EXPERIMENTAL MANUAL

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY III
EMM3810

Page 1
 Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia

Activities:
WEEK ACTIVITIES
1 Briefing on laboratory, rules, report and dividing of groups
2 Experiment (1-5)
3 Experiment (1-5)
4 Experiment (1-5)
5 Experiment (1-5)
6 Experiment (1-5)
7 Experiment (6-10)
8 Experiment (6-10)
9 Experiment (6-10)
10 Experiment (6-10)
11 Experiment (6-10)
12 Experiment (11)
13 Experiment (11)
14 Quiz

Experiments (1-5):
EXPERIMENT NAME OF EQUIPMENT PAGE
1 Flow over weirs 5
2 Calculating the efficiency of centrifugal pump trainer 11
3 Determining the operating characteristics of the 18
Pelton Turbine
4 Examine the fluid flow visualization 25
5 Examine hydrodynamic bearing 29

Page 2
Rules and Regulations:
1. Matric card MUST be worn during the experiment is carried out
2. Attire should be appropriate and attendance on time
3. Sign the attendance sheet
4. Perform experiment after briefing
5. No handphone, smoking, eating and drinking allowed in the laboratory
6. No running, jogging, playing a prank on friends or celebrating birthdays in the laboratory
7. Please consult the in-charge supervisor or laboratory staff for any doubt
8. The students are responsible for cleaning and tidying
9. Bounded with the university regulations from time to time.

Laboratory Report:
1. The report MUST be submitted by the group representative online at PutraBlast within 1 week
after the experiment completed.
2. The students are required to include the original raw data taken during experiment which has
been certified by laboratory staff in the report.
3. Updated information will be informed through PutraBlast.
4. Team leader role must be rotated within the group members.
5. Compulsory to include the name of the person that gives the briefing in the report for each lab
activity.

Page 3
EXPERIMENTAL MANUAL
PART 1

Page 4
 FLOW OVER WEIRS

1. INTRODUCTION

Flow meters used in pipes introduce an obstruction into the flow which results in a
measurable pressure drop that in turn is related to the volume flow rate. In an open channel, flow
rate can be measured similarly by introducing an obstruction into the flow. A simple obstruction,
called a weir, consists of a vertical plate extending the entire width of the channel. The plate may
have an opening, usually rectangular, trapezoidal, or triangular. Other configurations exist and all
are about equally effective.
In water resources, environmental and agricultural engineering, weirs are commonly used
to regulate flow in rivers and other open channels. In some cases the relationship between the
water level upstream of the weir and the discharge over it is known, so that the discharge at any
time may be found by observing the upstream water level. In other cases this relationship must
be determined.
The use of a weir to measure flow rate in an open channel is the subject of this
experiment.

2. OBJECTIVE

 To determine the relationship between coefficient of discharge, width of notch, height

and flow rates for different type of weirs.

Page 5
3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
A weir is a small overflow-type dam commonly used to raise the level of a river or stream.
Weirs are hydraulic structure, which are designed and calibrated to measure the rate of open-
channel flows. The flow depth correlates with the rate of flow. There are different types of weir.
It may be a simple metal plate with a V notch cut as shown in Figure 1 into it or it may be a
rectangular concrete and steel structure (Figure 2) across a river. A V-notch weir is a notch with
a V opening typically used to measure low flows within a narrow operating range. Theoretically,
the flow rate (QVT) was calculated using Equation 1.

8 𝜃 5
𝑄𝑉𝑇 = 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐻 ⁄2 (1)
15 2

Figure 1 V-notch shape weir with θ = 90°

While theoretical calculation for rectangular weir flow rate (QRT) determined using Equation 2.

Figure 2 Rectangular shape weir

Where:
Cd = coefficient of discharge
H = Water height
B = width of notch = 0.03 m
2 3
𝑄𝑅𝑇 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐵√2𝑔 𝐻 ⁄2 (2)
3

The rectangular weir is able to measure higher flows compare to V-notch weir and for wider
opening range.

Page 6
4. APPARATUS
 Hydraulic bench and weirs accessories

Figure 3 Flow weir apparatus

5. PROCEDURE

1. Level the weir apparatus on the hydraulic bench and install the rectangular / V-notch weir
plate.
2. Slowly open the hydraulic bench flow control valve to permit water into the channel until
the water discharge over the weir plate. Ensure the water is at the weir crest level.
3. Close the flow control valve and allow the water level to stabilize.
4. Set the vernier gauge to a datum reading using the hook. Position the gauge in the middle
of the notch plate and stilling baffle.
5. Open the flow valve again to allow the water to enter the channel and ensure the water
flow at steady state condition then take the water level reading.
6. Also take the reading for water volume and time from the volumetric tank to determine
experimental flow rate (QE).
7. Repeat step 4 to 6 for 5 different flow rates.

Page 7
6. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

A. RECTANGULAR WEIR

Water Water Time (s) Exp. Log H Log Q

Height, H Volume, V Flowrate, QE
(cm) (liter) (m3/s)
1.5 5
3 5
4.5 5
6 5
7.5 5
9 5

Table 1 Experimental Data

1. Calculate QE, Log QE and Log H.

2. Plot graph Log QE against Log H and get the best fit lines and the regression equation, y
= mx + k using excel spreadsheet.
3. Determine k, which is the y-intercept and m (slope) from the graph and calculate
experimental coefficient of discharge CdE using Equation 3.
𝑘
𝐶𝑑𝐸 = 1.02 (3)
𝐵
4. Calculate average |log Q| and |log H| value, used this data to obtain theoretical Cd using
Equation 2.
5. Determine the percentage error for theoretical and experimental m and Cd.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | 𝑥100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

Exp. m Theoretical % Diff Exp. Cd Theoretical % Diff

m Cd
1.5

Table 2 Slope and Coefficient Difference

Page 8
7A. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

1. Explain why the values determined for Q and Cd in this experiment are only valid for the
weirs used in this lab? How do these errors values differ from the theoretical values?
What are the factors?
2. What is the significance of a water height-discharge relationship and how does it
influence the engineering applications of the weir?
3. The coefficient of discharge indicates the resistance to flow over weir. Is the flow
encountering lots of friction, or is it a smooth flow?
4. Conclude your findings.

B. V-NOTCH WEIRS

Water Water Time (s) Exp. Log H Log Q

Height, H Volume, V Flowrate, QE
(cm) (liter) (m3/s)
1 5
2 5
3 5
4 5

Table 3 Experimental Data

1. Calculate QE, Log QE and Log H.

2. Plot graph Log QE against Log H and get the best fit lines and the regression equation, y
= mx + k using excel spreadsheet.
3. Determine k, which is the y-intercept and m (slope) from the graph and calculate
experimental coefficient of discharge CdE using Equation 4.
𝑘
𝐶𝑑𝐸 = (4)
𝜃
0.53 √2𝑔 tan 2
4. Calculate average |log Q| and |log H| value, used this data to obtain theoretical Cd using
Equation 1.
5. Determine the percentage error for theoretical and experimental m and Cd.

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | 𝑥100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

Page 9
 Exp. m Theoretical % Diff Exp. Cd Theoretical % Diff
m Cd
2.5

Table 4 Slope and Coefficient Difference

7B. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

1. Explain why the values determined for Q and Cd in this experiment are only valid for the
weirs used in this lab? How do these errors values differ from the theoretical values?
What are the factors?
2. What is the significance of a water height-discharge relationship and how does it
influence the engineering applications of the weir?
3. The coefficient of discharge indicates the resistance to flow over weir. Is the flow
encountering lots of friction, or is it a smooth flow?
4. Conclude your findings.

Page 10
 CALCULATING THE
EFFICIENCY OF
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
TRAINER
1. INTRODUCTION

Centrifugal pumps are widely used for pumping all kinds of liquids, including fluids that are
corrosive or viscous, or which contain suspended solids. They range in size from small units,
such as the circulating pumps used in domestic central heating systems, to large pumps, such as
are used to raise great amounts of water in hydropower pumped storage schemes.

Figure 1 shows the essential components of a centrifugal pump. An impeller, consisting of a

disc which carries a number of curved vanes, rotates within a fixed chamber. Rotation of the
impeller causes water to be drawn from the inlet pipe into the rotating passages between the
vanes, where the centrifugal effect produces an increase in total head. It is discharged from the
rotating passages into a spiral chamber, usually referred to as the volute that delivers to the outlet
pipe. The proportions of the impeller depend on the pump duty. If flow rate is low and the head
rise is high, the pump will have a narrow impeller, and the ratio of outlet to inlet diameter will be
large. If, however, a larger flow with a smaller head rise is needed, the impeller will be wider,
with a smaller diameter ratio.

Page 11
 The flow will also have an axial component, particularly near to the impeller's inlet, as
illustrated above. As the required flow rate continues to increase in relation to the desired rise in
total head, the axial component also increases in relation to the radial, resulting ultimately in a
construction in which the outlet diameter is no larger than the inlet diameter. Such a pump is
described as an axial flow unit rather than a centrifugal one.

Figure 1 Elements of a centrifugal pump.

2. OBJECTIVE

 To determine the relationship between shaft speed, torque, flow rate and pressure in a
centrifugal pump.
 To determine the relationship between efficiency against flow rate in a centrifugal pump.

3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Pump Performance:

For any particular pump, the increase of total head H from the inlet to the outlet is related to
both the flow rate and the rotational speed. When driven at some constant speed N, there is a
specific relationship between the total head rise H and the flow rate Q, as indicated by the typical
curve shown in Figure 2(a). The torque T required to drive the impeller at speed N usually
increases somewhat with increasing Q, as shown in Figure 2(b).

Page 12
 Figure 2 (a) Head vs flow rate; and (b) Torque and efficiency vs. flow rate at constant
speed.

The mass rate of flow m through the pump is given in terms of the volume rate Q and density
ρ of water as
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑄 (1)

The hydraulic power output PO, generated by raising mass at the rate m through an effective
height H against gravity, is therefore
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑚̇𝑔𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑄 (2)

Now the mechanical power input Pi provided by the torque T rotating the impeller at angular
speed ω is
Pi = T ω (3)
The efficiency η of the pump is defined as the ratio of power output to power input:
Po ρgHQ
η= = (4)
Pi Tω

The efficiency is seen to be zero if PO is zero (i.e. if Q = 0 or if H = 0). Within this range, the
efficiency reaches some maximum value as indicated on Figure 2(b). For pumps of large sizes,
this maximum efficiency is normally quite high, often exceeding 90%. For smaller pumps such
as those usually investigated in teaching laboratories, where the power input is of the order of 1
kW, the maximum efficiency is unlikely to exceed 50%. The reduction of efficiency with
reducing size is due to the increasing importance of hydraulic and mechanical losses as the size
reduces.

In engineering practice, rotational speeds are most commonly expressed in units of revolutions
per minute (rpm) or in units of revolutions per second (rev/s). Conversion between
ω rad/s , n rev/s, and N rev/min is expressed by
2𝜋𝑁
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑛 = (5)
60
Page 13
 Effects of Change in Pump Speed

Figure 2(a) showed the typical head-flow characteristics for a pump running at some constant
speed. Suppose the pump is now run at various constant speeds N1, N2, N3... in turn. A different
characteristic will be obtained for each of the chosen speeds, as represented by the family
illustrated in Figure 3. As will be shown in a later section, all the curves of this family may be
reduced to a single one by the following simple scaling procedure. First, some reference speed
Nref is chosen.

Figure 3 Head-flow characteristics at various pump speed

The head-flow characteristic at any other speed such as N1 may then be transformed into a
corresponding characteristic at speed Nref by scaling flow rates and heads according to the
following equations:
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓
= (6)
𝑄1 𝑁1
and

𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 2
=( ) (7)
𝐻1 𝑁1

Using these equations, the 3 individual points marked in Figure 3(a) on the characteristics at
speeds N1, N2 and N3 are transformed to the single point marked on the characteristic at reference
speed Nref, shown on Figure 3(b). Applying the procedure to any number of points on the various
head-flow curves, we see that experimental results obtained at all speeds may be reduced to the
single characteristic at the chosen reference speed. The basis for equations (6) and (7) is given in
a later section, which also describes how the head-flow characteristic may be represented non-
dimensionally.

Page 14
 The efficiency-flow characteristics found at various pump speeds may also be presented on
the basis of a dimensionless flow rate. However, instead of reducing to a single curve, the
efficiency tends to increase somewhat as the pump speed rises, so that a family of curves of
generally similar shapes is found. The increase in efficiency with speed is due to the decreasing
effect of mechanical and hydraulic losses as the pump speed raised.

4. APPARATUS
 LS-18022 Centrifugal Pump Trainer

Legend:
A – reservoir tank
B - Flow meter
C – Flow regulator
D – Pressure gauge
E – Centrifugal pump motor
F – Transparent pump housing
G – Main switch
H – Speed controller
I – Flow meter (LPM)
J – Torque meter (Nm)
5. PROCEDURE

Experiment 1

1. Place the LS-18022 Centrifugal Pump Trainer on a level table. Adjust the levelling feet if
necessary.
2. Plug the 3 pin plug to the 240 VAC main power supply. Turn ON the power supply.
3. Switch ON the mains switch (G) in front of the control panel.
4. Reset all digital meters (I, J) to zero by pressing the ‘UP’ button.
5. Make sure that the flow regulator (C) is fully open.
6. Start the centrifugal pump.
7. Set the frequency of the motor to 25 Hz.
8. Take down the readings for torque, pressure and flow rate.
9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 for frequency intervals of 5 Hz.
10. Tabulate the results in a table.
11. Plot the graph of torque, flow rate and pressure in a function of speed.

Page 15
Experiment 2

1. Place the LS-18022 Centrifugal Pump Trainer on a level table. Adjust the levelling feet if
necessary.
2. Plug the 3 pin plug to the 240 VAC main power supply. Turn ON the power supply.
3. Switch ON the mains switch (G) in front of the control panel.
4. Reset all digital meters (I, J) to zero by pressing the ‘UP’ button.
5. Make sure that the flow regulator (C) is fully open.
6. Start the centrifugal pump.
7. Set the speed of the shaft to 50Hz.
8. Take down the readings for torque, pressure and flow rate.
9. Regulate the valve so that the flow rate decreases by 1 LPM (or until there is a pressure
increase on the pressure gauge).
10. Take down readings for torque, pressure and flow rate.
11. Repeat steps 9 and 10 until the valve is fully closed.
12. Tabulate the results in a table.
13. Plot the graph of flow rate versus efficiency.

6. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Experiment 1

Frequency (Hz) 25 30 35 40 45 50
Speed, N (rpm)
Torque, T (Nm)
Flow rate, Q (m3/s)
Pressure, P (bar)

Note: The motor’s speed is controlled by a frequency inverter, and the motor’s speed at 50 Hz is
2730 rpm. To obtain the speed for other frequencies, apply the following equation:

𝑓
𝑛= 𝑥2730 𝑟𝑝𝑚
50

Page 16
 Experiment 2

Speed, N (rpm) 2730

Torque, T (Nm) 13 11 8 6 4 2 1
Input Power, Pi
(W)
Flow Rate, Q
(m3/s)
Pressure, P (bar)
Output Power, Po
(W)
Efficiency, η (%)

7. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

1. Discuss the relationship between pump output power, head rise, efficiency, flow rate and
impeller speed.
2. How does flow rate affect the head rise across a pump?
3. Does Reynolds number affect the performance of pumps? Discuss the effects of Reynolds
number on the various dimensionless pump coefficients.
4. What are the characteristics (flow rate and head) of a centrifugal pump? As a design
engineer, how would you use this knowledge in selecting pumps?
5. Conclude your findings.

Page 17
 DETERMINING THE
OPERATING
CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE PELTON TURBINE

1. INTRODUCTION

Hydraulic turbines are used to convert fluid energy into mechanical power. There are two
types of turbines, reaction and impulse turbines, the difference being the manner of head
conversion. In reaction turbine, part of the pressure drop occurs in the stationary guide vanes and
the other part occurs in the runner which is completely filled with water while impulse turbine
first converts the water head through a nozzle into a high velocity jet which then strikes the
buckets.
Impulse turbine is designed for high head and relatively low power. It consists of
stationary inlet nozzle, a runner and a casing. The nozzle flow rate is controlled by a needle
valve. The buckets are of symmetrical double-outlet shape and divide the flow in half and turn its
relative velocity vector nearly 180°.

Page 18
 Figure 1 Schematic diagram of Pelton impulse turbine.

2. OBJECTIVE

 To determine the operating characteristics of a Pelton turbine at various speeds.

3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Summary of theory:
The performance curve for a turbine can be derived in the same ways as for pump, though it is
usual to treat the speed as the principle variable when plotting mechanical power, efficiency,
torque and discharge (water power).

Mechanical power,
Pm = Torque x Angular velocity (W)
= Tω
Where:
T = force x radius (Nm)
2𝜋𝑁
ω = , N = Rev/min (rad/s)
60

Page 19
Water power,
Pw = ρgHQ (W)

Where:
ρ = density of water, 1000 kg/m3
g = 9.82 m/s2
H = inlet head (pressure) m
Q = flow rate m3/s

Turbo efficiency,
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
η% = 𝑥100
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

4. APPARATUS

Hydraulic bench (Armfield F1-10), Pelton Impulse Turbine Apparatus (Armfield F1-25),
Tachometer, stop watch.

Figure 2 Pelton impulse turbine apparatus.

Page 20
 Figure 3 Pelton Turbine Apparatus Configuration.
The apparatus should be positioned on the side channels of the bench top and the inlet pipe (1)
connected to the bench supply. The flow is controlled by a fully retractable spear valve (2).
Water discharges into the volumetric tank through an orifice in the base of the Pelton turbine
base plate (3). The Pelton wheel buckets (4) area clearly visible due to the transparent turbine
cover. A pressure gauge (5) mounted on the support assembly (6) allows the inlet pressure of the
turbine to be monitored. A simple band brake (7) connected to two spring balances (8) allows the
load applied to the turbine to be varied by adjustment of the tensioning device (9).

The speed of the turbine shaft can be determined by a non-contactable type tachometer (not-
supplied) for which a clamping arrangement (10) is provided.

5. PROCEDURE

1. Position the apparatus into the working channel of the bench and connect to the bench
supply using the quick release connector.

Page 21
 2. Lift the band brake assembly until it is clear of the brake drum.
3. Switch on the bench pump.
4. Open the bench control valve fully.
5. Adjust the spear control valve to 5m inlet pressure (H) indicated on the pressure gauge
and note the flow rate.
6. Lower the band brake assembly over brake drum and adjust band brake until a convenient
reading (ie 10N) is indicated on the right hand spring balance loads and Rev/min
(indicated on the tachometer) for each different applied loads.
7. Repeat the experiment using 10m and 15m inlet pressure.

6. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

W2 W1
Brake drum radius : 3 cm
Total force : W 2- W1

Drum

Experiment 1:

Inlet pressure, H = 5m
Flow rate, Q = ____________ (m3/s)
RPM
ω (rad/s)
W1 (N) 0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
2
W (N)
W2- W1
Torque
(Nm)
Pm (W)
Pw (W)
Efficiency
(%)

Page 22
Experiment 2:

Inlet pressure, H = 10m

Flow rate, Q = ____________ (m3/s)

RPM
ω (rad/s)
W1 (N) 0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
2
W (N)
W2- W1
Torque
(Nm)
Pm (W)
Pw (W)
Efficiency
(%)

Experiment 3:

Inlet pressure, H = 15m

Flow rate, Q = ____________ (m3/s)

RPM
ω (rad/s)
W1 (N) 0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
2
W (N)
W2- W1
Torque
(Nm)
Pm (W)
Pw (W)
Efficiency
(%)

1. Plot graphs of mechanical power, torque, efficiency and discharge (water power) against
rotor speed (angular velocity)

Page 23
7. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

1. At what speed is maximum power output obtained? Is it the same for maximum
efficiency? Comment on the graphs obtained.
2. What could be done to the apparatus to increase the efficiency of the turbine?
3. Conclude your findings.

Figure 4 Typical performance curves for a Pelton turbine

Page 24
 EXAMINE THE FLUID
FLOW VISUALIZATION

Page 25
Page 26
Page 27
Page 28
 EXAMINE
HYDRODYNAMIC
BEARING

Page 29
Page 30
Page 31
Page 32
Page 33
Page 34
Page 35