DIFERENSIASI

dan
SPESIALISASI SEL

Rahmatina B. Herman
 Cells
Are the simplest structural units
into which a complex multicellular
organism can be divided and still
retain the functions characteristic of
life
 Differentiation
Is the change that a cell undergoes from
unspecialized to a specialized
Specialized cells have structural and
functional characteristics that differ from
the undifferentiated ancestor cells
Through differentiation a fertilized egg
develops into embryo
…..Differentiation
Unspecialized
- Physical structure
- Function
 change

- Permanent
- Specific

Specialized
 …..Differentiation

During differentiation process, cell could be have:

New property:
- structural (ex: actin – myosin)
- biochemical (ex: new metabolic enzymes)
Loss property:
- structural (ex: nucleus, organelles)
- biochemical
 …..Differentiation

Specialized cell structure reflects

specialized cell functions

Specialized function is founded

on the differentiation of
specialized structure
Fertilized egg cell  morula
Determination: genetic chromosome: DNA nucleotide
sequence

Growth: prior to/ during determination

transcription, translation & gene expression
Differentiation: new properties: structural, biochemical
loss of preexisting …

Morphogenesis: new shape/ form

 Morula      embryo
cell  specific tissue/ organ

Each cell of the morula can develop into a

normal embryo
At the final stage of embryo development:
ectoderm

Transplanted to other part

epidermal tissue can change into
(ectoderm) mesoderm
At the early stage of cell development
- Each cell has the potential to develop
into different types of tissue cells of
the same species
- This potential is based on the genetic
composition  a specific sequence of
DNA nucleotides in each gene


Determination
 Determination

Process that establishes the fate of cell

During determination, some alternative models
of gene expression become permanently
“turned off” while others are sequentially
expressed, further and further restricting the
course of differentiation of the cell
Prior to and during determination the cell may
increase its biomass through growth
 Theories of Differentiation
The earliest and simplest theory for explaining
differentiation was:
The genetic composition of the nucleus
undergoes changes during successive
generations of cells in such a way that one
daughter cell inherits a different set of genes
from that of the other daughter cell
This theory has now been disproved
 …..Theories of Differentiation

1st Argumentation:
It is especially well illustrated by Briggs and King
(1950) with the simple experiment:
The nucleus from an intestinal mucosal cell of a
frog, when surgically implanted into a frog
ovum from which the original nucleus has been
removed, often causes the formation of a
normal frog
 …..Theories of Differentiation

The implantation is done during the blastula

can be a normal embryo
It means differentiation has not occurred during
the blastula
It demonstrates that even the intestinal
mucosal cell, which is a well-differentiated cell,
still carries all the necessary genetic
information for development of all structures
required in the frog’s body
 …..Theories of Differentiation

It has become clear that differentiation results

not from loss of genes but from selective
repression of different genetic operons
2nd Argumentation:
Electron micrographs suggest that some
segments of DNA helixes wound around histone
cores become so condensed that they will no
longer uncoil to form RNA molecules
 …..Theories of Differentiation

One suggestion for the cause of this effect is following:

It has been supposed that the cellular genome begins
at a certain stage of cell differentiation to produce a
regulatory protein that forever thereafter represses a
select group of genes. Therefore the repressed genes
will never function again.
Regardless of the mechanism, most mature cells of the
human being produce ± 8000 – 10.000 proteins rather
than the potential  100.000 if all genes were active
 …..Theories of Differentiation
3rd Argumentation:
Embryological experiments show also that certain
cells in an embryo control the differentiation of
adjacent cells.
For instance, the primordial chordamesoderm is
called the primary organizer of the embryo
(because it forms a focus around which the rest of
embryo develops) differentiates into a mesodermal
axis that contains segmentally arranged somites
and, as a result of inductions in the surrounding
tissues, causes formation of essentially all the
organs of the body
 …..Theories of Differentiation

4th Argumentation:
Another instance of induction occurs when the
developing eye vesicles come in contact with
the ectoderm of the head an cause it to thicken
into a lens plate that folds inward to form the
lens of the eye.
Cells that will form the eye is replaced with cells
that will form the intestine, the development
remains normal (during the blastula)
 …..Theories of Differentiation

Therefore, a large share of the embryo develops

as a result of such induction, one part of the
body affecting another part, and this part
affecting still other parts
Thus, although our understanding of cell
differentiation is still hazy, we know many
control mechanisms by which differentiation
could occur
What is The Role of DNA?
transcription and translation
for the formation of
enzymes and other proteins
necessary for
the directed differentiation

Genetic complement

Gene Expression
 …..What is The Role of DNA?
Gene (DNA)

RNA formation

Protein formation

Cell structure Cell enzymes

Cell function
General scheme by which genes control cell function
 …..What is The Role of DNA?
During development is regulated at 3 levels:
Basic biochemical regulatory mechanisms
Inter-relationship between nucleus, cytoplasm,
cytoplasmic organelles
Interactions between cell & its environment
Basic building blocks of DNA:
- Phosphoric acid (P)
- Sugar: Deoxyribose (D)
- Bases: Nucleotides:
> Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G)
> Pyrimidines: Thymine (T), Cytosine (C)
Arrangement of deoxyribose nucleotides
In a double strand of DNA
 …..What is The Role of DNA?
Because of almost all DNA is located in the nucleus of
the cell and yet most of functions of the cell are carried
out in the cytoplasm

Some means must be available for the DNA genes of

the nucleus to control the chemical reactions of the
cytoplasm
This is achieved through the intermediary of another
type of nucleic acid  RNA
The formation of RNA is controlled by the DNA of the
nucleus
 …..What is The Role of DNA?

The first stage of the formation is process of

transcription that is transferring of DNA code to RNA
code
Two strands of DNA molecules separate temporarily
One of these strands is then used as a template for
synthesis of RNA molecules
The code triplets in DNA cause formation of
complementary code triplets (codons) in RNA
Codons then control the sequence of amino acids in a
protein to be synthesized in the cytoplasm
 …..What is The Role of DNA?

When one strand of DNA is used to cause

the formation of RNA, the opposite strand
remains inactive
Each DNA strand in each chromosome is
such a long molecule that it carries the
code for an average of ± 4000 genes
 Synthesis of RNA
Formation of basic building blocks of RNA
Almost the same as those of DNA, except:
1. Sugar deoxyribose is replaced by sugar ribose
2. Thymine is replaced by uracil (another pyrimidine)
Formation of RNA nucleotides
> 4 separate nucleotides are used in formation of RNA
> RNA nucleotides contain the bases:
- Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G)
- Pyrimidines: Uracil (U), Cytosine (C)
 .….Synthesis of RNA
Activation of RNA nucleotides
- By adding to each nucleotide 2 phosphate (P)
radicals to form triphosphate
- The 2 P are combined with nucleotide by high-
energy phosphate bonds derived from the ATP of the
cell
- Results of activation is the large quantities of energy
which is used in promoting chemical reactions that
add each new RNA nucleotide to the end of RNA
chain
Combination of ribose nucleotides with a strand of DNA
to form a molecule of ribonucleic acid (RNA) that carries
the genetic code from the gene to the cytoplasm.
The RNA polymerase moves along the DNA strand and
builds the RNA molecules
 Types of RNA
Messenger RNA – the codons
- Molecules of mRNA are long
- Molecules of mRNA are composed of several
hundred – several thousand nucleotides in
unpaired strands
- Single mRNA strands that are suspended in
cytoplasm
- Containing codons
- RNA codons are different for different amino
acids
 AMINO ACID RNA CODONS
Alanine GCU GCC GCA GCG
Arginine CGU CGC CGA CGG AGA AGG
Asparagine AAU AAC
Aspartic Acid GAU GAC
Cysteine UGU UGC
Glutamic Acid GAA GAG
Glutamine CAA CAG
Glycine GGU GGC GGA GGG
Histidine CAU CAC
Isoleucine AUU AUC AUA
Leucine CUU CUC CUA CUG UUA UUG
Lysine AAA AAG
Methionine AUG
Phenylalanine UUU UUC
Proline CCU CCC CCA CCG
Serine UCU UCC UCA UCG AGC AGU
Threonine ACU ACC ACA ACG
Tryptophan UGG
Tyrosine UAU UAC
Valine GUU GUC GUA GUG
Start / initiating (CI) AUG
Stop/terminating (CT) UAA UAG UGA
 …..Types of RNA
Transfer RNA – the anticodons
- It transfer amino acid molecules to protein
molecules as protein is being synthesized
- tRNA act as carrier to transport specific type of
amino acids to ribosome
- In ribosome each type of tRNA recognizes a
particular codons and thereby delivers the
appropriate amino acids
- During protein formation, anticodons bases
combine loosely with codons bases by
hydrogen bonding
- tRNA contains only ± 80 nucleotides
 …..Types of RNA
Ribosomal RNA
- It constitutes ± 60% of ribosome
- The remainder of ribosome is protein containing ± 75
types of proteins that are structural proteins & enzymes
needed in the manufacture of protein molecules
- Ribosome of nucleated cells are composed 2 physical
subunits: small subunit (1 RNA nucleotide & 33 protein)
and large subunit (3 RNAs & > 40 protein)
- mRNA and tRNA first couples with the small subunit
- Then the large subunit provides most of the enzymes
that promote peptide linkages between amino acids.
- Thus, the ribosome act as a manufacturing plant in
which the protein molecules are formed
 Formation of Proteins on Ribosome:
Process of Translation
When a molecule of mRNA comes in contact with a
ribosome, it travels through the ribosome
The ribosome reads the codons of mRNA
As each codon passes through, an amino acid is added
to the growing protein chain
tRNA molecule determines which of some amino acids
will be added at each stage of protein formation
All cells in a multi-cellular organisms contain the same
DNA
Cells from different types copy different set of genes
Cells from different types synthesize different sets of
proteins
In principle, cells can vary by:
1. Control of transcription:
when and how the gene is copied (transcribed)
2. Control of processing:
how initial processing of RNA transcription
3. Control of transport:
which mRNA would be exported out of nucleus
4. Control of translation:
which mRNA in cytoplasm to be translated by
ribosome
5. Control of mRNA degradation
Step I: the synthesis of primary RNA transcript is
extremely important
 DNA
1 Transcription control

Primary RNA transcript

2 Processing control
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
3 Transport control

mRNA
Translational control by
ribosome selection among mRNA degradation control
mRNAs 4 5

Protein Inactive mRNA

 TUGAS

Proses molekuler pembentukan RNA

Proses molekuler pembentukan protein
intraseluler
Prose molekuler pembentukan produk
intraseluler yang nonprotein