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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Definition of Speaking

Speaking is considered to be the most important active skill (widdowson,

1994), while (Rodriques, 2000:32) speaking is producing utterance for

communicating messages. Also Bygate says, ‘’ Speaking is a skill which a deserves

attention every bit as much as literary skills, in both first and second language. It is

the skill which the students are frequently judged. It is also the vehicle par excellent

of social solidarity, of social ranking, of professional advancement and of business

(Bygate,1997:VIII). It indicates that as one of the language skills, speaking should

get the attention from teachers and learners because it plays the important role in

our society.

Based on the some definitions above, it can be synthesized that speaking is

the process of using the urge of speech to pronounce vocal symbols in order to share

the information, knowledge, idea and opinion to the other person. Moreover,

speaking cannot ne dissociated from listening aspect, because speaking involves

speaker and listener.

Harmer stated that there are three main reasons for getting students to speak

in the classroom:

1) Speaking activities provide rehearsel opportunities changes to practice real life

speaking in the safety of the classroom.

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2) Speaking task in which students try to use any or all of language they know

provide feedback for both teachers and students. Everyone can see how well

they are doing: both how successful they are and what language problems they

are experiencing.

3) In speaking, students have opportunities to activate the various elements of

language they have stored in their brains, the more automatic their use of these

elements become. as a result, students gradually become autonomous language

users. This means that they will be able to use words and phrases fluency

without very much conscious thought (Harmer, 2007:123).

2.2 Basic Types of Speaking

There are 5 basic types of speaking (Brown, 2007) :

1) Imitative At one end of a continuum of types of speaking performance is

the ability to simply parrot back (imitate) a word or phrase or possibly a sentence.

While this is a purely phonetic level of oral production, a number of prosodic,

lexical, and grammatical properties of language may be included in the criterion

performance. We are interested only in what is traditionally labeled "pronunciation"

no inferences are made about the test-taker's ability to understand or convey

meaning or to participate in an interactive conversation. The only role of listening

here is in the short-term storage of a prompt, just long enough to, allow the speaker

to retain the short stretch of language that must be imitated.

2) Intensive a second type of speaking frequently employed in assessment

contexts is the production of short stretches of oral language designed to

demonstrate competence in a narrow band of grammatical, phrasal, lexical, or

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phonological relationships (such as prosodic elements-intonation, stress, rhythm,

juncture). The speaker must be aware of semantic properties in order to be able to

respond, but interaction with an interlocutor or test administrator is minimal at best.

Examples of intensive assessment tasks include directed response tasks, reading

aloud, sentence and dialogue completion; limited picture-cued tasks including

simple sequences; and translation up to the simple Sentence level.

3) Responsive. Responsive assessment tasks include interaction and test

comprehension but at the somewhat limited level of very short conversations,

standard greetings and small talk, simple requests and comments, and the like. The

stimulus is almost always a spoken prompt (in order to preserve authenticity), with

perhaps only one or two follow-up questions or retorts:

a. Mary : Excuse me, do you have the time ?

Doug : yeah, nine-fifteen

b. T : what is the most urgent environmental problem today ?

S : I would say massive deforestation

c. Jeff : hey, stef, how’s it going ?

Stef : not bad, and your self ?

Jeff : I’m good

Stef : cool. Okay, gotta go.

4) Interactive The difference between responsive and interactive" speaking is

in the length and complexity of the interaction, which sometimes includes multiple

exchanges and/or multiple participants. Interaction can take the two forms of

transactional language, which has the purpose of exchanging specific information,

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or interpersonal exchanges, which have the purpose of maintaining social

relationships. (In the three dialogues cited above, A and B were transactional, and

C was interpersonal.) In interpersonal exchanges, oral production can become

pragmatically complex with the need to speak in a casual register and use colloquial

language, ellipsis, slang, humor, and other sociolinguistic conventions.

5) Extensive (monologue). Extensive oral production tasks include speeches,

oral presentations, and story-telling, during which the opportunity for oral

interaction from listeners is either highly limited (perhaps to nonverbal responses)

or ruled out altogether. Language style is frequently more deliberative (planning is

involved) and" formal for extensive tasks, but we cannot rule out certain informal

monologues" such as casually delivered speech (for example, my vacation in the

mountains, a recipe for outstanding pasta primavera, recounting the plot of a novel

or movie).

2.3 Micro and Macro Skills of Speaking

The micro skills refer to producing the smaller chunks of language such as

phonemes, morphemes, words, collocations, and phrasal units. The macro skills

imply the speaker's focus on the larger element fluency, discourse, function, style,

cohesion, nonverbal communication, and strategic options. The micro and macro

skills total roughly 16 different objectives to assess in speaking (Brown :142-143).

Micro and macro skills in oral production:

Micro skills

1) Produce differences among English phonemes and allophonic variants.

2) Produce chunks of language of different lengths.

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3) Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions,

rhythmic structure, and intonation contours.

4) Produce reduced forms of words and phrases.

5) Use an adequate number of lexical units (words) to accomplish pragmatic

purposes.

6) Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery.

7) Monitor one's own oral production and use various strategic devices?

Pauses, fillers, self-corrections, backtracking-to enhance the clarity of the

message.

8) Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), systems (e.g., tense,

agreement, pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.

9) Produce speech in natural constituents: in appropriate phrases, pause

groups, breath groups, and sentence constituents.

10) Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.

11) Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse.

Macro skills

1) Appropriately accomplish communicative functions according to situations,

participants, and goals.

2) Use appropriate styles, registers, implicature, redundancies, pragmatic

conventions, conversation rules, floor-keeping and -yielding, interrupting,

and other sociolinguistic features in face-to-face conversations.

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3) Convey links and connections between events and communicate such

relations as focal and peripheral ideas, events and feelings, new information

and given information, generalization and exemplification.

4) Convey facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues

along with verbal language.

5) Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing key

words, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting the meaning of

words, appealing for help, and accurately assessing how well your

interlocutor is understanding you.

2.4 Definition of Procedure Text

Procedure text is a text that is designed to describe how something is

achieved through a sequence of actions or steps. And then (Despiknas 2004:33) also

mentions that procedure text tells how something is accomplished through a

sequence of action or steps. It includes set of instructions how to do something and

how something works or directions to get to a certain places and rules through a set

of actions or steps.

2.5 Purpose of Procedure Text

Communicative purpose of this text is to describe how something is made

through a sequence of actions or steps.

2.6 Generic Structure of Procedure Text

A procedure texts usually has three sections. These sections are also called

generic structures, there are:

1) The aim or goal

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In this section, explain what will be achieved through the steps that will be

explained in the next paragraph.

2) Material or Ingredients

After we know what will be achieved, then in this section tell us the

materials or ingredients that must be prepared or needed. So, that something

can be achieved properly.

3) Steps to Achieve the Goal

In this section, tell us how the steps that must be done in order or contain of

the steps to make something in the goal.

2.7 The Characteristics of Procedure Text

There are some characteristics of procedure text. There are:

1) Use adverbial of sequence / using temporal conjunction (e.g: first, second,

third, the last)

2) Use command / imperative sentence (e.g: put the noodles on the…., cut the

union…, wash the tomatoes…).

3) Using action verb

4) Using simple present tense

2.8 Example of Procedure Text

How to make milkshake

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A milkshake is a sweet, cold beverage which is usually made from milk, ice cream,

or iced milk, and flavorings or sweeteners such as butterscotch, caramel sauce,

chocolate sauce, or fruit syrup. If you want to make a delicious milkshake by your

selves, then this is the way how to make it.

The ingredients that you need to make a milkshake are:

1) 4 cups vanilla ice cream

2) 2 cups milk

3) 4 teaspoons chocolate sauce (optional)

4) 1 cup fresh or frozen strawberries

Now, follow these steps to make a milkshake.

1) Place milkshake glasses into the freezer. Using cold glasses will help the

shake stay cool to give you time to enjoy. Leave for up to an hour if possible.

2) Soften ice cream. It is easier to make a shake when the ice cream is slightly

soft. Take the ice cream out of the freezer a few minutes before making your

shake.

3) Place the ingredients into a blender. Mix the ice cream, milk and added

flavors into the blender. Blend on high for one minute. Don’t leave in the

blender for longer or the shake will melt quickly.

4) Pour shakes into frosty glasses. Take the glasses out of the freezer as soon

as the blending is complete. Then pour the shake mixture in.

5) Drop a straw into the shake, then enjoy. You can sip a shake right from the

glass but somehow the straw adds to the flavor and the experience.
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2.9 Teaching Method

General models and families of teaching methods are guides for designing

educational activities, environments and experiences.( Stephen Petrina :127)

In the most general terms, there are four or five different models of instructional

strategies or teaching methods. Having spent years in schools, that we will

recognize each and probably have strong preferences for one or two models:

1) Didactic- Direct teaching; Verbal and typically in the form of a lecture or

presentation.

2) Modeling- Direct teaching; Visual and typically in the form of

demonstration and practice.

3) Managerial- Indirect or Interactive teaching; Facilitation, individualization

and group management.

4) Dialogic- Indirect Interactive teaching; Socratic Technique of dialogue,

questions and thought provocations.

2.10 Kinds of Teaching Method

According to (Cruikshank, Bainer & Metcalf, 1999 in (Petrina, n.d.) there

are 41 kinds of teaching methods :

1) Academic games or competition

Learners compete with each other one to-one or team- to-team to determine which

individual or group is superior at a given task such as "spelldowns," anagrams,

technology trivia, Odyssey of the Mind, or project competition. Commercially

available, academic computer games are also very popular.

2) Activity
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a general teaching method (e.g., problem solving, design challenge, field trips, role

playing) based on planned, purposeful involvement of students.

3) Brainstorming

Order to generate creative ideas, learners are asked to withhold judgment or

criticism and produce a very large number of ways to do something, such as resolve

a problem. For example, learners may be asked to think of as many they can for

eliminating world hunger. Once a large number of ideas have been generated, they

are subjected to inspection regarding their feasibility.

4) Case Study

A detailed analysis is made of some specific, usually compelling event or series of

related events so that learners will better understand its nature and what might be

done about it. For example, learners in a technology lab might investigate the wear

and tear of skate boarding on public works. Another class might look at cases of

digital technologies and privacy.

5) Centers Of Interest And Displays

Collections and displays of materials are used to interest learners in themes or

topics. For example, children may bring to school and display family belongings

that reflect their ethnic heritage. The intention may be to interest the class in the

notion of culture. Or, the teacher might arrange a display of different devices used

in measurement to prompt interest in that topic.

6) Colloquia

A guest or guests are invited to class for the purpose of being interviewed in order

to find out about the persons or activities in which they are involved. Thus, a guest
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musician might serve as a stimulus for arousing interest in music and musical

performance.

7) Contract

Written agreements entered into by students and teachers which describe academic

work to be accomplished at a particular level ill a particular period of time such as

a week or month.

8) Controversial Issues

An issues-based, teacher-directed method that focuses on controversies. Students

are directed through a process that assists them in understanding how to deal with

controversial and sensitive issues and clarifies these issues in a group context.

Involves critical thinking and discourse analysis.

9) Cooperative learning

Learners are placed in groups of four to six. Sometimes the groups are as diverse or

heterogeneous as possible. In such cases, group members are often rewarded for the

group's overall success. Student groups might be given a teacher presentation on

division of fractions. They would then be given worksheets to complete. Team

members would first help and then quiz one another.

10) Culture jamming

A methods used to empower students to "speak back" to mass advertisements and

media images that enforce stereotypes and select representations of individuals or

groups. Empowers students to mock or "jam" images of popular culture.

11) Debate
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A form of discussion whereby a few students present and contest varying points of

view with regard to an issue. For example, students could take different positions

and debate an issue: "Should rights to free speech on the internet be extended to

students in schools?"

12) Debriefing

A method used to provide an environment or platform for the expression of feelings

and transfer of knowledge following an experience. Debriefing may come at the

hands of a tragic event or may be used more generally following an intentionally

educational experience. Debriefing relies on the skills of the facilitator to reframe

an experience or event to appropriately channel emotions and knowledge toward

understanding and transformation.

13) Demonstration

A teaching method based predominantly on the modeling of knowledge and skills.

A form of presentation whereby the teacher or learners show how something works

or operates, or how something is done. For example, a teacher could demonstrate

how to use a thesaurus, how to operate a power drill, how to scan an image, or what

happens when oil is spilled on water as when an oil tanker leaks. Following that,

students practice under teacher supervision. Finally, independent practice is done

to the point of proficiency.

14. Direct instruction

A term used to describe explicit, step-by-step instruction directed by the teacher.

The format or regimen advocated is demonstration, guided practice, and

independent practice. Thus the teacher might teach a reading, mathematics,

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geography or technology concept or skill. Following that, students practice under

teacher supervision. Finally, independent practice is done to the point of mastery.

15) Discovery or inquiry

Discovery learning is used when students are encouraged to derive their own

understanding or meaning for something. For example, Students are asked to find

out what insulation acts as the best barrier for cold or hot environments.

Experiments that are not teacher demonstrations are part of discovery learning.

16) Discussion

Discussions occur when a group assembles to communicate with one another

through speaking and listening about a topic or event of mutual interest. To

illustrate, a group of learners convenes to discuss what it has learned about global

warming.

17) Drill and practice

A form of independent study whereby, after the teacher explains a task, learners

practice it. After Students are shown how to use Ohm's Law, they are asked to make

calculations of current, resistance and voltage.

18) Feedback

A semi-formal mode of communicating to students constructive criticism regarding

their performance during an activity.

19) Field observation, fieldwork, field trip

Observations made or work carried on in a natural setting. Students visit the local

museum of natural history to see displays about dinosaurs, or they begin and operate

a small business to learn about production and marketing.

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20) Independent study or supervised study

Described in this chapter, independent study occurs when learners are assigned a

common task to be completed at their desk or as a home study assignment.

21) Individualized instruction

Any of a number of teaching maneuvers whereby teaching and learning are tailored

to meet a learner's unique characteristics.

22) Installation

Students present material within a formal structure for displaying audio, multimedia

or visual artifacts.

23) Module

A module is a self-contained and comprehensive instructional package, meaning

that basically everything that the student needs is in the module. A form of

individualized instruction whereby students use a self-contained package of

learning activities that guides them to know or to be able to do something. Students

might be given a module containing activities intended to help them understand

good nutrition.

24) Mastery learning

As a class, students are presented with information to be learned at a predetermined

level of mastery. The class is tested and individuals who do not obtain high enough

scores are retaught and retested. Those who passed undertake enrichment study

while classmates catch up.

25) Mixed-mode instruction

A combination of "face-to-face" and on-line methods.

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26) On-line instruction and learning

A self-directed and automated approach that utilizes hypermedia (internet browsers,

etc.) for communication that generally provides independence from the

architectural constraints of classrooms.

27) Performance

Students act out through dance, drama, music or other expressive forms.

28) Presentation and lecture

Students listen to a person who talks about a topic. To illustrate, the teacher, or a

guest speaker, tells the class all about the invention of the transistor.

29) Problem

A general teaching method and organization of curriculum and knowledge where

students work purposefully toward a solution, synthesis or cause. Often called

problem-based learning.

30) Programmed and automated instruction

A form of individualized instruction whereby information is learned in small,

separate units either by way of reading programmed texts or using computer-based

programs (See On-line instruction).

31) Project

Students work through a series of activities and problems culminating in the

completion of something tangible (e.g., artifact, media, performance). A form of

individualization whereby learners choose and work on projects and activities that

facilitate and support the development of skills and knowledge. Often, learners not

only choose topics but also the means of their conduct and production.
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32) Protocols

Learners study an original record or records of some important event and then try

to understand the event or its consequences. They might watch a film depicting

actual instances of discrimination and then consider its causes and effects.

33) Recitation

Students are given information to study independently. They then recite what they

have learned when questioned by the teacher. For example, students read about

what causes pollution, and the teacher, through, questioning, determines the extent

and nature of their knowledge and understanding.

34) Reports, written and oral

Individuals or groups of learners are given or choose topics. For example, each may

be asked to find out about one planet in our solar system, or about solar powered

vehicles. What they learn is shared with other class members by way of oral or

written presentations.

35) Role playing

Learners take on the role of another person or character to see what it would be like

to be that person or character. Thus, a student could play the role of an imaginary

student no one likes or a news reporter.

36) Simulation game

Students play a specially designed, competitive game that mirrors some aspect of

life. For example, they might play the Ghetto Game to find out about the problems

and pressures that ghetto dwellers face and to sense how difficult it is to improve

one's lot in life. Another commercially available simulation game is Gold Rush (life
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and adventure in a frontier mining camp). Many simulation games, such as Sim

City, are automated.

37) Simulation

Learners engage with something intended to give the appearance or have the effect

of something else. Thus students may engage in a simulation of the United Nations

General Assembly in order to have "first hand experience" with how it works and

what its delegates do.

38) Synectics

The use of specific techniques to foster creativity in students. For example, the

students may be asked to develop metaphors to describe mobility across different

terrains.

39) Tutoring

A form of individualization whereby either a teacher, or perhaps a fellow student,

provides a learner or small group of learners with special help, usually because they

are not learning well enough with only conventional instruction.

40) Unit

An intentionally designed, integrated, thematic organization of curriculum and

knowledge through combinations of demonstrations, discussions, activities,

problems, and projects.

41) Values clarification

Teachers lead students through a series of moral and ethical dilemmas, such as birth

control or clear-cutting forestry practices, to assist them in clarifying their values

and moral choices.

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2.11 Demonstration Method

Demonstration means an act of showing something by proof or evidence.

Demonstration is a process where the teacher shows or illustrates a skill or a

principle." (Kramer. 1999:91).

"A demonstration is the repetition of a series of planned actions designed to

illustrate certain phenomena" (Peterson in Vreken. 1980: 15 1).

From three definition above The writer can conclude that, it can be seen that

the purpose is to show and to explain how something works or is accomplished. So

that the audience get the message clearly since they listen, know, and see the steps

of how something is done.

2.12 Types of Demonstration

It has been propounded by Chikuni (2003) in (Iline, 2013) that, there are

two types of demonstrations :

1) The whole process demonstrations

The teacher demonstrates the full process from the beginning to the end without

interruption by leaners’ participation. For instance, the teacher show how to tack

the dart, stich it, and fasten the thread and pressing the dart to the correct side. So,

the pupils will then follow the process by making their darts.

2) The step by step demonstrations

For Gwarinda (1993) the step by step demonstration is Done stage by stage with

teacher will explaining each action as the operations proceeds. Chikuni (2003) also

notes that the step by step demonstration takes place when the process is presented

in stages that are inter-spaced by leaners’ participation.

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2.13 Implementing Demonstration Method

(Helmiati:71-72) state that there are 5 steps to implementing

demonstrations method :

1) Determine procedures and devices related to the material being studied.

2) Ask the students to watch the teacher demonstrate the activity.

3) Ask the students to practice doing the skills what the teachers

demonstrates before.

4) Do exercise step-by-step.

5) Make the conclusion with students

2.14 Advantages and Disadvantages of Demonstration Method

According to (Kurniasih & Berlin : 88) there are advantages and

disadvantages in demonstration method :

a) Advantages

1) Can stimulate students to be more active in following learning process.

2) Can add experience of students.

3) Can help students remember more longer about the material conveyed.

4) Can reduce misunderstanding because the teaching is clearer and more

concrete.
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5) Can answer all problems that arise in the mind of each student because

they participate directly.

b) Disadvantages

1) This method requires a considerable amount of time.

2) The use of media must be complete, and if there is a lack of media, the

demonstration method becomes less efficient.

3) Requires a cost that is quiet expensive, especially to buy materials as

media.

4) If students are not active, the demonstration method becomes ineffective.

2.15 Hypothesis

The statistic hypothesis states:

1) Alternative hypothesis (Ha)

There is a significant effect of demonstration method towards student

speaking skills in procedure text.

2) Null hypothesis (Ho)

There is no a significant effect of demonstration method towards student

speaking skills in procedure text.