Commercial Layer Management

V.K. Saxena and S. K. Bhanja

ICAR-CARI, Izatnagar

The chickens developed and reared for egg production are termed as layer. At the hatchery itself,
day-old layer-type chicks are sexed mostly by vent sexing and only female chicks are retained for egg
production or sale to farmers for layer farming. Transformed from rural farming to poultry has developed
full-fledged industry within short span of 30-35 years. Today, poultry is one of the fastest growing segments
of the agricultural sector in India and many other countries. In India, egg production, egg number and per
capita availability of eggs have increased several times from 1970 to 2011-12 (Table -1).

Table -1· Improvement in layer production in India

Indicators 1970-71 2011-12 %change over 1970-71

Egg production 5.3 b 66.5 b 1154.72

Eggnumber 270 348 28.8

Per capita egg availability 10 p.a. 55 p.a. 450.00

Poultry population 138.5 million 729.21 million 426.51

Overall, modern layers registered the % increase in various parameters over vintage layers is given
below:
~ Eggnumber - 28.8 per cent
~ Eggmass -42.7 per cent
~ Eggweight -11.7 per cent
~ Feed efficiency - 32.4 per cent

The increase in production volume and productivity per bird may largely be attributed to the ongoing
genetic improvement programme and release of modern strains of broilers and layers. All Indian
Coordinated Program initiated in early 19070's by ICAR have contributed largely towards development of
modern layer/broiler strains both at SAUs and ICAR institutes. The high yielding layer strains were also
developed at private sector. There are three major layer breeding companies in the world viz. Erich
Wesjohann (with Lohmann Tierzucht (LTZ), Hy-Line and H & N (Heisdorf and Nelson Farms lnc.), Hubbard-
ISA (with ISA, Shaver, Babcock and Hubbard) and Hendrix poultry (with Hisex, Bovans and Dekalb). The
layer breeding companies in India, have also developed and released several modern layer strains. Their
grandparent stocks are imported into the country from poultry breeders in developed countries. They are
propagated by franchise hatcheries or breeder firms according to the guidelines of the breeder, and the
commercial chicks are obtained, sexed and sold to the interested farmers. Three- or four-way crossing is
commonly used to produce the commercial layer, with four way being the most common. Hence, all the
parent breeder males and females will be hybrids. Crossing is carried out to exploit hybrid vigour. The layer
breeding companies have utilised different breeding and selection programmes at different periods of time.
Several commercial strains of layer-type chickens (like BV-300, Bovans or Hyline) are available in the
market.

Current Status of Poultry Production in Uttar Pradesh: Present poultry population (18.66 million) in Uttar
Pradesh constitutes about 27.2% of total livestock population (68.71 million) of the state and 2.5% of total
poultry population in India (729.2 million). The total livestock population in Uttar Pradesh has increased
from 60.27 million to 68.71 million during 2007 to 2012 whereas poultry population exhibited steep rise
from 8.17 millon to 18.66 million (111.41%) during the period, showing an increasing popularity of poultry
in the state over the time. The egg production (908.3 million) was 121 % of target set for the state in year
2012-13 but constitute only 2.4% of the national egg production. The per capita availability of egg has
increased from 5 to 8 in the state during 2007 to 2012 but it is far below the national average of 58
(BAHFS,2014).The number of broilers and poultry meat production has also declined in 2012-13 compared
to 2007-08.These situations indicate the potential of the state for poultry rearing but warrants a proactive
approach and policies to support poultry production in Uttar Pradesh.

Management of commercial Layers:

Housing:
Following points need consideration in selection of location for construction of a poultry house.
• Access to road service
• Level of the ground should be high
• The place should be dry.
• Future expansion needs
• Drainage
• Exposure of the house
• Wind direction
• Distance between houses
Basic Principles for Layout Design:
.:. Layout should not allow visitors (for office works) and outside vehicles to come in contact with
birds. From this, administrative block and feed mill unit should be kept away from sheds on farm .
•:. Younger birds should be kept away from disturbances due to movements. Brooder and grower
houses preferably be located at far end of site, away from administrative block and mill unit .
•:. The houses of should be necessarily 'placed on the upwind flow side to avoid cross-infection from
adults to younger through air. In our country for major part of year, west is the upwind flow side.
•:. Feed mill is generally attached to medium and 'large size poultry farms and preferably placed near
gate.
Ventilation
• Free flowing air in the house
• Reduce the temperature in house in summer
• Ventilation keeps the atmosphere healthy in house
• Ridge ventilators for houses
Humidity
o Optimum Humidity: 38 - 42 per cent humidity better performance,
o Higher humidity: Conducive for multiplication of pathogenic organism
o Low Humidity: Dusty and dry litter
Orientation of Poultry Houses
In hotter parts of country, the long axis of the house should be east to west and the sides should
face north south to prevent direct sun shine falling in the house. The areas where both the condition
prevailed, long axis in the direction of Northeast to Southwest may be helpful in combating the
temperature fluctuations during summer and winter. The wind direction and drainage should be from the
houses of young stock to adult stock to aid in disease prevention. The distance between the houses of
young and adult stock should be about 150-300 feet to help in disease prevention.
Construction of Poultry Houses
Housing in modern poultry is an important input, accounting for a major component of the initial
capital investment. In modern poultry enterprises, the structures are constructed and designed in
consideration of bird welfare and efficiency of production. Open-sided poultry houses are very popular in
our country. The house may be of any length depending on the terrain of the land, The automatic
equipment used will determine the length of the house. The width of the open sided houses should be less
about 30 to 32 feet. Houses wider than this experience ventilation problems during hot weather.
(a) Foundation: The top of the foundation must be 6-12" above the floor level, in order to leave room for
the opening and shutting of doors where a deep litter is used.
(b) Floor: Several types of floor are being used in poultry house and usually the type of floor used in a
layer house will determine the floor used in grower houses. Whatever the type of floor used in the
poultry house, it must be moisture proof, free from cracks, easily cleaned, rat proof and durable. The
different types of floor include all-litter floor, all-slat floor, slat and litter floor, wire and litter floor
sloping wire floor etc.
(c) Sides and walls: The height of the house from foundation to roof line may be 8 to 10 feet. The climatic
conditions and the type of birds housed will determine the extent of openings in the sides. Usually
half to two-thirds area will be kept open and fitted with wire mesh. In chick houses, half the area and
in grower and layer houses about two-thirds area is left open. In cage houses, the sides can be left
open almost, for proper ventilation. If protection is needed during cold weather, curtains can be
lowered from the overhang. Wide variation is possible in the use of construction materials, depending
on availability, cost, and in very colder parts of the country depending on the insulation required.
(d) Roofs: The roof must be draft and moisture proof. Insulation of roof helps both in summer and winter.
In order to reflect as much heat as possible, the roof should be painted with a reflecting type of paint
such as aluminum paint or infra-red reflecting paints. Asbestos or cement board roofs do not radiate
much heat and are therefore more desirable for poultry roofs .. However, adding insulation and
painting or covering with thatch also can improve them. The outside of the roof should be painted
white to aid in keeping it cool. An overhang of 3 feet will help to prevent the rainwater splashing inside
the house and also helps in ventilation after the curtains are dropped.
(e) Laying cages: The use of laying cages for commercial egg production has become exceptionally
popular. Although the height of most laying cages is quite similar at 40.6 cm at the rear of the cage,
the size of the floor area (width &depth) highly variable 25x41cm to 61x46cm. The cages maybe
single bird cages multiple bird cages (for 2-8 birds and colony cages (20-30 birds), To conserve space
the cages can be kept in size deck, double deck, triple deck, four deck, five deck.
(f) Ventilation: Three SO" exhaust fans on side of walls can be fitted for ventilation. Other lateral side
walls may be of wire mash. In between the shed fans may be fitted for circulation of air.
(g) AUTO FEEDING SYSTEM
i) Pan system: Automatic feeding systems are available which run by motors and auger. Feed is
dispersed uniformly in pans spread uniformly at a distance of 3 to 4 ft in the shed and are connected
to each other for even distribution of feed. The height of the pans can be adjusted as per the age
of the birds. The feed flows via 3 large feed windows into the inner pan. The shallow shape of the
outer pan combined with the inner pan helps the chicks to see the feed immediately. The design
allows them to easily move in and out of the pan. A strong clamp prevents the pan from swinging,
thus maintaining an equal feed level in the pan. The desired amount of feed per pan can be regulated
by means of an easily accessible adjustment ring with a wide range of settings. This allows balancing
out the eating speed of the birds. Special anti-spill wings divide the inner pan in separate feed
compartments. This avoids selective eating, accumulation of feed in only a part of the pan and gives
all birds equal chances. The special pan deducing and a high capacity auger facilitate an even feed
distribution over the total line.
ii) Trough system: The system consists of a feed trough, an auger, a rotating tube and a drive. The
trough has a characteristic shape. The feed remains at the bottom, protected by the auger.
 Accumulation and spillage of the feed, as well as selective eating are out of the question.
Considerable feed saving has been reported by the various farmers through adopting this system.
Fast and even distribution of the feed over the entire circuit is achieved. The high speed (~30m/sec)
of the auger and the tube above the trough make sure the birds cannot eat during feed transport.
iii) The feed is placed in the trough in which feed is rotated through rotating tubes. The rotating tube
is adjustable in height (From 40-50mm above the trough). This makes separate sex feeding possible
earlier and more easily. With adult birds, a capacity of 13 to 15 hens per meter trough is sufficient.
The rotating tubes encourage the birds to eat in a proper manner. The feed is dispersed in trough of
three in row uniformly at uniform interval of time. It is very useful in broiler breeder rearing where
restricted feeding is desired.
Auto-drinking system
i) Watering system consists of 3m sections. They are connected to a water tank/pressure reducer and
a breather unit to complete drinking lines, suspended from the ceiling and raised by winch.
ii) Water supply: up to 75m from the front, 75-150m from the middle. Water tank: 20-25 cm water
level (3-4 drinking lines) Single elements: Super nipple and small drip cup.
iii) Breeder drinking line:
• Water supply: up to 75m from the front, 75-150m from the middle.
• Pressure reducer: 10-25cm water level.
• Single elements: Stainless steel nipple and drip cups.
• Number of birds: 10-15 birds/nipple (2 drinking lines).
• Single elements breeder rearing: Super nipple with small drip cup.
Construction of cost effective houses
Five different types of houses have been designed at Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar,
India for housing 120 broilers or 60 layers. The materials for roof and walls have been chosen which are
readily available in the rural area. The total cost of construction of these houses may vary from Indian Rs
15,000- 20,000. The different types of houses were as follows: Brick and Asbestos Sheet Roof House,
Terracotta Tiled Mud House, Wire Net and Hay Roof House, Bamboo and Plastic Sheet Roof House and
Bamboo and Tarpoline Sheet Roof House.

Specifications as per BIS- For housing poultry on floor

Age Space Requirements Cm2 Feeder space Watering space/lOa birds

(Cm/ bird)

Light breed Heavy breed Linear (Cm) Cap. (lit)

0-8 wks (chick) 700 900 2.5-4.5 50 9

13-20 (Grower) 950 2250 7.5 100 18

> 21 (Adult) 1800 2700 12.5 250 22.5

Typical layer house: Dimensions as per BIS

No of Birds L(m) W(m) H(m)

100 6 4.5 2

200 9 6 2
 500 18 7.5 2

1000 36 9 2

CAGE SYSTEM:

Variable 2003 (existing) 2003 (new cages) 2005 2013

Space allowance 2
(cm /hen) 450 550 750* 750*

Feeding space/hen (cm) 10 12 12 12

Cage height (cm) 40 40 45 45

Perch (cm/hen) na na 15 15
Abrasive strip na na present present

Nest box na na present present

Dust bath na na present Present

* includes 600 cm2/hen free space and an additional 150 cm2/hen of nest and dust bath space
na = Not available

Enriched Cages Aviary

Brooding, growing and layer house equipment for egg type chickens:
Brooder management: For commercial layer farming the day old chicks are maintained from 0-6 or 8 weeks
of age in brooder house with ad lib water and feed. Brooding means taking care of young chicks soon after
hatching until they are fully feathered and able to maintain their body temperature. It consists primarily of
providing a comfortable environment including heat, air, water and feed.
Warm Room Brooding - In this system, the whole pen is held at a temperature of 30-32 "C both day and
night. The temperature- is lowered about 1.5 "C per week until the ambient temperature is reached, but
cC
should not go below 21 "C until 6 to 8 weeks and not below 18 until 10 to 15 weeks. Light should be over
feed and water.
Brooding equipment: Following equipments are used in brooding for brooding on litter:

• Hover

• Heating devices

• Chick guard

• Feeders

• Waters
• Feed storage bins
Battery Brooder (For brooding in battery brooders)
Equipment for Grower management:
The equipments used during growing stage are almost same excepting hover and heating devices. The
waterer and feeders are of larger size than that used during brooding stage. The round hanging
feeders with capacity of 8-10 Kg capacity may also be used during growing stage. The water channels
or automatic watering system may be used for supplying water during growing stage. In summers; the
cooling devices like water sprinklers, foggers, coolers, fans etc are also used. Besides, on sides of
grower houses the trees can be planted to keep the environment cool. High quality Foggers, which are
used by poultry farmers during the summers for bringing down the temperature by 8-10 °Celsius.
Equipment for Bio-security and hygiene:
In poultry, bio-security literally means protection of poultry birds from disease producing organisms
like viruses, bacteria, protozoons, parasites, fungi and other infectious agents. But in the broader
sense, it includes all management practices to minimize germ load, toxic principles and anti-nutritional
factors in feed, as well as to limit spread of infection on farm and to keep birds healthy and generate
maximum production. Some of the basic tenets are: Proper disposal of the dead birds, restricted entry
of visitors, complete removal of litter material after disposing the birds, cleaning and disinfection of all
equipments, use of strong broad-spectrum disinfectant to destroy all the pathogens, fumigation of
poultry house and equipment with formaldehyde gas, use water and air sanitizer and observing
integrated pest control program.
For observing above measures, the electric furnaces or fuel furnaces are used to dispose of dead
birds. The pressure wash gadgets/ appliances may also be used for thoroughly washing the poultry
sheds and cages. The flame gun and fumigators are used for disinfecting the poultry sheds. Gas
fuelled 'Flame Gun' is developed for destroying bacterial, viral, fungal and insect contamination in and
around the shed.
Light regime:
Initially, chicks can be exposed to 21-23 hrs of continuous light at one and two days of age and then
reduced to 15 or 16 hrs of light until the birds are three weeks of age.
At three weeks of age, reduce the hours of light to about 12 hours or as dictated by natural day length.
When target body weights are achieved start your stimulatory lighting program to increase 13 hours
and then add 15-30 min per week until 16 hrs of light is reached. Light stimulation should continue
until peak production is achieved.
One bulb of 60 watt is sufficient for an area of 100 sq. feet, if hanged 8' above floor.
Two basic Principles:
1. Never Increase the duration or intensity of light during the growing period.
2. Never Decrease the duration or intensity of light during the production period.
The sensitivity of the young pullet to an increase in photoperiod varies with age and is at a maximum
between 9 and 12 weeks of age and thus increasing the photoperiod at or soon after 18 weeks has little
effect on age at 50% lay: Therefore, the use of step-down - step-up lighting programs should be timed to
bring the birds into lay at the age. With early lay you will get more, smaller eggs and with late lay you will
get fewer, larger eggs, but the total egg mass at the end of lay will not be much different.
Where the lamps should be placed in the building
In both breeder/layer and broiler facilities, it is best to place the lamps such that the darkest areas
have at least .5 -.75 fc of light. The number of feet between lamps will depend upon the size of the lamp
and the physical surroundings of the building, such as walls, posts, ceiling reflectivity, etc. Just remember,
the goal is to achieve even lighting throughout your building, at the desired brightness level for the birds.
Dirty lamps will also decrease light output, by as much as 15 to 20%, therefore it is important to clean the
lamps off at least once per week.
 Economic Feed Formulation and Feeding of Layers

Principles of feeding
Nutrition and feeding in early part of life do not have influence on subsequent laying
performance. Fast growth is also not the criteria in rearing replacement pullet. The
major objective is to raise them at good health to attain sexual maturity at a given
weight depending upon genetic make up of the birds with minimum nutritional input.
Modern layers, however, rich to the sexual maturity i.e. the point of lay at little earlier
age than ever before, as a result the birds have been able to produce 310-325 eggs per
year. Besides nutrition the other factors that influence the age of sexual maturity
includes season of hatch, duration of light days, light stimulation, overall management
and stress and diseases. Light plays important role on age at sexual maturity.
Decreasing duration of day light delays sexual maturity. A low protein and/or low
energy diet, or quantitative restriction of a balanced feed also delays sexual maturity. A
larger egg size is obtained from delayed sexually matured birds. Reaching to sexual
maturity at an earlier age is always associated with smaller size of eggs.

Growth phases of egg type pullets

The laying may be typed as laying hens for production of table eggs (for consumption
of human being) and laying hens for production of settable eggs (for hatching). The
former type is called layers and the second type is called as breeders. The body weight
and nutrient requirements are almost similar for both the groups except certain
micronutrients, which are given in excess in breeders diet. The replacement pullets are
generally reared in three phases starter (0-8 weeks of age), grower (8-20 weeks of age)
and layer (20 weeks or above). In certain countries a five phases feeding system has
been recommended i. e. starter (0-6weeks of age), grower-I (6-12weeks of age), grower-
II (12-18weeks of age), grower-Ill (18-to 1st egg) and layer (20 weeks or above).

Production phases of layers

The layers are fed in phases, generally three (phase I 18-35 wk of age, phase II (35wk -
50wk) and phase III (50wk and above) but laying period can be divided into more
phases depending upon the age for economic feeding of layer. The phase I is
characterized by increase in body weight to achieve mature body weight, increase in
egg size and increase in egg number. The phase II is characterized by increase in egg
size and maintaining peak egg production and body weight achieved in phase 1. In
phase III egg size is increased but egg production and body weight are decreased. Thus,
the requirements of protein and energy alter.

Economic Feed Formulation

Economic feed formulation requires attention in precise nutrient supply (nutrient
supply matching the requirements), inclusion of locally available low-cost feedstuffs in
feed formulation and use of effective supplements and feed additives for improved
utilization of feed.
Nutrient requirements
The requirements of energy and protein are much lower than the broilers. The raising
system also one of the determinant of dietary energy concentration. The layers reared in
cages require less energy than those on litter, as the movement is restricted in cages,
thus saving energy. Similarly the growth is more in starting phase and then decreased
in growing phase, and thus requirements of energy and proteins are decreased with age
up to growing phase. Thereafter, again increased slightly in laying phase. The energy
concentration ranges from 2650 to 2850 kcaljkg during starting, 2600-2900kcal per kg
during growing and 2500 to 2800 kcaljkg diet during laying phases. Similarly the
requirements of protein for the corresponding phases are 18-20%,15 to 16% and 15 to
18%.
The requirements of nutrients specified by NRC, BISand Degussa are given in Table 1
to 5. NRC (1994) recommendations provide much energy (2800-2900kcal ME/kg). It
becomes difficult to provide such amount of energy under Indian condition, thus the
dietary energy level is kept in between 2500to 2700 kcal ME/kg during growth period.
Moreover, being tropical country the maintenance requirement is slightly lower. Lower
energy level in diet is associated with more feed consumption per unit gain or egg
production (higher feed conversion ratio). In laying hens the dietary energy
concentration ranges from 2550 to 2700 kcal ME/kg. On an average one laying hen
producing 90% egg requires 16-18 gram of protein and 285 to 290 kcal ME per day. The
protein and amino acid profile in diet is important for optimum growth, feed
conversion, egg size and egg production.
Meeting calcium requirement is important during overall growth (0.9 to 0.7%) and
laying phases, but most crucial during laying phase. The requirement of calcium for
commercial layers is increased much (4.0 to 4.5g/bird/ day) in diet. Just prior to
initiation of egg production, huge amount of calcium is stored in bones, which is
sufficient for 6 to 30 eggs. Therefore, calcium concentration is increased to about 2% of
diet a week before onset of egg production. Once egg lying is started the birds adjust
calcium requirements from dietary intake and also drawing from body reserve. The
specific gravity of eggs hell is increased with increased calcium concentration in diets.
The White Leghorn hens producing 90% egg require about 4.5 g of calcium daily. The
half of the calcium in diet should be supplied through coarsely ground powder and
remaining half as grit so that the needy hens may select and consume calcium as per
need and palatability of feed is maintained. Therefore, in addition of dietary calcium (3
to 3.5%),there should be continuous excess to shell grit to the birds. Shell grits improves
digestion and utilization of other nutrients also by helping in grinding of feed materials
in gizzard. Addition of grit of appropriate sizes in mash at an interval of every two to
four weeks may be beneficial. The retention of calcium during first 40 weeks is about
55% and decreased thereafter with age. Thus, requirement of calcium is increased with
age. Heavy birds consume more feed, thus dietary concentration of calcium should be
lesser. Any factor that affects feed intake like ME content of diet, environmental
temperature, etc. will affect calcium concentration in diets. The available P requirements
are 0.4% in starting, 0.35% during growing and 0.28 to 0.35% during aying phase (300
to 350 mg/ day /layer).

Alternative feed resources

Maize and soybean meal are conventional feedstuffs used in poultry diet. However, the
various alternative feed resources available in India, which can be used in place of
maize and soybean meal, depending upon the availability in local market, their quality
and cost.

1. Cereals: The alternative cereals of maize, which can be used partly to replace maize
depending upon availability, are broken/undersized wheat, broken rice, paddy,
bajra, jowar (white, brown, yellow), oat, barley, ragi, fox tail millet, kodo, etc.
2. Cereal by-product: The different cereal by-products, which can be used, are rice kani
(broken rice), rice polish, rice bran, rice bran (de-oiled), wheat bran (use may be
restricted in poultry diet), hominy feed, maize gruten meal, maize germ meal, maize
germ cake, maize grit, rice gluten, dried distillery grains with soluble (DDGS),etc.
3. Oilseed by-products and meals: Soybean meal is the conventional proteinic
supplement in poultry diet. However, different proteinic by-products that can be
used replacing soybean meal are groundnut oil meal, mustard/rapeseed meal,
sesame oil meal, sunflower oil meal, safflower oil meal, neem seed meal, karanja
cake, kusum cake, linseed oil cake, cotton seed cake, niger cake, coconut meal,
mahua cake, palm kernal cake, guar meal (raw), high protein roasted guar korma,
peas, different pulse losses, etc.
4. Animal protein sources: Different protein sources of animal origin can be
component of poultry feed. The meals/products that can be used to replace soybean
meal are fish meal, meat meal, meat cum bone meal, tarula yeast, blood meal,
poultry by-product meal, hydrolyzed feather meal, silk worm pupae meal, dry skim
meal, shrimp meal, etc.
5. Leaf meals: Different leaf meals can also be used depending upon the type of diet
and need. The various leaf meals that are added in poultry diet are alfalfa meal,
berseem meal, subabulleaf meal, groundnut haulm meal, etc.
6. Miscellaneous: The other items, which can be used in poultry diet, are molasses,
cassava meal, animal fat (tallow, lard), fish oil, vegetable oil, poultry droppings,
coffee waste, etc..

The inclusion rate of different alternate feed resources:

Ingredient Inclusion Remarks

rate (% of
diet)
Cereals
Maize I 72 Can be added at any level to meet
 requirements of energy. -
Broken wheat 50 New wheat is to be restricted,
coarsely ground.
Broken rice 40 Must be free from moulds
Paddy 30 Must be crushed
Bajra (Pearl millet) 50 Its use should be restricted in
summer
Jowar (white) 50 Should be coarsely ground, kharif
jowar quality may not always be
good
[owar (brown) 30 Should be coarsely ground
[owar, (red) 15 Should be coarsely ground
Ragi (finger millet) 15 It is generally costlier and used in
baby food being rich source of
calcium.
Foxtail millet 30 May not always be available at
cheaper price.
Barley 20 Use is limited, may be used in low
fibre high energy diet
Cereal by-products
Rice kani, 40
Rice polish (full fat) 25-40 Susceptible to rancidity on storage
Naku (broken rice with bran) 20 Generally contains 5-7%bran/husk
Rice bran (oil ranging from 12- 20 Susceptible to rancidity on storage
18%) and may contain aflatoxins
Rice bran (de-oiled) 15-30 Act as filler in diet of egg type
pullets.t
Wheat bran 5-10 Use may be restricted in poultry diet
and should be left for ruminants for
its better utilization.
Maize gluten meal 3-5% Protein contain may vary from 50-
65% and gives very good colour of
feed, rich in leucine and may cause
amino acids imbalance.
Maize germ cake 5-10 Protein content ranges from 21.5-
22.5%, rich in methionine but
deficient in lysine.
Maize germ meal (46%oil) to-is Protein content ranges from 12-
12.5%,rich in energy.
Rice gluten 5-7.5 Protein content varies from 44-50%,
very good source of methionine but
deficient in lysine, may contain
aflatoxins.
Dried distillery grains with 5-7.5 Protein content varies from 42-59%,
solubles (DDGS) -rice based very good source of methionine but
 deficient in lysine, may contain
aflatoxins but gives shoothing smell.
Dried distillery grains with 2-3 Protein content varies from 32-35%,
soIubles (DOGS) -rnaize based very good source of methionine but
deficient in lysine, may contain
aflatoxins, also gives offensive smelL
Oilseed by-products and meals
Soybean meal (toasted), 45% 40
Protein
Soybean meal (toasted), 50% 40
Protein
Full fat soya 3-10
Groundnut oil meal 35 May contain aflatoxins, deficient in
both methionine and lysine but rich
in arginine
Mustard/rapeseed meal (exp.) 3-5 May contain glucosinolate
Mustard/ rapeseed meal (solv. 10-15 May contain glucosinolate
ext.)
Sesame oil meal 15 Rich in phytate
Sunflower oil meal (decorticated) 20
Sunflower oil meal (un- 5-8
decorticated)
Safflower oil meal (decorticated) 20
Safflower oil meal (un- 10
decorticated)
Neem seed meal 3
Karania cake (solv. extracted) 6-10
Kusum cake (un-decorticated) 10
Linseed oil cake 3-4
Cotton seed oil cake 10 Cakes with less than 0.04% gossypol
(undecorticated, gossypol free)
Cotton seed oil cake (decorticated 10-15 Cakes with less than 0.04% gossypol,
gossypol free) but gives inconsistent results in
layers. Vulnerable to mycotoxin
production.
Niger cake 10
Coconut meal 5
Mahuacake 3
Palm kernal cake 5
Guar meal (raw) 5
Guar meal (toasted) 10
High protein roasted guar karma 2.5 (in Protein ranges from 48-55%, but in
pellet) to pellet feed its use may be restricted to
12.5 (in 2.5% as it causes hard pellet and thus
mash) feed intake may be reduced.
Peas 10
Animal protein sources -
Fish meal 10
Meat meal (sterilized) 10 May be restricted upto 5%
Meat cum bone meal (sterilized) 5
Tarula yeast 5
Blood meal 3
Poultry by-product meal 2-5
Hydrolyzed feather meal 8
Silk worm pupae meal 5
Dry skim meal 3
Shrimp meal 5
Fenugreek (roasted) 2.5
Coffee seed meal 2.5
Penicillin mycelium waste 15
Leaf meals
Alfalfa meal 5
Berseem meal 5
Subabulleaf meal 3-5 3% in broiler and 5% in layer diet
Groundnut haulm meal 5
Miscellaneous
Molasses 5-7.5
Cassava meal 5
Animal fat (tallow, lard) 3
Fish oil 2
Vegetable oil 3

Use of supplements andfeed additives

The commercial layers, being high producer, deserve proper attention in terms of health, body
weight, nutrient metabolism and gut health for better absorption. Certain supplements such as
mineral and vitamin supplements, liming amino acids (L-Iysine hydrochloride, DL-methionine
and threonine) and feed additives (enzymes, prebiotics, acidifiers, toxin binders, liver tonic, etc)
are added in poultry feed, that take care all those essential requirements of commercial layers
besides economic and sustainable production of eggs.

Nutrition and egg quality

Egg content can be manipulated by nutrition. The major changes that can be brought
through nutritional manipulation are egg number, egg size, egg shell quality, yolk
pigmentation and enrichment of eggs with fatty acids; vitamins and minerals.

Egg size
Egg size is expressed as weight of the egg. The factors that affect egg size include
protein and amino acids profile, balancing of amino acids, and levels of dietary
minerals, vitamins and linoleic acid, and strain and age of the birds. Increasing protein
level up to 20% with balanced amino acid level in diet increases egg size progressively,
and about 1% larger egg can be achieved for every 1% increased protein content up to
20% CP level. Deficiency of protein decreases albumin content of egg and egg size.
Therefore, selection of protein level in diet to achieve optimum egg size is a point of
economic consideration depending upon market premium for larger eggs. Birds
respond to increased methionine concentration in diet (up to 0.40%) by increasing egg
size. Low level of vitamin D3and high level of calcium may result in reduced egg size.
Linoleic acid influences egg size but not number of eggs produced. The requirement of
linoleic acid is 0.5 to 1.5%. Birds provided maize in diet (30% or more) do not require
attention for linoleic acid contents in diet, as its content is sufficient in maize (2.20%
linoleic acid) and also in sorghum (0.8 to 1.1%) or pearl millet (0.84%) based diet.
However, wheat (0.5 to 0.6%) based diets require special attention for linoleic acid
contents. Certain unidentified factors normally present in diet also improve egg size.
Egg size is low initially at the points of lay, increased gradually to second phase of egg
production (about 50-55weeks) and then reduced with age. Tranquilizers have been
reported to increase egg size.

Egg shell quality

The nutritional factors affecting egg shell quality include certain minerals like calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, chlorine and zinc, and vitamin D3. The different calcium
sources and vitamin D3have beneficial effect on egg shell quality. Deficiency of vitamin
D3 and calcium causes production of thin-shelled eggs. Phytase may help to maintain
egg shell quality for a lower dietary phosphorus level. Manganese deficiency cause egg
shell thinning. The addition of much common salt (beyond 0.3%) is associated with
thinning of shell wall and decreased broken strength of egg shell. Chloride of common
salt decreases bicarbonate level in blood. The maximum level of chlorine thus be 0.14%
in diet. A positive influence of manganese chelates on egg shell quality has been
observed. Though the deficiency of magnesium is not common, but thin and brittle shell
may occur due to deficiency of magnesium. The problems of shell quality have been the
major concern especially during summer. In older birds too the egg shell becomes
thinner. Certain sulphonamides cause thin shell. The diseases like infectious bronchitis
and Ranikhet disease may lead to poor shell quality.

Internal egg quality

The concentration (% or g/100g of shell less egg material) of protein and major amino
acids are protein, 12, lysine 0.82, methionine 0.40, cystine 0.26,arginine 0.80,iosleucine
0.84, leucine 1.02,·threonine 0.66, tryptophan 0.25. Accordingly, a 58 g of egg, provides 7
g of protein, 5 g of fat, 0.45 g of lysine, 0.36 g of methionine + cystine, 0.44 g of arginine,
0.36g of penylalanine, 0.13g of tryptophan.
The amino acids, vitamins and minerals content of the eggs can be improved by
manipulating their dietary concentration. The iodine concentration can be increased by
adding its suitable supplement (potassium iodide or iodate). It is fact that the vitamin
content of eggs depends upon the dietary vitamin level, and poultry diet
supplementation has been considered as a means of egg, vitamin enrichment for human
nutrition. However, vitamin incorporation in eggs has evolved for the benefit of poultry
rather than human. Riboflavin is increased easily in egg if fed through l iet in additional
quantity. The level of vitamin E in egg increases as its concentration in diet is increased.
However, the efficiency of vitamin E and beta-carotene incorporation is low (15% for
vitamin E and 0.3% for beta-carotene), but it is higher for vitamin A.
The feed ingredients especially agro-industrial byproducts or non-conventional feed
sources have no adverse effects on egg quality. However, feeding of cottonseed meal,
containing gossypol, to laying hens may cause in production of olive-green to dark
brown egg yolks. Reports indicating the response of some breeds to high dietary fat
levels, which revealed strain related differences for egg mass, Haugh unit, percent egg
yolk, albumen and shell.
Another important concern is yolk pigmentation i. e. to obtain a safe and constant
yellow colour of the yolk. The presence of yellow xanthophylls in the diet is essential to
avoid the risk of discoloration. The egg yolk colour can be maintained either by
providing at least 30% maize (yellow) in diets, adding 3 to 5% of good quality leaf meal
(Lucerne meal, spinach meal, Leucaena leucocephala] subabool leaf meal, berseem leaf
meal), marigold powder, dried faecal pellets (5%) of goat browsing on green leaves or
by supplementing xanthophylls (22 mg/kg diet). Some synthetic pigments are
substitute of xanthophylls. But it is always better to have natural pigments than the'
synthetic pigments.

Designer eggs
There are growing public concern over consumption of eggs being high in cholesterol
(200-300mg)and poultry meat with more of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol. It may
be of economical advantage for the producer to market eggs with low cholesterol and
meat with low fat. Numerous, including nutritional factors have been demonstrated to
alter cholesterol deposition in egg. Cholesterol content of egg yolk may be altered by
about 25% through manipulation of dietary fat/ energy and cholesterol. Dietary fiber
and administration of certain drugs also reduces yolk cholesterol concentrations but
only marginally. However, it will be commercially viable only when egg cholesterol is
reduced (50%) to a level of 125 to 150 mg/ egg. Another approach has been to let the
hens lay eggs enriched with omega-3 fatty acids (n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids,
docosohexaenoic acid and icosapentaenoic acid), due to the beneficial effect of the
polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3) on human health. Higher intake of polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFA) decreases the risk of heart diseases and strokes, and also exerts
immunological and neurological effects. These eggs should also have lower omega-
6/omega-3 ratio than the normal eggs, which is beneficial for consumption. The dietary
PUFA are readily incorporated into eggs. The main sources of PUFA are fish oil,
linseed, millets and sea algae. The sea algae are the best sources for producing omega-3
fatty acid enriched eggs. Moreover, their PUFA content is more stable and in more
active form that in the plant oils. The cereals such as corn, barley and oats are also rich
in linolenic acid. The combination of animal (fish oil) and vegetable oils viz. rapeseed,
linseed oils is also effective. Egg enrichment in n-3 fatty acids results in higher rate of
oxidation that could be controlled by the antioxidants such as alpha-tocopherol.
Therefore, adequate amounts of alpha-tocopherol should also be supplied to obtain
eggs with adequate antioxidant protection of PUFA that prevents the unwanted
oxidation and the related health problems. The supplementation of diet with 200mg
vitamin E per kg feed may reduce fatty acids (n-3) oxidation.

Feed intake
Feed intake is an important factor in the economic production of eggs. Generally a
White Leghorn hen consumes 8 kg of feed up to 20 weeks of age and 39 kg during 360
days (about lI0g/bird/ day or l30g/ egg and producing 300 eggs per year) of laying
phase. However, feed intake is governed by many factors such as dietary energy and
protein concentration, environmental temperature and humidity, stress, vaccination,
beak treamming and disease, etc. Tentative feed intake at different age is given in Table
6.
Table 1. ISI specification of nutrient requirements (% or unitJkg feed, DM basis) of
egg type pullets (BIS, 1992)
Growth phases of Layers
Nutrients Unit Chicks Grower Layer Breeder
0-8wk 8-20wk 20wk> 20wk>
ME kcal 2600 2500 2600 2600
Crude protein % 20.0 16.0 18.0 18.0
Crude fibre, max. % 7.0 8.0 8.0 8.0
AlA, max. % 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Linoleic acid % 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Lysine, min. % 0.9 0.6 0.65 0.65
Methionine, min % 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.3
Met. +Cys tine % 0.6 0.5 0.55 0.55
Calcium, min. % 1.0 1.0 3.0 3.0
A va. Phos. , min % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
NaCl, max. % 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Manganese mg 90.0 50.0 55.0 90.0
Iodine mg 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Iron mg 120.0 90.0 75.0 90.0
Zinc mg 60.0 50.0 75.0 100.0
Copper mg 12.0 9.0 9.0 12.0
Vitamin A IU 6000 6000 8000 8000
D3 IU 600 600 1200 1200
E mg 15 10 10 15
K mg 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Thiamine mg 5.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Riboflavin mg 6.0 5.0 5.0 8.0
Pyridoxine mg 5.0 5.0 5.0 8.0
Pantothenic acid mg 15 15 15 15
Nicotinic acid mg 40 15 15 15
Biotin mg 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.20
Vitamin B12 mg 0.015 0.01 0.01 0.01
Folic acid mg 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5
Choline mg 1300 900 800 800
Max.= Maximum, min.= minimum, AIA= acid insoluble ash
Table 2. Nutrients requirements (% or per kg diet, 90%DM) of startmg and growing
pullets of white-egg-Iaying strains as per NRC (1994) or modified from NRC on
energy basis.
Nutrients Unit NRC (1994)
0-6wk 6-12 wk 12-18 wk 18wk-1st egg
Energy kcal 2850 2850 2900 2900
CP % 18.0 16.0 15.0 17.0
Arginine % 1.0 0.83 0.67 0.75
Isoleucine % 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.45
Leucine % 1.10 0.85 0.70 0.80
Lysine % 0.85 0.60 0.45 0.52
Methionine % 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.22
Meth.+ Cys. % 0.62 0.52 0.42 0.47
Phenylala. % 0.54 0.45 0.36 0.40
Phe.+ Tyr. % 1.0 0.83 0.67 0.75
Threonine % 0.68 0.57 0.37 0.47
Tryptophan % 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.12
Linoleic acid % 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Calcium % 0.90 0.80 0.8 2.0
NPP % 0.4 0.35 0.30 0.32
Sodium % 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Chloride % 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.15
Copper mg 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Iodine mg 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35
Iron mg 80 60 60 60
Manganese mg 60 30 30 30
Selenium mg 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.10
Zinc mg 40 35 35 35
Vitamin A IU 1500 1500 1500 1500
D3 ICU 200 200 200 200
E IU 10 10 5 10
K mg 0.5
. 0.5 0.5 0.5
Thiamin mg 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8
Riboflavin mg 3.6 1.8 1.8 2.2
Pyridoxine mg 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Vitamin B12 rng 0.009 0.003 0.003 0.004
Biotin mg 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.10
Folic acid mg 0.55 0.25 0.25 0.25
Niacin mg 27.0 11.0 11.0 11.0
Pantoth. acid mg 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Choline mg 1300 900 500 500
Table 3. Nutrients requirements (% or unit/kg, 90% DM basis) of starting and growing
pullets of brown-egg-laying strains NRC (1994) or modified from NRC (1994)
Nutrients Brown-egg-laving strains
Unit 0-6wk 6-12 wk 12-18 wk 18wk-1st egg
Energy Kcal 2800 2800 2850 2850
CP % 17.0 15.0 14.0 16.0
Arginine % 0.94 0.78 0.62 0.72
Isoleucine % 0.57 0.47 0.37 0.42
Lysine % 0.8 0.56 0.42 0.49
Methionine % 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.21
Meth.+ Cys. % 0.59 0.49 0.39 0.44
Phenylala. % 0.51 0.42 0.34 0.38
Threonine % 0.64 0.53 0.35 0.44
Tryptophan % 0.16 0.13 0.10 0.11
Linoleic acid % 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Calcium % 0.90 0.80 0.80 1.80
NPP % 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.35
Sodium % 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Chloride % 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11
Copper mg 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Iodine mg 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33
Iron mg 75 56 56 56
Manganese mg 56 28 28 28
Zinc mg 38 33 33 33
Vitamin A IU 1420 1420 1420 1420
D~ ICU 190 190 190 280
E IU 9.5 4.7 4.7 4.7
K mg 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47
Thiamin mg 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8
Riboflavin mg 3.4 1.7 1.7 1.7
Pyridoxine mg 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
Vitamin B12 mg 0.009 0.003 0.003 0.003
Biotin mg 014 0.09 0.09 0.09
Folic acid mg 0.52 0.23 0.23 0.23
Niacin mg 26.0 10.3 10.3 10.3
Pantothenic mg 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4
acid
Choline mg 1225 850 470 470
Table 4. Nutrients requirements (as % or unit per kg of diet, 90% DM basis) of
Leghorn type hens (NRC, 1994)
Dietary concentrations required by White-egg layers
Nutrients Unit at different feed intakes
so- 90ab' 100ab no-: 120ab
Crude protein % 18.8 16.67 15.0 13.64 12.5
Arzinine % 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.64 0.58
Isoleucine % 0.81 0.72 0.65 0.59 0.54
LYsine % 0.86 0.77 0.69 0.63 0.58
Methionine % 0.38 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25
Methionine+ % 0.73 0.64 0.58 0.53 0.48
Phenv lalanine % 0.59 0.52 0.47 0.43 0.39
Phenvl. + Tyrosine % 1.04 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.69
Threonine % 0.59 0.52 0.47 0.43 0.39
Tryptophan % 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.13
Linoleic acid % 1.25 1.11 1.0 0.91 0.83
Calcium % 4.06 3.61 3.25 2.95 2.71
Non phvtate % 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.21
Sodium % 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.13
Iodine mg 0.044 0.04 0.035 0.03 0.029
Iron mg 56 50.00 45 40.91 38
Manganese mg 25 22.22 20 18.18 17
Selenium mg 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05
Zinc mg 44 38.89 35 31.82 29
Vitamin A IU 3750 3333 3000 2727 2500
D3 ICU 375 333 300 273 250
E IU 6 5.56 5 4.55 4
K mg 0.6 0.56 0.5 0.45 0.4
Thiamin mg 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.64 0.60
Riboflavin mg 3.1 2.78 2.5 2.27 2.1
Pyridoxine mg 3.1 2.78 2.5 2.27 2.1
Vitamin B12 mg 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004
Biotin mg 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
Folic acid mg 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.21
Niacin mg 12.5 11.11 10.0 9.09 8.3
Pantothenic acid mg 2.5 2.22 2.0 1.82 1.7
Choline mg 1310 1166.67 1050 954.55 875
a Grams feed intake per hen daily.
b Based on dietary ME of 2900 kcal/kg and assumed rate of egg production 90% .
• Translated

- Requirements have not been worked out.

Table 5. Energy and amino acid (total and digestible) requirements of laying hens (Degussa,
AG)
Total Amino Acids Faecal Digestible Amino Acids
Unit 90a 100a 110a 90a ioo 110a
ME Kcaljkg 2900 2875 2850 2900 2875 2850
CP % 16.5 16.3 16.0 16.5 16.3 16.0
Lysine % 0.98 0.88 0.80 0.86 0.77 0.70
Methionine % 0.47 0.42 0.38 0.43 0.39 0.35
Methionine+Cystine % 0.87 0.78 0.71 0.77 0.69 0.63
Threonine % 0.64 0.58 0.52 0.53 0.48 0.44
Trp % 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.14 0.13
Arginine % 1.04 0.94 0.85 - - -
aFeed Intake g/ d/ hen

Ta bi e 6 Tentative f ee d imta k e 0£ starting an d growing pu 11ets

Summer Winter
Age (wk.)
Weekly Cumulative Weekly Cumulative
1st 85 85 85 85
2nd 115 205 125 210
3rd 150 360 180 390
4th 190 550 230 620
5th 220 770 280 900
6th 280 1050 320 1220
7th 320 1370 360 1580
8th 370 1740 410 1990
9th 400 2140 425 2325
10th 420 2560 460 2785
11th -12th 900 3460 950 3735
13th -14th 950 4410 1050 4885
15th -16th 980 5390 1100 5985
17th -is- 1050 6440 1150 7085
19th -zo- 1260 7700 1300 8385
 1

Biosecurity in Poultry Production

Dr. Gautham Kolluri
ICAR~Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar~243122
Biosecurity means safety of living things. Biosecurity is a defensive health plan and hygienic
procedure that can help to keep your farm disease free.
Biosecurity is one of the integrated farm operations and is important for poultry health, welfare
and food safety.
Advantages
• Biosecurity is the cheapest and at the same time most effective means of disease control
available.
• Low risk of disease introduction to poultry farm.
• Reduces the incidence of disease, thereby mortality.
• Improves poultry performance
• Reduces need for medication, production cost and results in higher profits.
The basic principles of biosecurity are
• Stop entry of infectious agents into farm
• Stop buildup and spread of infectious agents within poultry operation.
• Stop escape of infectious agent from the farm.
To achieve the above, three biosecurity measures must be employed in any poultry farm.
They are
Locational Biosecurity
• Poultry farm must be constructed in an isolated area at least 2~3 km away from nearest
poultry and livestock farm
• No backyard or native or desi chicken should be reared near the commercial poultry farm
premises.
• Maintain enough distance between breeders and grow out farms and facilities such as
hatcheries and feed mills.
• The location should be away from the mountains or hills to avoid disturbances in wind
flow.
Structural Biosecurity
• Surrounding area of farm must be kept free of all kinds of vegetation to prevent rodent
and wild life activity.
• Fencing of farm perimeter is essential to prevent entry of unwanted visitors and other
animals.
• Water source for poultry must be tested for minerals, bacteria, chemical contamination
and pathogen load before use.
• All-weather roads within the farm to ease cleaning and to prevent spreading of microbes
by vehicles and foot wear.
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• The distance between any two sheds of same must be minimum 20 m'and for adults and
chick sheds, it should be 100 m.
• Facilities for safe scientific disposal of dead birds is must. Disposal pit must be located at
least 500 m away from sheds to avoid disease spread.
• Poultry sheds in the farm should be safe housing, with suitable wild birds and rodent
proofing.
• Feed, litter and equipment should be stored in a section separated from live bird area to
prevent contamination. Isolation room for sick birds is a good option.
• Mandatory installation of foot and wheel dips of sufficient size at shed and main
entrance level. These dips must be cleaned and filled with suitable disinfectant on daily
basis.
Operational Biosecurity
• Never introduce any equipment inside the farm from other farm source. in the case of
breeders, no vehicles or equipment should be allowed within the farm area from the time
of delivery of flock until disposal.
• Maintain record for visitors and their purpose.
• Always obtain hatching eggs, pullets from a certified source that is free of vertically
transmitted diseases like salmonellosis, mycoplasmosis etc.
• While visiting the different sheds, always visit young followed by adult i.e., chicks,
growers and adults.
• Keep the shed locked at all times.
• Follow all-in-all-out system protocol for broilers and layers. In commercial broiler unit, a
minimum inter flock interval of two weeks is recommended after depopulation of old
flock and before introduction of new flock.
• Entire shed must be cleaned and disinfected preferably by formaldehyde fumigation or
fogging.
• All the feeders and waterers must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before using for
another batch. Litter material must be disposed off away from farm premises.
• All material used in farm operations should cleaned and disinfected before and after use.
• Recycling of egg packing materials etc. should be decontaminated at the point of entry of
farm. The disinfectant should be used with right dilution as per manufacture's direction.
• Regular culling of unhealthy, unproductive and diseased birds.
• Implementing appropriate program of disease diagnosis and proper vaccination
schedule. Routine disease monitoring procedures like postmortem examination and
periodic serum antibody assay to determine immune status of the flock.
• Use an effective integrated pest management program to control pest and rodent
through biological, chemical and mechanical means.
 1

Poultry Vaccination: Its Application and Safety Tips -

Dr. Gautham Kolluri and Dr. J .M. Kataria
ICAR~Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar- 24 3122
What is vaccination?
Vaccination means injecting the bird with infectious organism with mild or no activity,
therefore when administered produce, or artificially increase, immunity (resistance) against a
particular disease.
Importance of vaccination:
• Vaccination is the most practical means of protecting the birds against viral diseases, as
there is no treatment for a viral disease.
• Vaccination can help in preventing the disease but it is not a direct replacement for good
biosecurity. Vaccination must always be complemented with good biosccurity practices.
Safety tips for poultry vaccines:
1. Check the source, quality, expiry date and temperature of vaccine before procuring.
2. Ensure to maintain the cold chain of the vaccine all the time right from the procurement
until injecting into birds. During transportation of vaccines, the vials can be placed in an
insulated flask or thermal box filled with ice packs or ice.
3. Vaccines should obtained directly from the manufacturers or reputed dealers. Always
store vaccines at 4~8 °C in the refrigerator but not in the upper freezer cabinet.
4. Keep all the records regarding the batch/lot and serial number and the date of
production and expiry of vaccine to be used. It is better to place the entire label of
vaccine vial or vaccination record.
S. Vaccines will come with diluents and droppers; hence it is always advised to use large
capacity boxes or flasks for transportation.
While vaccinating the birds'
1. The ultimate success of vaccination depends on the way the vaccine is administered.
Hence it is always advised to vaccinate the birds with trained personnel only.
2. Check the flock for signs of coccidiosis, or other diseases, that may interfere with
vaccination.
3. Vaccinate only healthy birds. Birds tend to look dull with closed eyes, head down and off
feed must not be vaccinated.
4. Handle birds carefully while administering vaccines individually to each bird.
S. Follow the manufacturer's procedures strictly for vaccination.
6. Vaccinate only the desired number of birds from a vial.
7. Always provide poultry with multivitamin supplements to reduce the vaccination stress
and immune stimulants to boost vaccinal immunity at least two days before and after'
vaccination.
8. Vaccinate the birds during cooler parts of the day preferably in the early morning.
9. Do not use any chemical for sterilization, such as dettol, savlon soap etc. since this
reduces the efficiency of vaccine. For clean vaccination, it is advised to LIsegloves.
10. Do not use unclean and contaminated droppers, syringes, needles etc.

1
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11. Always sterilize all the vaccine materials in boiling water before and after use.
12. Change the needles regularly to minimize the spread of infection.
13. Using automatic vaccinator/syringes will reduce time and labour and increase
vaccination efficiency.
14. The entire vaccine must be used within 2~3 hrs, once the vaccine vial is opened.
15. Keep also the prepared (reconstituted) vaccine on ice while vaccinating the birds.
Remove small quantities for use, frequently.
16. Shake the reconstituted vaccine frequently during vaccination.
17. Destroy the leftover vaccine and vaccine vials etc. immediately after use in an appropriate
manner.
Vaccination methods:
1. There are two types of vaccines to be used generally in poultry, live and Killed. Live
vaccines for a particular disease must always be applied before killed vaccines are
administered so as to have better protection.
2. live vaccines must be given either through oral route, nasal route, as an eye drop or
spray.
3. Killed vaccines must be given inform of injection either subcutaneously or
intramuscularly by using a syringe with a 22 gauge needle.
4. Injection sites for subcutaneous are back of the neck and wing, while common sites for
intramuscular route are breast and thigh muscles.
5. When injecting oil emulsion killed vaccines, subcutaneous route is recommended.
Vaccination Program:
A suitable vaccination program must be designed with the help of poultry veterinarian.
The vaccination programs may change from area to area based on the prevailing disease
situation.
Suggested vaccination schedule for layers
Age Name of the Vaccine Route Doselbird
0~1Day Marek's Disease (MD) Vaccination SIC neck region 0.2 mlIchick
(HVT)
5 -7 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine live (RDVK/ Intra ocular / In tra One drop
Lasota) nasal , each
14 days Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine Intra ocular / Intra One drop
.(Georgia/Intermediate) nasal/spray each
28 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine live (RDVK/ Intra ocular / Intra One drop
Lasota) nasal each
Infectious Bronchitis (IBH~120)
35 days Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine Live Intra ocular / Intra One drop
(Georgia/In termediate) nasal/spray each
42 days Fowl Pox live Vaccine Wing web o.i- 0.2 ml
8 ~10 weeks Ranikhet Disease Vaccine Killed (R2 B) SIC or I/m O.5ml
8 weeks Infectious Bronchitis (IBH~120) Intra ocular / Intra One drop

2
 3

nasal/spray each
12 weeks Infectious Bronchitis (IEH-120)
16 -18 weeks EDS-76 vaccine (Killedj-optional , SIC or 11m 0.5 ml
16-18weeks IE Killed (Mass) SIC or 11m O.Sml
18 - 20 weeks Ranikhet Disease Vaccine (Killed) SIC or 11m O.5ml
At the age at Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine SIC or Ifm O.Sml
sexual maturity (Killed)
Ranikhet Disease Vaccine (RDVK/ Intra ocular / Intra One drop
Lasota): to be repeated once in every 2 nasal/spray each
months
Suggested vaccination schedule for broilers
Age Name of the Vaccine Route Dose/bird
0-1 Day Marek's Disease (MD) Vaccination (HVT) Not applicable in broilers
5 -7 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine Live (RDVK/ Intra ocular / Intra One drop
Lasota) nasal/spray each
14 days Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine Live Intra ocular / Intra One drop
(Georgia/Intermediate) nasal/spray each
28 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine Live (RDVK/ Intra ocular / Intra One drop
Lasota) nasal/spray each
28 days Infectious Bronchitis Live (IEH-120) in IE Intra ocular / Intra One drop
prevalen t areas nasal/spray each
3S days Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine Live Intra ocular / Intra One drop
(Georgia/In termediate) nasal/spray each
Suggested vaccination schedule for backyard/desi 120ultry
Age Name of the Vaccine Route Dose/bird
0-1 day Marek's Disease (MD) Vaccination SIC neck region 0.2ml
(HVT)
S -7 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine Live (RDVK/ (Intra ocular / Intra One drop
Btl Lasota) (RD) nasal) each
14 days Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine Live O/N or water One drop
(lED) (Gumboro Intermediate) each
28 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine Killed Intra ocular / Intra One drop.
(RDVK/B/ Lasota) nasal) each
6 weeks Fowl Pox Live Vaccine Wing web 0.1- 0.2 ml
8 -10 weeks Ranikhet Disease Vaccine (R2 B) SIC or l/m O.5ml
12weeks Fowl Pox Vaccine Wing web 0.1- 0.2 ml
16 -18 weeks Ranikhet Disease Vaccine (Killed) SIC or 11m O.5ml
Ranikhet Disease Vaccine (RDVKIB/ Lasota): to be repeated once in 3 months
Fowl Pox vaccine: to be repeated once in 6 months
Prevention IS Always Better than Cure

3
 Avian Influenza in Poultry Production and its Control Measures
Dr. J.M. Kataria and Dr. Gautham Kolluri,
leAR-Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar- 24 3122
Avian Influenza is a highly contagious and infectious disease of poultry with ability to
transmit to humans and cause potential disease. Several species of food producing birds
(chicken, turkey, quail, guinea fowl, etc.), as well as pet birds and wild birds are susceptible to
infection. This is also an economically important disease causing a heavy loss to poultry
production worldwide.
Classification:
The Avian Influenza is of two types based on the virus ability to cause disease (pathogenicity).
• Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus spreads rapidly, may cause serious
disease and result in high mortality rates (up to 100% within 48 hours).
• The low pathogenic avian influenza (lP AI) can causes mild disease that may be
undetected or no symptoms at all in some species of birds.
Transmission of disease:
• Water birds like ducks, geese and other migratory birds offers a potential source of
infection.
• Infected wild birds and poultry can transmit the virus to susceptible poultry and humans
through contaminated poultry products like eggs, feeders, waterers, feed and feed bags,
secretions, excretions or carcasses etc.
• The winter months are particularly favorable to its spread. With concentrated efforts,
HPAI virus has effectively brought under control, LPAI is still prevailing by circulating in
birds, thereby becoming endemic in India. Since lPNAI has never been reported in India
before, it is considered to be greater hazard than HP AI in India. lPNAl can transmit
via products of poultry and animal origin and pose potentiality for adverse consequences
specially when complemented with ND virus, if the disease agents become established in
Indian commercial and backyard poultry.
Clinical signs in poultry:
• Respiratory signs: Ocular and nasal discharges, coughing, sneezing and dyspnoea,
swelling of the sinuses anellor head and apathy,
• Gross signs; Reduced vocalisation, marked reduction in feed and water intake, cyanosis
of the unfeathered skin, wattles and comb, whitish or greenish diarrhea.
• Nervous signs: Incoordination, torticollis (twisting of head)
• In laying birds: clinical features include a marked drop in egg production, usually
accompanied by an increase in numbers of poor quality eggs. Typically, high morbidity is
accompanied by high and rapidly escalating unexplained mortality. Generally, 100%
mortality occurs within 48 hours.
Differential Diagnosis:
Newcastle disease, Infectious coryza and other respiratory diseases.
Outbreaks in India:
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First outbreak was recorded in February 2006 in Maharashtra and Gujarat and then till
date around 17outbreaks were reported in India with most frequency in NE and adjoining areas.
West Bengal and North Eastern states are highly vulnerable to avian influenza out breaks in the
country. Recently outbreak is reported in Tripura on January 2016.
Control of avian influenza in India during out breaks (Government of India Guidelines)
There is no vaccination policy for avian influenza in India, the on ly control method
adopted is stamping out policy in which all the poultry will be culled in O~S km diameter from
the point of outbreak (epicentre) followed by disinfection. Culling is done either by burning or
underground disposal.
GOl has framed specific guidelines to manage the emergency outbreaks of Highly Pathogenic
Avian Influenza and they are as follows
• An extensive information, education campaign (IEC) in the area to be undertaken by
means of news, paper advertisement, radio/TV announcement/programme, leaflet,
handbill, milking and conducting meetings with panchayat system ete. to familiarize the
all the population on the perceived threat of Avian influenza and the precautions that
should be taken to prevent its spread.
• Extensive field surveillance to detect any mortality in crows and other wild birds, and for'
unusual mortality in poultry birds.
• No post-mortem examination of dead birds in the field must be attempted and refer
those to the nearest designated Regional Disease Diagnostic Laboratory.
• Incineration of dead poultry, crows and other wild birds to contain the virus spread.
• Dead birds should not be handled directly and must wear gloves prior to handling and
must wash hands thoroughly after.
• Extensive surveillance of forest areas to detect any abnormal mortality of wild birds must
be undertaken.
On farm Biosecurity measures
• Foot dips with powerful and long retention time disinfectants at the entries and exits of
all the pens of poultry farms.
• No multiple species must be reared on the same premises.
• Disinfection or cleaning up the farm premises regularly.
• Use of protective guards for handling of any suspected birds/material.
• Periodic testing of poultry feed and water.
• Knowing the signs of disease
• Proper disposal of wastes and manures /dead birds
• Discourage rearing of birds of different age groups on the same farm. Encourage all in all
out practice.
• Inter-sectional movements of farm personnel should be restricted.
• Movement restriction of poultry and poultry products, farm equipmcnts and machinery
from and to suspected/infected area.
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• Immediate reporting of unusual deaths of poultry, crows and other wild birds veterinary
officials immediately.
• Maintain the strict vigilance of any mortality or sickness in wild and domestic birds.
• Thorough washing of hand and hairs with soap and water.
• Intensive surveillance at live and wet markets must be undertaken by the veterinary.
officers in the area. The contact number of officers for immediate reporting should be
advertised.
At wet markets
• Conversion of open unrecognized and unorganized open wet markets into organized
slaughter houses with proper biosecurity measures.
• Strict biosecurity of wet markets including daily cleaning and sanitization.
• Ensuring of no return of birds from wet markets.
• Surveillance of flocks coming to wet markets and tracing back the source of infected
birds, if any.
• Reporting of incidence of any unusual sickness/mortality in birds to the veterinary
authorities immediately.
At border areas
• Intensive surveillance in all the bordering districts at access and exit points.
• International bordering areas having no fencing should be strengthened to check the
movement of poultry and poultry products.
• No movement of poultry and poultry products should be allowed across the border
during outbreak.
• Information, Education and Communication Campaign (lEC) in bordering areas may be
undertaken by means. of meetings with panchayat system, newspaper advertisement,
radiolTV announcements/programmes and leaflets ete. Target population must be
familiarized with avian influenza impact and precautions that should be taken to
prevent it and in case any symptoms are noticed to report the same to the concerned
authorities without any loss of time.
• District level preparedness needs to be assessed and required equipmcnts and chemicals
made available in order to tackle any eventuality.
f • Veterinary officers should undertake special surveillance of the daily/weekly markets in
the bordering areas.
As a responsible citizen:
• Any unusual and sudden deaths in chicken, crow or even wild birds must be reported
immediately to Govt. authorities.
• Always follow clean poultry production practices.
• ICAR-National Institute for High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal is the reference
laboratory for diagnosis of avian influenza in the country.
• The suspected dead bird can be sent directly to this laboratory in chilled conditions for
disease confirmation.