Nutrition

Define the term ‘nutrient’ and list the groups of major and
minor nutrients
Nutrients: A substance in food the body uses to promote normal growth,
maintenance and repair
Major Nutrients:
Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (water)
Minor Nutrients:
Vitamins and minerals

Define the following terms:

Essential nutrients: nutrient obtained externally and not made by the
body (cannot be made fast enough to meet the body’s needs).
Non-essential nutrients: either made by the body or is consumed in
food Ex: fibre isn't absorbed by the body but assists bowel movement (still
essential for normal functioning of the body)
Recommended dietary (daily) allowance (RDA): The amounts of
selected nutrients considered adequate to meet the known nutrient needs
of healthy people

Define the term ‘energy value’ of a foodstuff and state the

energy yield of each of fat, protein, and carbohydrate
Energy value: indication of the amount of energy needed to digest or
absorb that food. The amount of energy available from food that is
available through respiration) Energy content of
- Proteins: 4 kcal/g
- Carbohydrates: 4 kcal/g
- Fat: 9 kcal/g
- Ethanol: 7 kcal/g
- Organic acids < 4 kcal/g

State the ideal proportion of energy obtained from each of

dietary fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
- 40 -60 % carbohydrates
- 20-30 % proteins
- 15-20% fats

Define the term ‘respiratory quotient’ (RQ) and state the

respiratory quotient for the complete biological oxidation of
fats, carbohydrates, and proteins
RQ = CO2 eliminated / O2 consumed
RQ for selected foods:
- Carbohydrates 1
- Proteins 0.8-0.9
- Fats 0.7
Define the term ‘basal metabolic rate’ (BMR) and state its
normal value
BMR: Reflects the energy the body needs to perform only its most
essential activities (breathing and maintaining resting levels of organ
function):
Normal values:
- 70 Kg Males: 66kcal/hour (or 1kcal/hour/Kg)
- Females 0,9kcal/hour/kg

Define the term ‘specific dynamic effect/ activity’ (SDE/A)

and state its average value
SDE is the increment in energy expenditure above resting metabolic rate
due to the cost of processing food for storage and use.
Its average value is 10% of the caloric intake over a given time period

Macronutrients
Important for supplying energy and is needed in big amounts

With respect to carbohydrates:

Distinguish between complex and simple carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates: sugars (monosaccharide’s and disaccharide’s)
Complex carbohydrates (long chains of sugars): starches and fibre
(polysaccharide’s found in grans and vegetables)

Describe the function of dietary fibre

Two varieties of polysaccharides provide fiber. Cellulose (plentiful in most
vegetables) is not digested by humans but provides roughage or insoluble
fiber, which increases bulk of stool and facilitates defecation. Soluble fiber
such as pectin found in apples and citrus fruits reduces blood cholesterol
levels a desirable goal for most of us.

Briefly describe how glucose is metabolized through glycolysis,

the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain to produce ATP
Anaerobic pathway only includes glycolysis and converts pyruvate to lactic
acid as end product. Lactic acid can be metabolized with other 2 stages
when oxygen is available again.
Glycolysis occurs in cytosol. Breaks down stored glycogen or newly
ingested glucose to produce pyruvate. Process produces 2 ATP molecules
and 2 pyruvate molecules per glucose molecule.
Citric acid cycle occurs in mitochondria. First converts pyruvate to Acetyl
coA where acetyl coA can enter the cycle. 1 ATP and 1 CO2 are produced
per pyruvate molecule. (2 pyruvate per 1 glucose therefore 2 ATP per one
glucose).
Electron transport chain: NADH and FADH2 produced by citric acid
cycle and glycolosis is reduced in the electron transport chain, donating its
electrons to oxygen in a series of reactions known as the electron
transport chain. Doesn't involve metabolites from previous stages.
With respect to lipids:
Briefly describe their metabolism and storage
Metabolism
Phospholipids, cholesterol, triacylglycerols (also called triglycerides) and
lipid-binding proteins help with transport of fats (they’re lipophillic in
lipophobic environment of the blood). Fats get absorbed in the intestine to
form complexes called chylomicrons and enter circulation through
lymphatic duct. Once they enter blood, enzymes in the muscle and
adipose tissue can break down TAG (triacylglycerols).
Storage
When food consumed: glycerol and fatty acids are reassembled in adipose
tissue to TAG’s for storage and cholesterol is used for synthesis of steroid
hormones or membrane components. During fasting: TAG’s are broken
down. Glycerol enters glycolysis and fatty acids undergo beta oxidation to
produce ATP.

Define ‘essential fatty acids’ and explain the term ‘essential’

Essential fatty acids: necessary components of important body
compounds, but cannot be formed in the body so have to be ingested in
the diet. Ex: linoleic acid (omega 6 fatty acid)

List the functions of fatty acids and triacylglycerols

- Help the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins
 - Triglycerides are the major energy fuel of hepatocytes and skeletal
muscle
- Phospholipids are an integral component of myelin sheaths and
cellular membranes
- Fatty deposits in adipose tissue provide a protective cushion around
body organs an insulating layer beneath the skin and an easy-to-
store concentrated source of energy fuel
- Prostaglandins regulatory molecules formed from linoleic acid via
arachidonic acid play a role in smooth muscle contraction control of
blood pressure and inflammation.

List the physiological functions of cholesterol

- Not used for energy
- Important as a stabilizing component of plasma membranes and is
the precursor from which bile salts, steroid hormones and other
essential molecules are formed.

With respect to proteins:

Briefly describe their metabolism
Proteins are broken down to amino acids where they get taken to the liver
in the hepatic portal vein. The liver uses some of the amino acids to
produce albumin. The remaining amino acids enter other tissues and are
used there to produce structural or functional proteins. Where glucose is
low (fasted state), amino acids can enter gluconeogenesis (can only
happen in liver) and produce glucose. In presence of excess proteins,
amino acids are converted to fat.

Define ‘essential amino acids’ and explain the term ‘essential’

Essential amino acids: necessary components of important body
compounds, but cannot be formed in the body so have to be ingested in
the diet

Define the terms ‘biological value’ of amino acids and ‘limiting

amino acids’
Biological value of proteins: a protein has high biological value if it
consists of amino acids in the same proportion as the human body’s needs
for amino acids – i.e. almost all the amino acids will be used after digestion
to form proteins and few will be deaminated and used as an energy
source. Another term for such proteins is ‘complete proteins’.
Limiting amino acids: the amino acid in shortest supply during protein
synthesis, also the amino acid in lowest quantity when evaluating protein
quality.

State the differences in the biological values of meat, cereal,

legume and egg proteins, and explain why combining proteins
from different dietary sources increases their biological value
Animal proteins tend to have high biological values and plant proteins
have low biological values. Legumes, nuts and cereals are protein rich but
their proteins are nutritionally incomplete because they are low in one or
more of the essential amino acids (exception: soybean  plant derived
complete protein) Why does combining proteins of different sources
increase their biological value?
Insure range of amino acids available
For example: when ingested together cereal grains and legumes provide
all the essential amino acids (rice and beans)

Micronutrients
List the fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins
Fat-soluble vitamins
- Vitamins A, D, E and K
Water-soluble vitamins
- B-complex vitamins
- Vitamin C

Briefly describe the role of vitamin A in metabolism and

vision
- Vitamin A (also called Retinol) provides primary site for reaction
responsible for generating impulses in the optic nerve: component of
visual pigments.
- Maintenance of epithelial tissues
- Antioxidant
- Helps prevent damage to cell membranes

With respect to the B vitamins:

List their general functions in metabolism
Vitamin B’s in general are precursors for coenzymes involved in
metabolism (DNA synthesis)
List the specific roles of each of the following: vitamin B12, folic
acid, vitamin B6 and biotin
B6 (pyridoxine):
- Important for transamination reactions
- Co-enzyme used in amino acid metabolism
B12 (cobalamin): Most water soluble vitamins get absorbed through
mediated transport however vitamin B12 isn't recognized by the intestine
when not complexed with intrinsic factor. Therefore lack of intrinsic factor
or vitamin B12 will lead to anaemia.
- Needed for the synthesis (and maturation) of red blood cells
- Co-enzyme in nucleic acid metabolism
Folic acid (B9): Lack of folate leads to anaemia
- Co-enzyme in nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism
- Important in DNA repair and methylation.
Biotin:
- Co-enzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen and amino acids
- Carboxylation reactions in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism
List the functions of vitamin C in the body
- Used in collagen synthesis (such as for bone, cartilage, gums)
- Antioxidant
- Aids in detoxification
- Improves iron absorption

Briefly explain how the plasma concentration of active

vitamin D is affected by sunlight, the kidney, and factors that
determine its GIT absorption
- Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium
- Vitamin D3 is made from cholesterol.
- UV rays from the sun activate this vitamin.
- An enzyme in the kidney activates this vitamin further to its most
active form, which then stimulates an increase in calcium absorption
in the intestines

List the metabolic and haemostatic functions of vitamin K

- Involved in transformation of pro-thrombin in coagulation cascade
- Important in blood clotting

State the function of vitamin E

- Acts as a good reducing agent therefore has antioxidant functions
- Helps prevent damage to cell membranes
- Keeps the immune system strong against viruses and bacteria
- Also important in the formation of red blood cells and it helps the
body use vitamin K
- Also helps widen blood vessels and keep blood from clotting inside
them

With respect to iron:

Briefly describe its distribution in the body
Iron gets supplied to body by diet  GIT 
- Bone marrow erythrocytes  circulating erythrocytes 
phagocytosis by macrophages erythrocyte lysis and release of Fe
from haemaglobin
- Liver: storage in hepatocytes
- Pancreas
- Fetus in pregnancy
- Cardiac muscle
- Other muscles
- Other tissues

Describe the absorption of iron from the GIT

The intestine absorbs iron and 70% of iron goes to haemoglobin by binding
with transferrin and then traveling to the bone marrow. Hepcidin is peptide
hormone produced by liver when too much iron is absorbed. It inhibits the
transporter, ferroportin, needed for absorption of iron in the intestine.
List the functions of iodine in the body
- Supplied through diet
- Needed for cells to convert food into energy
- Needed for normal thyroid function
- Iodine is absorbed from the blood into thyroid tissue to produced T3
and T4 needed for regulation of metabolism and thermoregulation
(component of thyroid hormones: production)

With respect to fluoride:

List the tissues in which this mineral is found
- Bones and teeth (highest amount)
- Kidneys (where excreted)
- Plasma

State the function of this mineral

- Maintenance of tooth (and probably bone) structure.
- Prevents tooth decay and is found in teeth.
Diet
Define a ‘balanced diet’
A balanced diet is a diet containing the amounts of nutrients that will
supply the metabolic needs of a person’s body more or less exactly over a
given period of time, while avoiding nutrients known to contribute to ill-
health
List the best food sources of each of the major vitamins and
minerals, and of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.