ARTICLE IN PRESS

Journal of Wind Engineering

and Industrial Aerodynamics 91 (2003) 1393–1410

Historical view of long-span bridge aerodynamics

Toshio Miyata*
Department of Civil Engineering, Yokohama National University, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan

Abstract

Some features of bridge aerodynamics of wind engineering are reviewed at this time, in view
of the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge and also to celebrate Professor Alan G.
Davenport’s 40 years of contribution to the field. Primary highlighted topics are: description
of motion-dependent forces for flutter instability, presentation of gust responses caused by
turbulent winds and suppression problems of wind-induced vibrations.
r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Long-span bridge aerodynamics; Suspension bridge; Cable-stayed bridge; Flutter instability;
Gust response; Wind-induced vibration; Vibration control; Historical view

1. Introduction

Going for the record in stretching the spans of bridges much farther, wind effects,
particularly coupled flutter instability on those flexible structures provided with
specified properties and configurations must be intensively investigated. Contem-
porary procedures for the wind-resistant design of long-span bridges started around
late 1950s and early 1960s, keeping step with expanded economical trend and project
demands to construct many of infrastructures in developed countries after the 2nd
world war. There should also be another factor of technical preparations to push the
trend. There are, first of all, a couple of research works associated with the specified
phenomenon of torsional flutter which arose after the collapse of the Tacoma
Narrows Br. Furthermore, there are some attempts at including sophisticated ideas
to model the effects of natural wind fluctuations on gust responses and also attempt
at formulating motion-dependent forces applicable to flutter onset.
Some historical views of long-span bridge aerodynamics will be presented
comprehensively in this contribution, from early stage studies after the Tacoma

*Tel.: 453394041; fax: 453311707.

E-mail address: miyata@cvg.ynu.ac.jp (T. Miyata).

0167-6105/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jweia.2003.09.033
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1394 T. Miyata / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 91 (2003) 1393–1410

Narrows Br. to the recent constructions of long-span suspension bridges and cable-
stayed bridges. The highlighted topics are flutter instability, buffeting or gust
responses and vibration control.

2. Flutter instability

2.1. Early stage of wind effects study and design

In 19th and early 20th centuries, a considerable number of medium-span

suspension bridges were constructed. Many of these displayed instability in the
wind, and there were collapses also. The causes, as well as physical backgrounds, are
not disclosed in the historical records. At any rate, it can safely be said that further
development of suspension bridge structures to cross longer spans was achieved by
using parallel wire and its air spinning method. The introduction of a design
procedure based on the deflection theory was also quite essential. However,
installation of thin plate–girder deck resulted in the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows
Br., and the reason for this is a lack of knowledge on necessary stiffness for the deck
and instability in the wind. The fact that had to wait for the future discoveries in this
point was that the mechanism of torsional flutter lead to the collapse, and this was
caused by dynamic vortex separation from the windward edges of the stiffening
girder and this descended along the floor web, always synchronized with torsional
motion, as shown in Fig. 1(b) [1].
Since this accident, the importance of wind-resistant design for long-span
suspension bridges has been highly recognized and has led to many research works
and investigations on bridge aerodynamics. Farquharson et al. [2] conducted a series
of wind tunnel experiments on the Tacoma Narrows Br. Bleich [3] made analytical

(a)

(b)
Fig. 1. The collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, (a) torsional motion led to collapse, (b) separated
vortex descending by flow visualization [1].
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T. Miyata / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 91 (2003) 1393–1410 1395

studies on the flutter problem. In them they developed the instability analysis using
motion-dependent forces on a thin airfoil given by Theodorsen [4] in the field of
aeronautics. Theodorsen’s formulas are written for the form of harmonic motion as

 
b b ’
L ¼ 2prbV 2 f1 f þ Z’ þ f2 f ;
V 2V

 
b b ’
M ¼ prb2 V 2 f1 f þ Z’  f3 f ; ð1Þ
V 2V
where f1 –f3 are theoretically derived functions of reduced frequency k ¼ ob=V ; and
Z; f are non-dimensional vertical heaving and torsion, respectively. In this
connection, Pugsley [5] suggested a model, that might provide a framework for
the introduction of measured aerodynamic forces into the bridge flutter problem.
Those research works led thereafter to the development of long-span suspension
bridge projects, for instance, the Forth Br. (truss deck; completed in 1964) and the
Severn Br. (shallow box deck; 1966) in UK on which many wind tunnel tests have
been carried out by Scruton et al. [6]. An earlier project to construct a long-span
suspension bridge, before the Honshu–Shikoku bridges in Japan, had just started
around the same time. With special reference to their first case of the Wakato Br.
(truss deck; 1962), Hirai and Okauchi [7] developed empirical formulation to
describe the motion-dependent moment force on such actual stiffening decks as
various trusses and a shallow box (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Earlier wind tunnel measurement of the motion-dependent force [7], (a) shallow truss girder deck,
(b) shallow box girder deck for the Wakato Bridge.
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1396 T. Miyata / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 91 (2003) 1393–1410

The moment force comes from the torsional motion of the sectional model in the
wind tunnel tests, as follows:

p
M¼ rAbV 2 ða þ ibÞf; ð2Þ
4

where a and b arepfunctions

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi of reduced frequency k ¼ ob=V ; f is harmonic torsional
motion and i ¼ 1: Inapplicability of airfoil aerodynamics for the actual bridge
decks has been recognized and discussed since such earlier stage. Selberg [8]
introduced an empirical formulation to describe the actual aeroelastic flutter
behavior of suspension bridges by simplifying airfoil aerodynamic forces.
Actual prototype for stiffening decks took a variety of discussions and
investigations from structural as well as aerodynamic viewpoints to get better
performance in each project. Looking at long-span suspension bridges over 1000 m
span, the traditional truss stiffening deck was developed from earlier rigid
designs of the George Washington Br. (non-stiffening deck completed in 1931 and
original double truss deck in 1962), the Golden Gate Br. (1937) and the Verrazano
Narrows Br. (1964) to the lightweight designs of the Tacoma Narrows Br., the
Mackinac Straits Br. (1958) in USA, the Forth Br. in UK and the Tagus River Br.
(1966) in Portugal. The progress to use a shallow box deck is recognized in the
proposal by Leonhardt [9] of a mono-cable suspension bridge, with inclined hanger
for the design competition (1960) of the Tagus River Br. The investigation for the
Severn Br. design in NPL [10] was aimed at developing from even light truss
deck an innovative streamlined box deck with thin fin-shaped wings for sidewalk at
both sides.

2.2. Development of motion-dependent force formulation

The description of those motion-dependent forces, used even at present, has been
formulated around the middle of 1960s. Ukeguchi et al. [11] proposed, after Hirai’s
formulation, an aeronautical type of description of both lift and moment so as to
extend to vertical heaving and torsion coupled flutter. Their aerodynamic force
coefficients are obtained from the experimental measurement on sectional bridge
decks in the forced harmonic motion. At the same time, Scanlan and Sabzevari [12]
gave another expression of motion-dependent lift and moment forces, named
aerodynamic derivatives later [13]:

L
¼ H1 h’ þ H2 a’ þ H3 a;
m
M
¼ A1 h’ þ A2 a’ þ A3 a; ð3Þ
mr2

where h and a are heaving and torsional motions. This expression has been utilized
afterwards throughout many occasions of research works. Tanaka [14] also discussed
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T. Miyata / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 91 (2003) 1393–1410 1397

similar formulation in aeronautical type, different from the above Scanlan’s notation
as


y’ f’
L ¼ prb2 o2 LyR y þ Lyl þ LfR f þ Lfl ;
o o


y’ f’
M ¼ prb4 o2 MyR y þ Myl þ MfR f þ Mfl ; ð4Þ
o o
where y and f are heaving and torsional harmonic motions. This formulation has
taken an active role in the flutter verification for the Honshu–Shikoku Bridges.
Afterwards considering the case for a full-span bridge, Scanlan [15] developed
formulation of two degrees of heaving and torsion to extend to three degree’s
including sway motion and along wind drag component
 
1 2  h’  B’a 2  2  h
Lae ¼ rU B 2KH1 þ kH2 þ K H3 a þ K H4 ;
2 U U B
 
1 h’ B’a h
Mae ¼ rU 2 B2 KA1 þ KA2 þ K 2 A3 a þ K 2 A4 ;
2 U U B
 
1 p’ B’a p
Dae ¼ rU 2 B KP1 þ KP2 þ K 2 P3 a þ K 2 P4 ; ð5Þ
2 U U B
where h; a and p are heaving, torsion and sway motions, respectively and L; M and D
are lift, pitching moment and drag forces, respectively. The above system of
equations involving 12 aerodynamic derivatives was extended to one containing 18
aerodynamic derivatives [16]. Such an ideal type of complete expression relevant to
three motion and force components has been firstly thought to have no appropriate
example. However, it succeeded in explaining aerodynamic damping or exciting
behavior (described later on) of the complicated coupled flutter instability as shown

Fig. 3. 3D flutter onset in full-scale model of the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge [17]: (a) deformed by wind loads
1
in 100 full-scaled aeroelastic model, (b) time history response at mid-point of center span ð8:4 m=sÞ:
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1
in Fig. 3, which took place in the wind tunnel test [17] of a 100 scaled full aeroelastic
bridge model for the Akashi Kaikyo Br. The figure shows a response record during
coupled vibration of three degrees under large lateral deflection and windward-down
rotation at the center by wind loading.

2.3. Three-dimensional analysis of coupled flutter

By using experimentally identified motion-dependent forces in a reasonable

fashion, flutter instability can be developed in the form of complex eigenvalue
analysis to get critical wind speed, aerodynamic damping or exciting and flutter
mode shape and its frequency. Original analysis of flutter instability can be cited in
Bliech’s works based on the simplified idea of modal analysis, as mentioned earlier.
Following such procedures, Miyata and Yamada [18] started to establish a large size
three-dimensional FEM model of the suspension bridge to combine all the structural
and aerodynamic properties and variables and bring it to complex eigenvalue
analysis. That was an appropriate tool to verify the aerodynamic stability of a long-
span suspension bridge, the Akashi Kaikyo Br. just underway at that time.
Assuming a three-dimensional structural frame model of the entire bridge
structure deformed under specified wind loads, the governing equation of motion
can be described as follows:
M.u þ C’u þ Ku ¼ Fv u’ þ FD u
u ¼ ½us ; fs ; vs ; uc ; vc ; vh T ; ð6Þ

where u is the deformed displacement vector, M the deformed mass matrix, C the
deformed structural damping matrix, K the deformed stiffness matrix, Fv the motion-
dependent aerodynamic force coefficient matrix proportional to velocity of motion
and FD the proportional to displacement of motion.
Those aerodynamic coefficients Fv and FD are defined as functions of reduced
frequency k ¼ ob=V and given in two degrees or three degrees according to specified
case as follows [17]:
2 3
Ls ðuÞ Ls ðfÞ Ls ðvÞ 0 0 0
6 7
6 Ms ðuÞ Ms ðfÞ Ms ðvÞ 0 0 0 7
6 7
6 D ðuÞ D ðfÞ D ðvÞ 0 0 0 7
6 s s s 7
F¼6 7; ð7Þ
6 0 0 0 Lc ðuÞ 0 0 7
6 7
6 0 0 0 0 Dc ðvÞ 0 7
4 5
0 0 0 0 0 Dh ðvÞ

where L; M and D are lift, pitching moment and drag force coefficients, respectively,
u; f and v are heaving, torsion and sway displacements, respectively, and the
subscripts s; c and h mean stiffening girder, main cable and hanger cable,
respectively. The aerodynamic forces on the stiffening deck are described in the
form of 18 coefficient components.
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1
Fig. 4. Change of aerodynamic response of 100 full-scaled aeroelastic model of the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge
with wind tunnel speed [17], (a) response aerodynamic damping in logarithmic decrement, (b) response
frequency in torsional, branch.

Complex eigenvalue analysis was carried out by assuming the reduced frequency
over an appropriate range concerned, making a convergence calculation to coincide
the critical wind speed of flutter with a specified wind speed to give the displacements
of the entire structure by wind loads. Fig. 4 [17] presents one of those measured
results in a full aeroelastic model study for the Akashi Kaikyo Br. to compare with
calculated ones by using the method above. Inclusion of the effects of sway motion
and drag force is found out to be quite effective in describing measured aerodynamic
behavior of damping or exciting motions.
Those realistic applications of three-dimensional flutter analysis method were
effectively used for the better estimation of aerodynamic stability of the forthcoming
projects of very long-span suspension bridge such as Messina Crossing Br. Many
relevant factors and variables involved in the analysis procedures, of course, should
be identified and prepared reasonably in advance.

3. Effects of wind fluctuation

3.1. Early stage of buffeting study

The sophisticated work in three series by Davenport [19–21] made wide and strong
impact on researchers and engineers of those days who were interested in specified
wind-resistant design and problems of long-span bridges as well as many other
structures. The papers treated probabilistic behaviors of natural winds to include
well the effects of wind fluctuation on gust responses of flexible structures. With
those effects on long-span bridges, some of the gust responses have been partially
recognized in earlier observations and measurements on full-scale bridges [2,22,23].
Buffeting, or random response, can be found in Liepman [24] and Scruton [22]
before they were expanded in Davenport’s work [21].
Appropriate inclusion of gusty wind effects has succeeded in using statistical
procedures and skillful ideas of random vibration, which have been completed in the
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form of spectral analysis for stochastic process around late 1950s after pre- and post-
war era. With the theoretical treatments on stochastic variables and stationary
random series, intensive works by Rice [25], Blackman [26] and others can be cited.
On the other hand, those papers and books by Eringen [27], Crandall [28], Robson
[29] and others must be effective to describe and treat random vibrations in the form
of spectral analysis. The understanding of the characteristics of natural winds and
their effects on the structures has also been developed in a comparison of the mean
pressures on small buildings in full-scale and in wind tunnel models undertaken by
Jensen [30] and others.
The necessary starting point for those new understandings appear, afterwards, to
be further full-scale studies. However, in the following decade, only a few studies of
full-scale aeroelastic wind tunnel models have been carried out to investigate realistic
gust responses inevitable to long-span suspension bridges. Hirai et al. [31] conducted
a small grid turbulence test in their 8 m-wide wind tunnel. Davenport constructed a
boundary layer wind tunnel in the middle of 1960s and investigated wind-induced
responses on the Halifax Narrows Br. [32] in a well-simulated turbulent flow. Paying
special attention to building the aeroelastic full-scale models of long-span bridges in
a somewhat simplified manner, Davenport et al. [32] carried out a couple of full-scale
aeroelastic studies in the boundary layer flows on the Tacoma Narrows Br., the
Golden Gate Br. and an ideal flat-plate model. That was named a taut strip model,
and could simulate appropriate set of mode shapes. Fig. 5 presents some
comparisons of those experimental responses in different low and high turbulence
levels for torsional flutter as well as buffetings. The success in processing such data in
random response tests can be entirely attributed to the availability of digital
computing procedures of on-line PDP-11 system and other systems.
It is quite well known that since 1970s many developments have occurred in
connection with problems of Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, which came
to be called as Wind Engineering later. Works to put those results and
understandings of fluctuating winds, gust responses and others together in the form
of code practices also started, for instance, in the National Building Code of Canada

Fig. 5. Dynamic response of ‘‘taut strip’’ models in different flow regimes [32], (a) ‘‘Tacoma’’ H-section
model, (b) ‘‘Golden Gate’’ model.
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[33] or even for the Wind-resistant Bridge Design Code and the Manual of the
Honshu–Shikoku Bridges in Japan [34]. The effects of fluctuating winds on the
Honshu–Shikoku bridges were principally introduced through correction coefficients
and they added effects of gust responses to mean wind loads. Regarding the onset of
flutter, incidentally, the effect of low-frequency part of fluctuation was quasi-
statically taken into the correction factor for its critical wind speed, for instance, 1.08
for the Akashi Kaikyo Br. of 1991 m long center-span, under a 10% level of
turbulence intensity.
Meanwhile, calculating the gust responses for a specified bridge by spectral
analysis method proposed at that time, has been considered quite general and
conventional approach to follow, for a long time it was used as explained below.
Firstly, the structural information of natural frequencies and mode shapes have to be
prepared in advance by an appropriate eigenvalue analysis for a specified single-
degree freedom motion. Measuring those data of mean static force coefficients in
wind tunnel tests, the factors and variables for fluctuating forces are to be given by
quasi-steady approaches for determining the aerodynamic admittance as a transfer
function and the aerodynamic damping. Assuming appropriate input data of natural
winds in the spectral form of wind speed, the decay factor of spatial correlation, and
the intensity of turbulence, finally, the root mean square values of response can be
derived to estimate peak responses and other variables.

3.2. Three-dimensional analysis of gust response

Davenport’s seminal work is nearly 40 years passed, and the basic frame of
calculation remains the same as of Davenport [21]. In this sense, the influence of his
works is very essential in the construction of many prototype structures. However, as
many concerned researchers agree, several basic problems still remain unsolved. For
instance, more strict determination is required in connection with associated
parameters like coherent characteristics of gusty wind, formulation of fluctuating
forces caused by turbulent winds, sort of transfer function, or aerodynamic
admittance between fluctuating wind and force. Formulation of the specified motion
of the structural system concerned should also be contrived so as to estimate more
realistic behaviors.
1
Observation in the 100 full-scaled aeroelastic wind tunnel model for the Akashi
Kaikyo Br. [17,35,36] is a good and instructive example and suggests that it is very
likely to arrive at realistic behaviors from models of long-span suspension bridges
under turbulent winds. With the rise of wind speed, the truss girder largely deflected,
swayed and twisted in windward-down way, or negative to the wind at the center by
wind loads. The twisted girder means the occurrence of an additional relative angle
of the girder to the mean wind flow, which really varied along the bridge axis. Those
gust responses observed under prescribed turbulent flows are quite random and
coupled in a three-dimensional way, sometimes showing snake-like motions of a sort
of wave propagation, under statically deflected and twisted displacements as
mentioned. With comparison among a couple of gust responses observed in the tests,
actually, horizontal responses were smaller than calculated by conventional spectral
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analysis for individual motion, while vertical and torsional responses were larger
[36]. The reason why those responses could not be estimated so correctly were that
relatively better circumstances created in the wind tunnel test, may be caused by their
complicated, rather three-dimensionally coupled fashion, and this suggests the need
of a more sophisticated approach.
In the past conventional treatments of gust response analysis, as mentioned above,
modal analysis techniques have been developed to use a set of mechanical modes
determined without wind action. It is quite obvious that those mechanical modes are
not the actual ones of the bridge structure vibrating in wind flows because of
aeroelastic effects caused by motion-dependent forces. In this regard, the approach
using motion-dependent forces for flutter analysis [18] can provide a better
representation of wind-induced responses of long-span bridges in term of complex
modes. Minh et al. [37] developed a complex-mode buffeting analysis method by
integrating the structural system of the three-dimensional FEM model of a full
bridge and all the three-dimensional set of static and motion-dependent forces in
wind, where the assumption for aerodynamic damping is not needed to be specified.
These complex modes can be herein named aeroelastic complex-modes to indicate
the fact that all aeroelastic effects are inherently incorporated. The modal
decomposition then can be made straightforward by a complex modal analysis
scheme. A comparative consideration in the time domain formulation could result in
a better fit with those observed data of the full-scale aeroelastic wind tunnel model
tests for the Akashi Kaikyo Br., by assuming reasonable fitting for the spatial
coherence of fluctuating wind speed measured in the wind tunnel. It can also follow a
characteristic behavior of frequency evolution in each component among coupled
motions with the change of mean wind speed.
Since the completion of the Akashi Kaikyo Br. in the spring of 1998, some field
measurements have been conducted to verify the structural and other performances
expected for the actual bridge in a variety of responses, to earthquakes, strong winds,
traffic vehicles and others. Fig. 6 presents one of those response records of the
stiffening girder at the midpoint measured when a typhoon passed with the wind
acting nearly perpendicular to the bridge axis for 10 or 20 min on an average. As for
the sway displacement and motion, it is quite significant that a sort of long-term,
"
rather than shorter averaging time, trend of fluctuation is accompanied with random
vibration of the lowest frequency of sway motion. This fact may be caused by the
change of wind loads due to wind speed specified from time to time. On the other
hand, the vertical response seems relatively stable, with constant mean.
Accumulation of those data in full-scale measurements will be really effective to
identify more accurate factors and variables associated with gust responses of long-
span bridges. Comparative studies in the topics concerned is also necessary.

4. Suppression of wind-induced vibrations

In the cases of very long-span suspension bridges, flutter instability, even torsional
flutter or coupled flutter in case of the Tacoma Narrows Br. should be investigated.
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Fig. 6. Time history observation in recent field measurement of wind and response during Typhoon
Passage in the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge (courtesy of Honshu–Shikoku Bridge Authority).

However, the vortex-induced vibrations on bluff box decks of medium-span bridges,

the so-called rain–wind vibrations of stay cables of long-span cable-stayed bridges
and others, are sometimes recognized to result in the need to be suppressed after the
completion or at the final stage of all design works.

4.1. Configuration development

Keeping a step ahead with the development of long-span suspension bridges as

mentioned previously, bluff plate–girder and box–girder deck bridges have been
constructed for medium-span continuous bridges and cable-stayed bridges. In late
1960s, engineers and researchers’ attention has turned to the reports of couple of
collapses and accidents on those girder bridges. A technical committee [38] was
appointed in 1970 to go into the design criteria of box–girder bridges. The
deliberations of the committee highlighted the deficiencies in the knowledge of
aerodynamic behavior of bridges and initiated a series of wind tunnel tests to
conduct a longer time parametric study on the aerodynamics of box–girder bridges,
with the aim of producing comprehensive design rules.
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Afterwards those investigations and actual designs and constructions in 1970s, it

has been generally noticed [39] that those wind-induced vibrations are all quite
dependent on configurations of decks and locations of additional elements, such as
railings, parapets and others attached at the end of the deck. At the same time
reduction effects of turbulence of winds on the bridge as well as structural damping
attached to the structure, if possible, have also been recognized to be quite
significant. Knowledge of the mechanisms of vortex-induced vibrations caused by
vortex separation has been accumulated to produce a variety of countermeasures by
which inconvenient wind-induced vibrations were reduced to allowable levels of
motion. Such features, or developments of configuration, to change from original
shapes of decks, are
(1) adoption of shallow sections,
(2) fitting a soffit plate or spoiler,
(3) use of tapered fairings to the side faces or inclining the web planes,
(4) use of low parapets and perforated railings,
(5) use of deflector flaps, single or double, or vanes.

Although these countermeasures are applied to many actual designs and

constructions so far, the fact that has been disturbing bridge engineers is that the
effectiveness on a specified case does not necessarily imply the same in another case
in mitigating the vibration due to complicated phenomena of circumstances. One of
solutions to such situation was to provide a couple of design rules and
recommendations to treat specified responses on short- and medium-span bridges
of bluff crosssections [40,41]. On the other hand, many ad hoc wind tunnel tests have
been also carried out to get reasonable relevant results case by case.

4.2. Installation of passive/active damper

Let us go back to past to look for an illustrative example of an attempt to suppress

a wind-induced vibration on actual bridge construction. One such is of Forth Br.
The damping device was used for sliding block system for the main tower under
erection [42]. This is purely a mechanical approach which attaches additional
damping to required level of the actual structure. Installation of more sophisticated
devices such as tuned mass damper might be effectively applied to limited area of the
site and fabricated separately by specified design requirement. This happened in late
1970s, for example with the Citycorp Center and the John Hancock Tower buildings
[43] and later the Bronx Whitestone Br. [44]. Tuned mass dampers were utilized
afterwards in other box–girder deck bridges of medium span and pylons of cable-
stayed bridges to reduce the vortex-induced vibrations of the completed ones and/or
those being erected.
The use of contemporary active damper devices started in the late 1980s to apply
to high-rise main towers of suspension bridges under erection in particular. The
application to free standing main tower of about 300 m high Akashi Kaikyo Br.,
shown in Fig. 7 [45,46], was really effective in reducing a variety of wind-induced
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T. Miyata / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 91 (2003) 1393–1410 1405

Fig. 7. Installation of vibration control devices in the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge [45,46], (a) free standing
tower of 300 m high, (b) a set of active damper system applied to erection stage only.

vibrations which were estimated in the wind tunnel studies in advance. These devices
also worked as a sort of an exciter to carry out the field observations later. As for the
main towers of this bridge, because of the huge structure possibly vortex-induced
vibrations were still estimated persistently even after completion and have passive
type of damping systems were to be installed inside the tower sections and between
the stiffening girder and the towers.
As summarized above, those suppression procedures of wind-induced vibrations,
independent of any configuration developments by changing the crosssection from
original design or fitting supplemental elements, or installing appropriate damper
devices, passive or active, have been studied so far and actualized in different ways.
However, as for the adoption of contemporary damping devices, their design criteria
are not satisfactorily investigated and compared with civil engineering structures.
Whether maintenance free or not, as one of the design alternatives of conventional
structural and/or aerodynamic design approaches, there will be a host of new
challenges.

4.3. Rain–wind-induced vibration

When providing a new idea to create a specified structure or its element, or when
developing a new technique to make a substantial progress, sometimes, major error
may miss being noticed and failure may occur actually after the completion, as seen
in case of the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Br. The rain–wind-induced vibration
of a long stay cable in the long-span cable-stayed bridges is the case. It was
recognized over a period of years in early 1980s that a newly developed round shape
and smooth surface coated with polyethylene (PE), has resulted in the onset of very
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Fig. 8. An observation and an application to suppress rain–wind-induced vibration in stay-cables of long-

span cable-stayed bridge, (a) an example of observation of violent vibration, (b) pattern-indented surface
in the Tatara Bridge [46,48,49].

violent galloping-type vibrations for stay cables (Fig. 8(a)). Among a couple of
actual measurements in prototype bridges, some higher peak amplitudes reached
more than 10 times their cable diameters. Hikami [47] firstly noticed one of the
primary reasons to excite the vibration because he knew the work on formulation of
water rivulets caused by rainfall on the smooth surface of the cable under the axial
flow in the rear wake. Such a violent onset on the stay cables has been clearly
understood to be quite fatal for a while and the cable-stayed bridge system cannot
survive.
Intensive efforts have been made to investigate the mechanisms of phenomena
observed and to provide appropriate ideas to suppress those vibrations in two
different ways. One is the aerodynamic means to develop surface configuration on
round, smooth stay cables appropriately, and another is the mechanical approach to
add structural damping of a certain level equipped by appropriate devices. Fig. 8(b)
shows an example of surface improvements processed on the stay cables of 19 cm
diameter and longest cable 460 m as in the Tatara Br. completed in the spring of
1999 [46,48,49]. Creating certain degree of roughness in concave holes, not
uniformly, on the surface of PE coated cables was actually applied, and this
succeeded in disturbing consistent formation of water rivulets. Another reason why
not uniformly processed pattern-indented cables were adopted on this bridge, is for
keeping the same low level of wind loads as on the normal smooth surface cables,
where the drag coefficient of 0.7 was prescribed at Reynolds number for the design
wind speed range. Complete uniform roughness processed in concave pattern on the
surface produced higher level at similar Reynolds number, 1.0–1.2 on normal cable
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at lower Reynolds number. Actually, it was only reported that a couple of specified
stay cables have experienced a small level, about a quarter of diameter, of damped
vibration under wind speeds of 10–20 m=s in the rainfall, which was nearly the same
as the predicted ones in the wind tunnel tests.

5. Concluding remarks of bridge aerodynamics

Some historical views on aerodynamic performances and procedures relevant to

wind-resistant design of long-span suspension bridges and partly cable-stayed
bridges were herein described comprehensively. On this occasion of celebrating 40
years of contribution to the field by Dr. Alan G. Davenport, I feel privileged to write
and refer on the past significant breakthroughs, in ideas and practice.
Perspective developments may now be put forth from prevailing understanding
and practice
(a) Complicated formulation is not necessarily effective in modelling specified
phenomena. This is so without satisfactory data preparation and presentation of
relevant variables and properties.
(b) Along with efforts of acquiring more accurate and reliable data in the wind
tunnel tests, practical developments of numerical analyses should be encouraged
more intensively to overcome deficiency between one and the other.
(c) Introduction of new ideas or technical concepts needs to be carried out carefully
prior investigations. Aerodynamic behaviors associated with wind-induced
responses concerned are quite susceptible to configurations, variables and
properties of structures or their elements as well as specified turbulent winds at
the site.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to express his sincere gratitude to the helpful discussions
with two colleagues, Dr. H. Yamada, Professor, and Dr. H. Katsuchi, Associate
Professor and so with the cooperation offered by Mr. T. Ichinose, Yokohama
National University, in preparing the manuscript. All the past works and references
cited herein were quite essential to write this review. Thanks to Honshu–Shikoku
Bridge Authority for giving us use data on their full-scale field measurements and
other materials.

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