the
crack tip.
 In other materials, such as the cast irons and glass, the
structure is such that local yielding does not occur and
the materials are brittle. Brittle materials are weak in
tension but strong in compression.
Hardness:
 Hardness is the measure of how
resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent
shape change when a force is applied
 The surface hardness, as measured in a standard test,
is an indication of a material‘s ability to resist wear.
 An important property if the equipment is being
designed to handle abrasive solids, or liquids
containing suspended solids which are likely to cause
erosion
Fatigue:
 Fatigue failure is likely to occur in equipment subject
to cyclic loading; for example, rotating equipment,
such as pumps and compressors, and equipment
subjected to pressure cycling.

Creep
 Creep is the gradual extension of a material under a
steady tensile stress, over a prolonged period of time.
It is usually only important at high temperatures; for
instance, with steam and gas turbine blades
Effect of temperature
 The tensile strength and elastic modulus of metals
decrease with increasing temperature.
 If equipment is being designed to operate at high
temperatures, materials that retain their strength
must be selected. The stainless steels are superior in
this respect to plain carbon steels.
 Creep resistance will be important if the material is
subjected to high stresses at elevated temperatures.
 At low temperatures, less than 10°C, metals that are
normally ductile can fail in a brittle manner.
 Serious disasters have occurred through the failure of
welded carbon steel vessels at low temperatures.
CORROSION RESISTANCE
o General wastage of material-uniform corrosion.
o Galvanic corrosion-dissimilar metals in contact.
o Fitting-localised attack.
o Intergranular corrosion.
o Stress corrosion.
o Erosion-corrosion.
o High temperature oxidation.
o Hydrogen embrittlement
 UNIFORM CORROSION
This term describes the more or less uniform wastage of
material by corrosion, with no pitting or other forms of
local attack.

GALVANIC CORROSION
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals
and/or alloys have physical or electrical contact with
each other and are immersed in a common electrolyte
PITTING
 Pitting is the term given to very localized corrosion
that forms pits in the metal surface.

INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
 Intergranular corrosion is the corrosion of material at
the grain (crystal) boundaries.
 Though the loss of material will be small,
intergranular corrosion can cause the catastrophic
failure of equipment.
 Intergranular corrosion is a common form of attack
on alloys but occurs rarely with pure metals
 EFFECT OF STRESS
 Corrosion rate and the form of attack can be changed
if the material is under stress.
 Generally, the rate of attack will not change
significantly within normal design stress values.
 However, for some combinations of metal, corrosive
media and temperature, the phenomenon called
stress cracking can occur.
 This is the general name given to a form of attack in
which cracks are produced that grow rapidly, and
can cause premature, brittle failure, of the metal.
 EROSION-CORROSION
 The term erosion-corrosion is used to describe the
increased rate of attack caused by a combination of
erosion and corrosion.
 If a fluid stream contains suspended particles, or
where there is high velocity or turbulence, erosion will
tend to remove the products of corrosion and any
protective film, and the rate of attack will be markedly
increased.
 If erosion is likely to occur, more resistant materials
must be specified, or the material surface protected in
some way. For example, plastics inserts are used to
prevent erosion corrosion at the inlet to heat-
exchanger tubes.
 HIGH TEMPERATURE OXIDATION
 Corrosion is normally associated with aqueous
solutions but oxidation can occur in dry conditions.
 Carbon and low alloy steels will oxidize rapidly at high
temperatures and their use is limited to temperatures
below 500°C,
 Chromium is the most effective alloying element to
give resistance to oxidation, forming a tenacious
oxide film.
 Chromium alloys should be specified for equipment
subject to temperatures above 500°C in oxidizing
atmospheres.
 Hydrogen embrittlement
 Hydrogen embrittlement is the name given to the loss
of ductility caused by the absorption (and reaction) of
hydrogen in a metal.
 It is of particular importance when specifying steels
for use in hydrogen reforming plant.
 Alloy steels have a greater resistance to hydrogen
embrittlement than the plain carbon steels.
Selection For Corrosion Resistance
In order to select the material of construction, the
process environment to which the material will be
exposed must be clearly defined. Addition to the main
chemical present, the following must be considered.
1.Temperature: Effect corrosion rate and mechanical
properties.
2. Pressure.
3. pH.
4. Presence of trace impurities.
5. Stream Velocity and erosion-corrosion.
6. Heat transfer rates- differential temperatures.
COMMONLY USED MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION:

o IRON AND STEEL

o STAINLESS STEEL
o NICKEL
o MONEL
o INCONEL
o THE HASTELLOYS
o COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS
o ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS
o LEAD
o TITANIUM
o TANTALUM
o ZIRCONIUM
 NON-METALS
o PVC
o POLYVINYLIDENE
o GLASS-FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTICS
o GLASS AND GLASSED STEEL
o CARBON AND GRAPHITE
o STONEWARE AND PORCELAIN
o BRICK AND CEMENT MATERIALS
o RUBBER AND ELASTOMERS
o PLASTICS
o WOOD
o REFRACTORY MATERIALS
 Case Study (1) – The bike
What is the function of a bike – obvious?
 How does the function depend on the type of
bike?
 Racing
 Touring
 Mountain bike
 Childs
 How is it made to be easily maintained?
 What should it look like (colours etc.)?
 What should it cost?
 How has it been made comfortable to ride?
 How do the mechanical parts work and interact?
 System Analysis – The bike:
 We now need to look at the following for each
part:
 Requirements (mechanical, ergonomic,
aesthetic etc.)
 Function
 How many are going to be made?
 What manufacturing methods are we going
to use?
 Frame Materials
 Steel:
Strong, stiff, heavy, but cheap
 Aluminium:
Weaker, lighter, more expensive than steel
 Composite materials:
Strong, stiff, very light, but expensive to buy and
to fabricate.
Bike Frame
 What Properties?
 Mechanical: Strength, modulus etc.
 Physical: Density, melting point.
 Electrical: Conductivity, resistivity.
 Aesthetic: Appearance, texture, colour
 Process ability: Ductility, mouldability
And last, but not least……….
Cost, cost, cost!
Case Study (2): Drink Container
 What are the requirements?
 Provide leak free environment for storing
liquid.
 Comply with food standards & protect liquid
from health hazards.
 For fizzy drinks, withstand pressure.
 Brand image & identity
 Easy to open
 Easy to store & transport
 Cheap for high volumes.
Costing and Project Evaluation
 Introduction
The design engineer needs to be able to make
quick, rough, cost estimates to decide between
alternative designs and for project evaluation.
Chemical plants are built to make a profit, and an
estimate of the investment required and the cost
of production are needed before the profitability
of a project can be assessed.
 FIXED AND WORKING CAPITAL
Fixed capital is the total cost of the plant ready for
start-up. It is the cost paid to the contractors.
It includes the cost of:
 Design, and other engineering and construction
supervision.
 All items of equipment and their installation.
 All piping, instrumentation and control systems.
 Buildings and structures.
 Auxiliary facilities, such as utilities, land and civil
engineering work
It is a once-only cost that is not recovered at the end
of the project life, other than the scrap value.
 Working capital
Working capital is the additional investment needed,
over and above the fixed capital, to start the plant up
and operate it to the point when income is earned.
It includes the cost of:
1. Start-up.
2. Initial catalyst charges.
3. Raw materials and intermediates in the process.
4. Finished product inventories.
5. Funds to cover outstanding accounts from
customers.
Most of the working capital is recovered at the end of the
project. The total investment needed for a project is the sum
of the fixed and working capital
 COST ESCALATION (INFLATION)
The cost of materials and labour has been subject to
inflation since Elizabethan times.
 All cost-estimating methods use historical data,
and are themselves forecasts of future costs.
 Some method has to be used to update old cost
data for use in estimating at the design stage, and
to forecast the future construction cost of the
plant.
 The method usually used to update historical cost
data makes use of published cost indices.
 These relate present costs to past costs, and are
based on data for labour, material and energy
costs published in government statistical digests.
Example
The purchased cost of a shell and tube heat
exchanger, carbon shell, stainless steel tubes, heat
transfer area 500 m2, was £7600 in January 1998;
estimate the cost in January 2006.
Use the Process Engineering plant index
Index in 1998 = 106
2000 = 108, 100 (change of base)
2004 = 111
So, estimated cost in January
2000 = 7600 x108/106 = £7743,
and in 2004 = 7743 x 111/100 = £8595
From Figure 6.1, the average increase in costs is
about 2.5 per cent per year.
Use this value to predict the exchanger cost in 2006.
Cost in 2006 = 8595 x (1.025)2 = £9030
Say £9000.
 THE FACTORIAL METHOD OF COST ESTIMATION
Capital cost estimates for chemical process plants are often
based on an estimate of the purchase cost of the major
equipment items required for the process.
The other costs being estimated as factors of the
equipment cost.
The accuracy of this type of estimate will depend on what
stage the design has reached at the time the estimate is
made, and on the reliability of the data available on
equipment costs.
In the later stages of the project design, when detailed
equipment specifications are available and firm quotations
have been obtained, an accurate estimation of the capital
cost of the project can be made.
Lang factors
The factorial method of cost estimation is often attributed
to Lang (1948). The fixed capital cost of the project is given
as a function of the total purchase equipment cost by the
equation:

where Cf = fixed capital cost,

Ce = the total delivered cost of all the major equipment
items: storage tanks, reaction vessels, columns,
heat exchangers, etc.,
fL = the “Lang factor”, which depends on the type of process.
fL = 3.1 for predominantly solids processing plant
fL = 4.7 for predominantly fluids processing plant
fL = 3.6 for a mixed fluids-solids processing plant
The values given above should be used as a guide; the factor is best
derived from an organisation’s own cost files.
 Detailed factorial estimates
To make a more accurate estimate, the cost factors that are
compounded into the “Lang factor” are considered
individually. The direct-cost items that are incurred in the
construction of a plant, in addition to the cost of equipment
are:
1. Equipment erection, including foundations and minor
structural work.
2. Piping, including insulation and painting.
3. Electrical, power and lighting.
4. Instruments, local and control room.
5. Process buildings and structures.
6. Ancillary buildings, offices, laboratory buildings,
workshops.
7. Storages, raw materials and finished product.
8. Utilities (Services), provision of plant for steam, water, air,
firefighting services (if not costed separately).
9. Site, and site preparation.
 The contribution of each of these items to the total capital
cost is calculated by multiplying the total purchased
equipment by an appropriate factor. As with the basic
“Lang factor”, these factors are best derived from
historical cost data for similar processes.
 Indirect costs
1. Design and engineering costs, which cover the cost of
design and the cost of “engineering” the plant: purchasing,
procurement and construction supervision. Typically 20 per
cent to 30 per cent of the direct capital costs.
2. Contractor’s fees, if a contractor is employed his fees
(profit) would be added to the total capital cost and would
range from 5 per cent to 10 per cent of the direct costs.
3. Contingency allowance, this is an allowance built into the
capital cost estimate to cover for unforeseen circumstances
(labour disputes, design errors, adverse weather).
Typically 5 per cent to 10 per cent of the direct costs.
 ESTIMATION OF PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COSTS
 The cost of the purchased equipment is used as the basis
of the factorial method of cost estimation and must be
determined as accurately as possible. It should preferably
be based on recent prices paid for similar equipment.
 The cost of specialized equipment, which cannot be
found in the literature, can usually be estimated from the
cost of the components that make up the equipment.
 For example, a reactor design is usually unique for a
particular process but the design can be broken down
into standard components (vessels, heat-exchange
surfaces, agitators) the cost of which can be
found in the literature and used to build up an estimate
of the reactor cost.
 SUMMARY OF THE FACTORIAL METHOD
 Many variations on the factorial method are used. The
method outlined below can be used with the data given
in this chapter to make a quick, approximate, estimate of
the investment need for a project.

 Procedure:
1. Prepare material and energy balances, draw up
preliminary flow-sheets, size major equipment items and
select materials of construction.
2. Estimate the purchase cost of the major equipment items
by using charts and tables.
3. Calculate the total physical plant cost (PPC), using the
factors given in the table
PPC= PCE (1+ f1+ f2……….+f9)
4. Calculate the indirect costs using the factors given
in Table 6.1.
5. The direct plus indirect costs give the total fixed
capital.
6. Estimate the working capital as a percentage of
the fixed capital; 10 to 20 per cent.
7. Add the fixed and working capital to get the total
investment required.
 OPERATING COSTS
 An estimate of the operating costs, the cost of producing the
product, is needed to judge the viability of a project, and to
make choices between possible alternative processing
schemes.
 These costs can be estimated from the flow-sheet, which
gives the raw material and service requirements, and the
capital cost estimate.
 The cost of producing a chemical product will include the
items listed below. They are divided into two groups.
1. Fixed operating costs: costs that do not vary with
production rate. These are the bills that have to be paid
whatever the quantity produced.
2. Variable operating costs: costs that are dependent on the
amount of product produced.
 Fixed costs
1. Maintenance (labour and materials).
2. Operating labour.
3. Laboratory costs.
4. Supervision.
5. Capital charges.
6. Local taxes).
7. Insurance.
8. Licence fees and royalty payments.
 Variable costs
1. Raw materials.
2. Miscellaneous operating materials.
3. Utilities (Services).
4. Shipping and packaging.
Estimation of operating costs
It is usually convenient to do the costing on an
annual basis.
Raw materials
These are the major (essential) materials required to
manufacture the product. The quantities can be
obtained from the flow-sheet and multiplied by the
operating hours per year to get the annual requirements.
The price of each material is best obtained by getting
quotations from potential suppliers but in the
preliminary stages of a project prices can be taken from
the literature.
Miscellaneous materials (plant supplies)
Miscellaneous materials will include:
1. Safety clothing: hard hats, safety glasses etc.
2. Instrument charts and accessories
3. Pipe gaskets
4. Cleaning materials
An accurate estimate can be made by detailing and
costing all the items needed, based on experience with
similar plants. As a rough guide the cost of
miscellaneous materials can be taken as 10 per cent of
the total maintenance cost.
Utilities (services)
This term includes, power, steam, compressed air, cooling
water, and effluent treatment.
The quantities required can be obtained from the energy
balances and the flow-sheets.
The prices should be taken from Company records, if
available.
The current cost of utilities supplied by the utility
companies: electricity, gas and water, can be obtained from
their local area offices.
Shipping and packaging
This cost will depend on the nature of the product. For
liquids collected at the site in the customer’s own tankers
the cost to the product would be small.
Maintenance
This item will include the cost of maintenance labour,
which can be as high as the operating labour cost, and the
materials (including equipment spares) needed for the
maintenance of the plant
The annual maintenance costs for chemical plants are high,
typically 5 to 15 per cent of the installed capital costs. They
should be estimated from a knowledge of the maintenance
costs on similar plant.
As a first estimate the annual maintenance cost can be taken
as 10 per cent of the fixed capital cost; the cost can be
considered to be divided evenly between labour and
materials.
• Operating labour
• This is the manpower needed to operate the plant: that
directly involved with running the process.
The costs should be calculated from an estimate of the
number of shift and day personnel needed, based on
experience with similar processes.
The figures used for the cost of each man should include an
allowance for holidays, shift allowances, national
insurance, pension contributions and any other overheads.

Supervision
This heading covers the direct operating supervision: the
management directly associated with running the plant. The
number required will depend on the size of the plant and
the nature of the process.
The site would normally be broken down into a number of
manageable units. A typical management team for a unit
would consist of four to five shift foremen, a general
foreman, and an area supervisor (manager) and his
assistant.
The cost of supervision should be calculated from an
estimate of the total number required and the current salary
levels, including the direct overhead costs. On average, one
“supervisor” would be needed for each four to five
operators.
An idea of current salaries can be obtained from the salary
reviews published periodically by the Institution of
Chemical Engineers.
Laboratory costs
The annual cost of the laboratory analyses required for
process monitoring and quality control is a significant item
in most modern chemical plants.
The costs should be calculated from an estimate of the
number of analyses required and the standard charge for
each analysis, based on experience with similar processes.
As a rough estimate the cost can be taken as 20 to 30 per
cent of the operating labour cost, or 2 to 4 per cent of the
total production cost.
Example
Preliminary design work has been done on a process to
recover a valuable product from an effluent gas stream. The
gas will be scrubbed with a solvent in a packed column; the
recovered product and solvent separated by distillation; and
the solvent cooled and recycled. The major items of
equipment that will be required are detailed below:
1. Absorption column: diameter 1 m, vessel overall height 15
m, packed height 12 m, packing 25 mm ceramic intalox
saddles, vessel carbon steel, operating pressure 5 bar.
2. Recovery column: diameter 1 m, vessel overall height 20
m, 35 sieve plates, vessel and plates stainless steel, operating
pressure 1 bar.
3. Reboiler: forced convection type, fixed tube sheets, area
18.6 m2, carbon steel shell, stainless-steel tubes, operating
pressure 1 bar.
4. Condenser: fixed tube sheets, area 25.3 m2, carbon steel
shell and tubes, operating pressure 1 bar.
5. Recycle solvent cooler: U-tubes, area 10.1 m2, carbon steel
shell and tubes, operating pressure 5 bar.
6. Solvent and product storage tanks: cone roof, capacity 35
m3, carbon steel.
Estimated service requirements:
Steam 200 kg/h
Cooling water 5000 kg/h
Electrical power 100 kWh/d (360 MJ/d)
 Estimated solvent loss 10 kg/d; price £400/t. Plant
attainment 95 per cent.
 Estimate the capital investment required for this project,
and the annual operating cost;date mid-2004.
Solution
Purchased cost of major equipment items.
Absorption column Bare vessel cost (Figure 6.5a)
£21,000; material factor 1.0, pressure factor 1.1
Recovery column
Bare vessel cost (Figure 6.5a) £26,000; material factor 2.0,
pressure factor 1.0
Vessel cost 26,000 x 2.0 x 1.0 = £52,000
Cost of a plate (Figure 6.7a), material factor 1.7 = 200 x
1.7 = £340
Total cost of plates = 35 x 340 = £11,900
Total cost of column = 52,000 + 11,900 = 63,900, say
£64,000
Reboiler
Bare cost (Figure 6.3a) £11,000; type factor 0.8, pressure
factor 1.0
Purchased cost - 11,000 x 0.8 x 1.0 = £8800.
Condenser Bare cost (Figure 6.3a) £8500; type
factor 0.8, pressure factor 1.0
Purchased cost =8500 x 0.8 x 1.0 =£6800
Cooler Bare cost (Figure 6.3a) £4300; type factor
0.85, pressure factor 1.0
Purchased cost = 4300 x 0.85 x 1.0 = £3700
Solvent tank
Purchase cost Table 6.2 = 1400 x 350.55 = £9894, say
£10,000
Product tank
Purchase cost same as solvent tank = £10,000
TABLES