The Exodus Explored

Introduction
This paper and its underlying scope of research originally sought to probe the miraculous events
of the Exodus story and the myriad theories that have emerged to explain or contextualize what has
become possibly the most famous legend in Western civilization. The Exodus narrative has captured the
imagination of billions since it was first transcribed; a small minority of whom continue to celebrate the
tradition of deliverance from Egypt every year during the month of Nisan. In conjunction with the
account of the Biblical Patriarchs – Abraham, Isaac and Jacob/Israel, – the Exodus saga records the origin
story of the Jewish people and cements their divine claim to the Promised Land. But to a modern
observer with the advantage of Google and two hundred years of published research, indisputable
evidence that the events known as the Exodus ever plausibly happened or the foundational patriarchs
ever actually existed has yet to materialize. The principal question that the Torah neglects to answer is
when, if ever, the Exodus might have occurred. Despite detailed place names, specific numbers and
measurements, and general date references from other biblical events to the year of the Exodus, the
text does not provide the name of a pharaoh. The well-researched history of ancient Egypt with its
extensive written record and generally verifiable dates is the gold standard for establishing chronology
between modernity and the ancient world. If we define history as the intersection of archaeological
evidence and our oral or written tradition, then guessing the veracity of the Exodus requires an
approximate date when a group of subjugated people known as Hebrews – destined to form some part
of the kingdoms of Israel or Judah – fled from bondage in Egypt and arrived in Canaan.

We all know the story – four hundred years before the time of the Exodus, Joseph gained power
in Egypt and brought his family to dwell in the land of Goshen, located in the Nile Delta. With Joseph’s
passing, an unfamiliar pharaoh rose to power and enslaved the Hebrew people because he feared they
would rebel and give aid to his enemies. The Hebrews were fruitful and multiplied despite oppression
and infanticide at the hands of Egypt. Eventually, a male Hebrew baby escaped murder and found his
way into the royal family, who named him named Moses. One day Moses observed Egyptian men
abusing the Hebrew people, then killed them, thereafter fleeing to Midian. In Midian/Saudi Arabia, he
took the daughter of Jethro (a priest of YHWH) as his wife and accidentally encountered God while
wandering near a sacred mountain. On God’s command, Moses returned to Egypt, challenged Pharaoh,
and fled with his people after God afflicted Egypt with ten plagues. But God hardened Pharaoh’s heart
and he pursued Israel to the banks of Yam Suph (The Sea of Reeds.) By divine intervention, a great wind
blew from the west and separated the Sea of Reeds, thus allowing Israel to pass on dry ground; but
when Pharaoh’s chariots pursued, the sea returned and they were drowned. Israel then traveled to the
mountain of God, received the law in an act of revelation, and proceeded to wander the desert for forty
years. God willed that Moses should die before entering the Promised Land, whereupon Joshua led the
people to military victory against Canaan and set the stage for a grand, united monarchy of Israel under
Saul.

While I am not a historian, an archaeologist or even a properly Bar Mitzvah’d Jew, this account is
an earnest attempt to summarize the current state of academic discussion regarding the earliest
evidence for the Jewish people in Canaan, Egypt, and any nearby areas. I will proceed beyond a simple
assessment of recent biblical archaeology and attempt to identify any gray areas between competing

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schools of thought that might provide windows of opportunity for some of the Torah’s greatest miracles
and mysteries. Given my dearth of expertise, I must begin by relying on the work of greater academic
minds. Many famous contemporary biblical scholars have provided compelling perspectives from which
to start; unfortunately the places in which the foremost experts agree are few and far between. My
engineering background demands an approach that begins conservatively, therefore I choose to cite the
well-published research of Israel Finkelstein, Professor of archaeology in the Department of Archaeology
and Ancient Near Eastern Civilization at Tel Aviv University. (“Israel Finkelstein | Tel Aviv University”).
Doctor Finkelstein is often described as a minimalist who champions the “low chronology” of biblical
history, which doubts the Torah’s claims about a United Kingdom of Israel and tends to place historical
events closer to the present than traditionally thought. That said, even Finkelstein’s interpretation of
the archaeological record is often informed by literary tradition to the extent that other scholars contest
the evidence for his claims. Because he was among the first archaeologists in Egypt to widely employ
the use of radiocarbon dating and he tends to lean toward skepticism, Israel Finkelstein will be the anvil
against which the scientific evidence for the earliest history of the Jewish state will rest. Once we have
established a plausible scenario for the birth of Israel, I will delve into the amazing claims of the Exodus
story and explore various efforts to rationalize those events.

Who were the Earliest Israelites?

A Diagram of Ancient Egypt, Canaan and Mesopotamia (“Canaan”)

Sandwiched between Egypt to the west, Mesopotamia to the east, Asia Minor to the north and
desert to the south, Canaan has occupied the crossroads between vast and powerful empires for
millennia. As an international trade route between the earliest civilizations, the Levant has been a place
of warfare and migration since the dawn of human society. It seems only fitting that the thin strip of
land on the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea became home to such a small, but resilient group of
people. The Exodus story chronicles the birth of a nation that migrated to Egypt as a small tribe in a
time of famine, prospered in the face of great prejudice, and still evaded the bonds of its oppressors to
reclaim its Promised Land.

The success of the Jewish people is manifest not only in their survival against all odds – both
ancient and recent – but also in their role establishing the world’s three great Abrahamic religions and
recording the most circulated literary work of all time. Thus emerges a question relevant to over half of
the human population: who were the first Israelites and how did they come to prominence in such an

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inhospitable place? Until the advent of modern science and as recently as the turn of the century, the
Torah was accepted as plausible fact. Despite the unnaturally long ages of the patriarchs and a host of
inexplicable miracles, scholars have traditionally assumed that the Bible had some underlying historical
basis upon which the obvious embellishments must stand. The most devout of us accept without
question that the five books of the Torah were transcribed by God, written by Moses, and revealed
directly to the Jewish people at Sinai. But this view has largely subsided since the introduction of
archaeological excavation, radiocarbon dating, and a global information network. We can now surmise
that many of the events referenced by this text – particularly the patriarchal and Exodus origin stories –
have little to no basis in reality as traditionally recorded.

The Torah as Historical Record

In the face of evidence that strongly suggests the Torah is NOT a reliable account of history, but
that the Jewish people unquestionably existed as a society in ancient Canaan, only science can begin to
identify the grains of truth hidden in the literature. Before we examine the archaeological record for the
first Jewish people, let us take a cursory glance at the text. Conflicting details between various accounts
of the Exodus, the patriarchs, and the conquest of Canaan (among many other clues) imply that the
Bible is a composite work that emerged only after hundreds of years of addition, modification and
redaction. For example, the stations recorded in the book of Exodus include nine waypoints, whereas
the account of the Exodus recorded in the book of Numbers includes forty-two. While nine of the listed
waypoints in the books of Exodus and Numbers appear to agree, a full thirty-three of the Exodus
stations from the book of Numbers manifest nowhere else in the Torah (Num:33). For full details see
the table on the following page. This phenomenon is not restricted to the Exodus story. Since the
nineteenth century, biblical scholars have attempted to categorize the authors of the Torah into as few
as two and as many as four distinct schools of writing. According to the documentary hypothesis, the
Torah appears to have been stitched together from sources known as E, J, D, and P. The authors of the E
section espouse El or Eloheim as God, whereas the J sources refer specifically to YHWH. The D or
Deuteronomist sources are concerned with presenting a consolidated view of the Jewish kingdom as
rightfully led by the Davidic lineage from Jerusalem (as opposed to the northern Kingdom of Israel), with
the successes or failures of the kingdom pivoting on faithful observation of the covenant. The Priestly,
or P sources, largely focus on details of religious law, genealogies and properly transcribing the ritualistic
demands of YHWH. This is a rude and cursory summary, so please forgive the lack of depth in my
description. (“Documentary Hypothesis”).

Regardless of the details, almost all researchers acknowledge the Torah as a compilation of
multiple distinct documents that was written over time, redacted, and recomposed by many different
groups of people. While the likely time periods in which specific sections of the text were written is very
much a topic for debate, most would agree that if the events in the five books of Moses took place at all,
they would have had to occur centuries earlier than the they were transcribed, having first survived
generations of oral transmission. Efforts to reconstruct a verifiable chronology for the earliest history of
Israel using the specific numbers, dates, and place names in the Pentateuch have spanned the course of
biblical academia; all have failed to yield a scholastically consistent, archaeologically verifiable result.
The unambiguous ambiguity of the Bible as a historical record presents a conundrum for literalists and
an opportunity for archaeology. If the rise of Israel and Judah did not take place as depicted in the
Torah, then how did it happen? For disputed, but scientifically-anchored information we must turn to
Finkelstein and the archaeological record.

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 List of Stations in the Books of Exodus and Numbers
Exodus & Numbers Numbers Only EX / NU reference Notes
City of Ramses 12:37 / 33:3,5 Pi-Ramesses and/or Avaris
Sukkot 12:37, 13:20 / 33:5 Tjeku / Tell el-Maskhuta?
Etham 13:20 / 33:6 Fortress near Ismailia?
Pi-Hahiroth 14:2-3 / 33:7 Place of Yam Suph crossing
Marah 15:23 / 33:8 Ain Naba S/E of Suez?
Elim 15:27, 16:1 / 33:9 12 wells and 70 palms
By Yam Suph 33:10 Gulf of Suez or Aqaba
Wilderness of Sin 16:1, 17:1 / 33:11 Quail and manna
Dophkah 33:12 ???
Alush 33:13 ???
Rephidim 17:1, 19:2 / 33:14 Water from rock of Horeb
Wilderness of Sinai 19:1-2 / 10:12, 33:15 Near Sinai/Horeb
Kibroth-Hattaavah 11:35, 33:16 ???
Hazeroth 11:35, 12:16, 33:17 ???
Rithmah 33:18 ???
Rimmon-Perez 33:19 ???
Libnah 33:20 ???
Rissah 33:21 ???
Kehelathah 33:22 ???
Mount Shapher 33:23 ???
Haradah 33:24 ???
Makheloth 33:25 ???
Tahath 33:26 ???
Tarah 33:27 ???
Mithcah 33:28 ???
Hashmonah 33:29 ???
Moseroth 33:30 ???
Bene-Jaakan 33:31 ???
Hor Haggidgad 33:32 ???
Jothbathah 33:33 ???
Abronah 33:34 ???
Ezion-Geber 33:35 Tip of Gulf of Aqaba
Kadesh 20:1,22, 33:36-37 Kadesh-Barnea?
Mount Hor 20:22, 21:4, 33:37-41 Also Mt. Sinai
Zalmonah 33:41 ???
Punon 33:42 ???
Oboth 21:10-11, 33:43 ???
Abarim Ruins 21:11, 33:44 ???
Dibon Gad 33:45 ???
Almon Diblathaim 33:46 ???
Abarim Mountains 33:47 ???
Moab Plains 33:48 Southwest of Judah

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 Egypt in Canaan

Our first evidence for the existence of a people known as Israel dates to the reign of Pharaoh
Merneptah circa 1208 BCE. The successor to the great Ramesses II, who has often but unconvincingly
been identified as a prime candidate for “the Exodus pharaoh,” Merneptah was a military commander
who waged multiple victorious campaigns in Canaan and recorded the story of his Levantine conquest in
a stone tablet known as the Merneptah Stele or the Israel Stele. The last several lines of this stele
predate the second earliest reference to the people of Israel – the Moabite Mesha Stele – by at least 350
years:
The princes are prostrate, saying, "Peace!"
Not one is raising his head among the Nine Bows.
Now that Tehenu (Libya) has come to ruin,
Hatti is pacified;
The Canaan has been plundered into every sort of woe:
Ashkelon has been overcome;
Gezer has been captured;
Yano'am is made non-existent.
Israel is laid waste and his seed is not;
Hurru is become a widow because of Egypt. (“Merneptah Stele”).

We know from this account that a people known as Israel were located in Canaan in 1208 BC
and can surmise that Merneptah embellished his slaughter of the early Israelites – obviously Israel
survived the attack as evinced by this work. But who were the people known as Israel and how could
one distinguish them from other populations such as the Canaanites or the Philistines? According to
Finkelstein and others, the archaeological record of pre-Israelite Canaan indicates that the population
was largely aggregated in a series of city-states centered on valuable geographical features: seaports,
fertile valleys suited for agriculture, and important defensible positions along the international trade
road. We can extrapolate a long history of migration between Egypt and Canaan due to the drought-
prone climate of the Levant in comparison to the reliable fertility of the Nile. In the early days of Egypt,
Semites from Canaan migrated to the Nile Delta in times of distress and even established a competing
pharaonic dynasty – a topic that will be discussed in greater depth elsewhere in this account. We also
know from the Egyptian record that Canaan was a contested region that was occupied and administered
throughout much of ancient history by the most powerful adjacent empire of the time. During the late
Bronze Age, Egypt maintained control of the fertile valleys in Canaan, demanded taxes or tribute from
its subjugated residents, and presided over the affairs of vassal city-state kingdoms. Neighboring
civilizations periodically contested Egyptian control of the area and eventually gained the upper hand
after the end of the Bronze Age, when the Egyptian Empire began to lose preeminence and other
powers rose to fill the void. In essence, the fertile valleys and ports of Canaan, along with important
settlements along the international trade route, were historically prizes to be won by the strongest
regional actor.

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 Via Maris trade route (purple) c. 1300 BCE (“Via Maris”)

Ancient Identity

In order to identify the first Israelites, we must determine what sets them apart from other local
populations in the ancient Levant, particularly the Canaanites they went on to supplant. As we have
discussed, the lowland city-states of Canaan interacted with Egypt and other powerful neighbors for
millennia, which facilitated the cross-pollination of ideas about religion and society. The Canaanite
pantheon of El, Baal, Asharah, Astarte, Mot and their numerous other cohorts was clearly influenced by
the Egyptian pantheon; individual gods formed associations with their corresponding Egyptian or
Mesopotamian deity and religious practices were freely exchanged. One’s god was much like a lucky
rabbit foot; who wouldn’t want to have a rub? Interestingly, the name YHWH is conspicuously absent
among the gods of both the Canaanite and Egyptian pantheons. While monotheism would eventually
become the hallmark of the Jewish people, there is no evidence that the earliest Hebrews worshipped a
singular diety. Even the name of IsraEl suggests an association with the head of the Canaanite
pantheon, El. The many El-associated titles for God such as Elohim, Eloheinu, and El-Shaddai reinforce
the theory that monotheistic worship was a gradual development in which YHWH absorbed the powers
and attributes of the traditional Canaanite gods before replacing them entirely. If the narratives in the
Torah are historically credible, we can deduce that there were many hiccoughs in this process.

Like the emergent Israelites and neighboring populations such as the Ammonites and Moabites,
the residents of the Canaanite city-states spoke Semitic languages. Their society was feudal in nature -

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characterized by the presence of complex pottery and luxury goods for the ruling class juxtaposed
against the simple agrarian existence of the common people. Vassal status meant that the rural
populations of the Canaanite city-states were pressed to overproduce grain and tithe the surplus to
Egypt. Although it suffered under Egyptian rule, the collapse of central authority at the end of the
Bronze Age does not appear to have reinvigorated the Canaanite economy. The archaeological record
indicates that Canaanite culture (like many other adjacent civilization as the time) experienced massive
upheaval during the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, briefly recovered during the early
period of Israelite settlement, and then suffered catastrophe again at the hands of invading powers.

As the end of the Late Bronze Age saw the decline of the traditional power centers in Egypt and
Canaan, the region also experienced an influx of hostile maritime tribes from the Mediterranean known
as the Sea Peoples. There is great uncertainty about the origin, language, and fate of the Sea Peoples –
a topic that is entirely outside the scope of this paper. While much of the history of these invaders
remains elusive, their arrival roughly corresponds to the first appearance of another population with
whom Israel was intimately involved – the Philistines. The Philistines may have been invaders from
Greece, a land-based tribe who settled into the power vacuum of lower Canaan, a portion of the Sea
People who were conquered by the Egyptians and resettled as mercenaries, or some combination of
these scenarios. They are important to this paper only in the distinction that they were not Israelites.
The Philistines did not practice circumcision, had unique pottery styles and included pork as part of their
diet. While the absence of pig bones at an excavation is not necessarily evidence of an Israelite
settlement, the presence of Philistine pottery and/or pig remains is strong negative evidence.

The Birth of Israel

The previous diagram (mapping the Via Maris and other ancient trade routes through Canaan)
offers a significant clue about the environment in which Israel began. The Israelite cities of Shechem,
Jerusalem and Hebron are all conspicuously distant from the established international roads. In contrast
to the valuable coastal routes and fertile valleys, the mountainous highlands of Canaan were of little
value to regional powers. Travel in the highlands was difficult and the terrain was not particularly well-
suited for large-scale grain agriculture. It was in this remote hill country that the first Israelite villages
began. The archaeological record indicates there were no more than 25 Israelite settlements in the
Canaanite highlands circa 1200 BCE. By 1000 BCE there were over 250 hilltop communities with an
estimated population of 45,000.

Israel Finkelstein describes several of the hallmark features that characterized these early sites.
An average Israelite village was about an acre in size and supported around fifty adults and fifty children.
The first such settlements were comprised of circular housing arrangements with a central courtyard
that could be used to protect livestock at night, similar to the way in which nomadic herders would
often arrange their camps. One can deduce that society was rather egalitarian for the time as evinced
by the unadorned pottery and lack of luxury goods, the absence of public buildings or temples, and the
emergence of the four room house - the preferred architecture of the period. A key identifier of Iron
Age settlements in the highlands of Canaan, four room homes were typically two story structures of
modest size that would have comfortably sheltered families of four to five people. The lack of variation
in size and complexity among the buildings indicates that wealth was somewhat evenly distributed.
Remote from both traditional population centers and other neighbors, the first settlements in Israel

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were unfortified, self-sufficient communities that displayed no sign of scribal activity or central
authority, little evidence of trade, and a lack of offensive or defensive weaponry. While we have noted
that an absence of pig bones does not necessarily equate to a Hebrew settlement, excavations of proto-
Israelite highland villages dating to the Iron Age show no sign of swine. The economy centered on
subsistence farming and animal husbandry; a simple existence in comparison to Canaanite city-state
society. (Finkelstein 2001, 97-122).

A Model Four Room House (DeLancey)

Origin Theories

We have described how archaeological evidence suggests the people of Israel were little more
than a small collection of highland villages circa 1208 BCE when our first written record acknowledges
their existence. Despite noting the architectural qualities and economic realities of early Israelite
society, we have yet to theorize how the highland population exploded during the eleventh and twelfth
centuries BCE. The Biblical conquest model of Canaan is both the longest surviving and the most easily
debunked origin theory explaining the rise of Israel. Numerous scholars have sought to equate Egyptian
references to the troublesome Shasu (or Semitic cattle nomads) and the Apiru (an inferior social class of
murderers and brigands) to the Exodus. This association is based on an Egyptian reference to the Shasu
of YHW, which coincidentally also represents the oldest acknowledgement of the Hebrew God, and the
resemblance between the terms Apiru and the word Hebrew. Despite the appeal of the traditional
origin story, the evidence hardly supports an Exodus from Egypt and a military conquest of Canaan.
Finkelstein details the archaeological record for the Biblical sites of the Canaanite conquest and finds
that they were certainly not destroyed in a single military campaign. Many sites were destroyed too
early, too late, or in a different manner than the Torah suggests. Indeed, the military conquest theory of
Israelite settlement appears to be the least likely scenario. (Finkelstein 2001, 72-96).

The peasant revolt model describes a scenario in which the subjugated denizens of Canaan
rebelled against their local and foreign rulers, then fled to the highlands. Unfortunately the highland
territories that became Israel and Judah were settled from east to west, so this theory holds little
weight. If the highland populations of Israel and Judah originated in the coastal city-states of Canaan,
one would reasonably expect them to settle the highland from west to east. Instead, the oldest

8
settlements in the region occur in the east where migratory populations may have grazed their flocks for
part of the year. The earliest Israelites were likely pastoralists who decided to settle permanently in
their hilltop grazing land, gradually moving west and settling the more difficult terrain only when they
learned to cultivate olives and grapes. This directional shift indicates that Hebrew settlement occurred
outside the city-state polity of Canaan. (Finkelstein 2001, 111-115).

Finkelstein holds that life in ancient Canaan often oscillated between sedentary activity during
boom times and regression toward pastoral nomadism during times of strife or extreme government
oppression. The archaeological record indicates that the highlands of Canaan were settled at least three
times during ancient history, with all three events closely resembling the establishment of early Israel.
In each period, the nomadic Canaanite populations gradually gave up their wandering lifestyle and
settled in small cities in the highland regions of the Levant before a civilization-ending environmental or
civil cataclysm necessitated the return to a nomadic lifestyle. Finkelstein hypothesizes that a focus on
raising cattle as opposed to sheep or goats highlights this historic boom and bust cycle. In times of
plenty when agricultural commodities were easily obtained, slower-moving and more agriculturally
demanding cattle herds were in vogue. In contrast, times of hardship were marked by a shift toward
goat and sheep herding, as they required far less organized effort and did not necessitate the presence
of off-season grain stores. (Finkelstein 2001, 117). In general, when times were hard the people of
Canaan returned to their nomadic roots and became pastoralists. When conditions improved they
resettled their highland summer grazing areas and became settled peoples (Finkelstein 2001, 118). But
key to the pastoralist/farmer tradeoff was the ability to exchange animal products for grain… a shepherd
lifestyle could not provide all the nutrients necessary for human sustenance. Thus, Finkelstein
hypothesizes that the collapse of the agrarian Canaanite city-state society directly influenced the rise of
early Israel. Because the nomadic populations circling Canaan struggled to trade their herd products for
grains and other goods, they were forced to resettle the highlands and grow their own carbohydrates.

From Israel to Judah

The Deuteronomistic books of the Torah paint a picture of a glorious United Monarchy of Israel
that was later fractured by sin and dissent, leading to the separate kingdoms of Israel in the north and
Judah to the south. This idealized account frames the Davidic lineage – with its political and spiritual
power centered in Jerusalem – as the legitimate ruler over all the Jewish people. But an examination of
the archaeological record presented by Finkelstein suggests an entirely different reality. Excavations
confirm that the true emergence of Israel as a regional player occurred first in the northern kingdom.
When Israel conquered the lowland cities of Canaan, thus challenging the territorial claims of military
powers to the north and south of its domain, Judah was little more than a backwater in the hill country
to the south. The geographical distribution of the Hebrew tribes bears witness to this reality with ten
tribes assigned to the northern hill country and only two assigned to the southern kingdom. While
Judah would seize its identity as the literal and figurative center of Jewish worship after the collapse of
Israel c. 722 BCE, the northern Kingdom of Israel was the wealthier, historically preeminent empire.

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(“Twelve Tribes of Israel”)

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 Saul, David and Solomon?

In lieu of a true united monarchy during a gilded age of Israel, Finkelstein sees possible evidence
for the polity of Saul in the archaeological record of the Gibeon-Bethel plateau just north of Jerusalem
around the time of the 22nd Egyptian Dynasty. Large-scale Israelite defensive fortifications appeared
for the first time in this region and were occupied for a short while before they were abruptly
abandoned. The biblical account depicts Saul as a military leader from the tribe of Benjamin who falls
on his own sword after suffering defeat at the Battle of Gilboa in the northern highlands. Finkelstein
theorizes that the Philistines were substituted as the army that defeated Saul because they were a
present threat to Judah centuries later when the story was recorded; a better candidate for Saul’s
enemy was the Egyptian pharaoh Sheshonq I, whom the bible refers to as “Shishak.” Sheshonq I
attacked Canaan c. 925 BCE in an effort to reestablish Egyptian authority over the region. While the
Torah claims that Shishak invaded Judah on a political vendetta and sacked Jerusalem, scholars believe
there was little economic value to be found there at the time. A more likely scenario is that, rather than
destroying the city, he accepted a bribe from Jerusalem and continued toward his real target: a
strongman wielding military power from the fortified highlands of the Gibeon plateau with ambition to
challenge Egypt’s interests in the Jezreel Valley. Judging from the inscriptions at Karnak detailing the
success of his campaign as well as carved references to the pharaoh found at Megiddo, it appears
Sheshonq’s victory was decisive. Following their defeat, the northern tribes under the leadership of
Jeroboam (who may have been a vassal of Sheshonq) relocated their capital to the Samarian city of
Tirzah just northeast of Shechem while the comparatively diminutive kingdom of Judah continued to
govern from Jerusalem. (Finkelstein 2013, 37-59)

Archaeological sites of a possible Saulide polity at the Gibeon-Bethel Plateau (Finkelstein 2013, 39)

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Map of Sheshonq’s 925 BCE campaign as recorded in the Bible (“The Campaign of Shishak and Rehoboam's Defense Lines.”)

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 Israel’s Rise to Power

Finkelstein’s work identifies the Omride dynasty c. 884-842 BCE as the ruling monarchy that
established Israel as a true regional power. The Omride kings relocated the capital from Tirzah to
Shechem and presided over the first period of Israelite history in which the Jewish people were capable
of building impressive public works and raising a formidable military. Many of the architectural projects
first attributed to the temple builder Solomon may actually have been built under the leadership of the
Omrides. (Finkelstein 2001, 128-142). With a population triple that of Judah and an environment ideally
suited for the production of olive oil and wine, Israel’s agricultural output combined with her copper
smelting and horse breeding industries to make the Omride dynasty an economic superpower in the
Levant. The kingdom’s territory expanded against the presence of rival kingdoms Aram Damascus to the
north and Moab to the southeast while overwhelming the smaller and poorer kingdom of Judah.
Wrestling the city of Dan away from Aram Damascus incensed the Syrian King Hazael, who declared war
against the Jewish kingdoms and achieved a series of military victories that weakened the Omrides’
influence over Moab and Judah. It was during this period of turmoil that king Mesha of Moab created
the world’s second earliest reference to Israel by commissioning a stele to commemorate his military
victories against the Omrides c. 840 BCE. (“Mesha Stele”).

Under the reigns of Jehoash and his son Jeroboam II c. 801-746 BCE, Israel recaptured its lost
northern cities and reached the height of its territorial expansion. An Assyrian empire with renewed
interest in the west likely weakened Aram Damascus and provided a brief window of opportunity for
Israel to reclaim regional supremacy. The kingdom’s domain extended north past the city of Dan and up
into the hill country east of the Jordan River. Israel under Jeroboam II also controlled trade routes
running from the highlands of Samaria southward through the Negev and the Sinai Peninsula to the Gulf
of Aqaba. A peculiar archaeological site known as Kuntillet ‘Ajrud dates to this time period and offers
fascinating clues about the state of religion at the end of the Northern Kingdom and the possible origins
of the Exodus tradition. (Finkelstein 2013, 131-138).

A Clue in the Desert

Illustration on the Kuntillet ‘Ajrud pithoi depicting YHWH and Asherah (Hasson)

Kuntillet ‘Ajrud is a single-period site located in the Sinai Peninsula dating to the time of
Jeroboam II, meaning it was inhabited only for a few years without the possibility of contamination from

13
earlier or later activity. (Finkelstein 2013, 137) Evidence points to this site as an important watering hole
on the trade route between the Gulf of Aqaba to the south and Israel to the north. Excavations have
identified it as a possible waypoint for remitting taxes and soliciting the blessing of YHWH. Of particular
note is the presence of two storage jars upon which is written, “Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah”
and “Yahweh of Teman and his Asherah.” The pictographs on these clay vessels include a female cow
nursing a calf, a remote person or deity playing the lyre, and two potential gods complete with either
male genitalia or tails.
Sites in Edom, the Negev and Sinai (Finkelstein 136)
The inscriptions at Kuntillet ‘Arjud reinforce our existing theory
that Jewish worship progressed in phases from polytheism and
idolatry toward monolatry and eventually monotheism.
Acknowledging the female deity Asherah and separating YHWH of
Samaria from YHWH of Teman proves that eighth century Israel
was at best monolatristic (meaning people believed that only one
God rightfully deserved worship but acknowledged the existence
of other deities.) These pictographs are evidence that YHWH may
have once had a wife named Asherah. The depiction of bovine
figures as potential Gods draws strong parallels to the golden calf
at Sinai and the altars constructed by Jeroboam I. Further, the
position of this site on a trade route between Midian/Arabia and
the Mediterranean coast of Israel/Judah validates theories
explaining the introduction of YHWH from migratory southern
populations to Israel in Canaan. Kuntillet ‘Arjud represents a
snapshot in time when one can actively visualize YHWH worship
traveling northward to supplant Eloheim and polytheism.

Israel’s Downfall

After the reign of Jeroboam II came to an end c. 746 BCE, a series of short-lived kings claimed the
throne of Israel until the Assyrian empire turned its attention south and besieged Samaria. Defeat and
subjugation was unavoidable. Under the Assyrians, more than a tenth of the population was exiled from
Israel while many others fled south to the surviving kingdom of Judah, bringing two centuries of culture
and tradition along with them. The Judahite King Hezekiah, in declaring independence from Assyria,
goaded the empire into invading Judah and pillaging much of the kingdom. Hezekiah only survived a
protracted siege of Jerusalem after he plied the king of Assyria with ransom. Despite bringing ruin upon
much of the country, his legacy was that of a religious reformer who instituted statewide worship of
YHWH at the temple in Jerusalem. Under the reign of his son Manassah, Judah emerged as both an
Assyrian vassal state and the undisputed heir to Israel’s sinful legacy. King Manassah ruled Judah for
fifty five years and was remembered as a deplorable idolater who reversed the religious reforms of
Hezekiah even though his cooperation with Assyria revitalized Judah’s economy; His son Amon reigned
for only two years before he was assassinated, leading to the coronation of eight year old King Josiah in
640 BCE.

The characterization of the kings from Hezekiah to Josiah as good or evil likely has more to do
with competition between the YHWH-alone campaign against the traditionalist movement in Judah after

14
the fall of Israel than the actual success or failure of these monarchs. With the assassination of Amon
and the installment of Josiah, the YHWH-Alone camp ascended to prominence, leading to the
Deuteronomistic religious reforms that shaped the books of Moses as we know them. Tasked with
knitting together a national identity for refugees from the southern portion of Israel (north of Jerusalem)
and Judahites displaced from their homes during Assyria’s invasion, the Deuteronomists infused their
historical narrative with functional bias. The idolatrous rulers of the northern Kingdom of Israel became
wicked and flawed men whose sin brought ruin upon their country; Hezekiah became a righteous
leader, whereas his son Manassah was portrayed as the devil incarnate. It is in the almost messianic
reign of Josiah that we can now begin to examine the Exodus narrative as a combined reflection of
political concerns in seventh century Judah and the ambition of its storied leader. (Finkelstein 2001, 251-
274).

Why tell an Exodus Story?

Finkelstein believes that the Exodus tradition originated as an early charter myth for the
northern kingdom of Israel. In its current form, the story comprises three underlying narratives: the
mass flight from Egypt, being rescued by YHWH while wandering in the desert, and the conquest of
Canaan. The earliest roots of the Exodus story likely traveled to Judah after the sack of Samaria, where
it was canonized in the first version of the Torah. In Finkelstein’s opinion, the Exodus narrative was
reworked in the newly relevant kingdom of Judah to fit the concerns of a mixed populace descended
from former glory. It is in this context that we will examine the governing text of the Jewish people.

The Torah records that eighteen years into his reign, the king Josiah commissioned renovations
to the temple in Jerusalem, during which an ancient scroll of the Lord was discovered. One can surmise
that this was an early version of the book of Deuteronomy and begin to debate the various origin
theories for the text itself – an exercise we will not undertake in this work. Regardless of whether this
was a collection of texts from Israel that arrived during the collapse of the northern monarchy, a newly
written volume of Deuteronomy, or a divinely-inspired gift from YHWH, Josiah’s Book of the Law
became a powerful tool for social reform. The Torah recounts that, upon discovery of the scroll, the
king summoned all of Judah and publicly read the Law of God, swearing those present to once again
honor God’s covenant with Moses. From this act emerged several unprecedented cultural reforms:

1. Josiah compelled his citizens to recommit to earnestly observing Shabbat, Passover, and all
of YHWH’s commandments. He defined Jerusalem as the only legitimate spiritual center for
the Jewish people and created a new national identity for Israel – a term ripe for
appropriation after the demise of the northern kingdom. The act of reinventing the name
Israel as a title for both the Kingdom of Judah and any faithful Hebrews remaining in
Samaria lays bare Josiah’s grand vision to create a new united monarchy with Jerusalem as
its center of power.
2. With the introduction of a sacred governing text, literacy began to spread like wildfire
throughout the Kingdom of Judah. This was the time period in which the Torah as we know
it first began to take shape – a feat not possible before the advent of popular scribal activity.
3. Josiah went a step beyond the reforms of his great grandfather Hezekiah and demanded the
destruction of all shrines and the desecration of all “high places,” or hilltop sites for idolatry

15
 and pagan worship. This decree extended beyond the Kingdom of Judah to include ancient
sites in Samaria, particularly Jeroboam’s golden calf shrine to El at Bethel.

Given the unique historical moment in which Josiah came to power and the achievements of his
reign, we can deduce that recording and disseminating Deuteronomy (and presumably the other books
of Moses) was not just a calculated political maneuver for the young king. The tale of the Exodus was
far more than an account of Israel’s deliverance from Egypt under the leadership of Moses – it was a
story about Josiah, himself. The description of Moses receiving the Torah at Sinai and delivering God’s
law to the fallible masses was also the story of Josiah’s effort to nationalize worship of YHWH in Judah
and to exterminate idolatry. The lessons in the Exodus account were not only intended for the first
people of Israel, but also for the heterogeneous population of Judah after the destruction of Samaria.
Of particular significance in this comparison, Josiah’s kingdom faced palpable threats from a waning
Egyptian Empire whose 26th Dynasty endeavored to reconquer its lost vassal city-states in Canaan.
God’s promise to Moses that he would deliver all of Canaan to Israel was essentially a message to the
people of Judah and the remaining Hebrews in Samaria that if they observed the covenant under
Josiah’s leadership, they could expect divine assistance in the fight to regain control of a united Israel
with all of its former territories. Josiah’s permeability to Egyptian arrows in battle against Pharaoh
Necho II at Megiddo in 609 BCE unfortunately repudiated that message. The king died of his wounds,
passing Judean rule to a succession of idolatrous leaders who would oversee the decline of the kingdom
and its eventual conquest at the hand of Babylon. (Finkelstein 2001, 275-295).

(“Kings of Israel and Judah”)

16
 Where is there room for an Exodus?
Having established a conservative argument for the formative history of Israel and Judah, we
can now begin to discuss the earliest events that potentially shaped these kingdoms. The questions we
must now answer are, “Could a real historical event have given rise to the Exodus account, when might
it have occurred and what could have reasonably happened?” While Israel as a population subgroup
unquestionably existed c. 1200 BCE, the highland people of Canaan did not organize in any significant
way for at least an additional two hundred years. Considering our first written acknowledgement of
Israel’s existence dates to 1208 and we know that the population exploded over the next two centuries
at a rate one could not attribute to natural patterns of birth, it is reasonable to hypothesize that an
Exodus event could have happened one to three generations before the creation of the Merneptah
Stele, or as late as 1000 BCE. Any populations emigrating from the desert of the Arabian Peninsula or
the land of Goshen in Egypt during this time would have arrived early enough to integrate into society
before an Israelite polity was fully established. Therefore, we should consider a plausible time frame for
the Exodus to be anywhere between 1300 and 1000 BCE.

Invaders from the East

The earliest theory for Exodus has been documented for millennia and was suggested by the
Jewish Roman historian Josephus citing the lost work of the Egyptian priest Manetho. Josephus linked
the Jewish Exodus narrative to the expulsion of the Hyksos c. 1550 BCE. The Hyksos were a mixed,
Semitic speaking people who emigrated from Canaan to Egypt in ancient times and settled in the Nile
Delta. Coincidentally, the Hyksos built their capital at the city of Avaris, a mere two miles from the site
where the great Pharaoh Ramesses II built the historical city of his namesake. People throughout
history have suggested a link between the Abrahamic patriarch origin story of Israel and the
establishment of the Hyksos Empire. Though Egyptian history characterizes them as invaders, the
“Asiatic” Hyksos likely settled the eastern Nile Delta region with the blessing of Egypt over a long period
of time, before eventually supplanting Egyptian hegemony in the region and establishing their own
competing pharaonic dynasty. A period of declining power for the traditional pharaohs saw the capital
of Egypt forced southward to Thebes. Simultaneous expansion from the Kingdom of Kush to Egypt’s
south meant that the historically preeminent regional power was being squeezed from both sides. After
a years-long military campaign that lasted beyond his father’s reign, the Pharaoh Ahmose I conquered
the Hyksos stronghold of Avaris and pursued the invaders beyond the desert to the city of Sharuhen.

Egyptian records relate how Ahmos I besieged Sharuhen for three years, culminating in his
conquest of the city and the destruction of the remaining Hyksos political hierarchy. This event formally
ended the mixed Asiatic kingdom and its regional power structure, but it was certainly not a genocide. It
stands to reason that many of the populations living in Goshen under the Hyksos – particularly those of
a lower social stratum – would have remained behind in Egypt as subjects and possibly even as slaves.
Many identify the site of Tel el-Ajjud in the Gaza Strip as historical Sharuhen. Assuming that
identification is correct, the archaeological record indicates that the people of Sharuhen continued to
prosper through the change of leadership. (Bohstrom, Philippe, et al). This series of events lends
plausibility to two theories about The Exodus, both of which necessarily assume hundreds of years of
oral transmission and therefore a significant loss of fidelity over time:

17
 1. The Exodus Story is an ancient cultural memory of the Hyksos expulsion from Egypt that
survived in the oral tradition of the Canaanite people before contributing to the charter
mythology of the Kingdom of Israel, traveling to Judah with its collapse, and being adapted into
the Pentateuch.
2. The proposed slave population that followed Moses out of Egypt and recorded the experience
as the Exodus account were possibly Canaanite migrants trapped in Egypt after the Hyksos
expulsion. This theory does not offer insight into when such an escape may have occurred other
than it would have had to take place after 1500 BCE.

An Appropriation of Desert Wandering Mythology

The revised Kenite hypothesis suggests that YHWH worship originated south of Canaan and
arrived in Israel’s highland regions through exchange with pastoral nomads and Bedouin-like peoples.
Several passages from the Torah corroborate southern Transjordan or northwestern Arabia as the
birthplace of YHWHism:
“God is coming from Teman.
The Holy One from Mount Paran.” (Habakkuk 3:3)

“O Lord, when You came forth from Seir,

Advanced from the country of Edom,
The earth trembled;
The heavens dripped,
Yea, the clouds dripped water,
The mountains quaked—
Before the Lord, Him of Sinai,
Before the Lord, God of Israel.” (Judges 5:4-5)

“The Lord came from Sinai;

He shone upon them from Seir;
He appeared from Mount Paran,
And approached from Ribeboth-kodesh,
Lightning flashing at them from His right.” (Deuteronomy 33:2)

We know from the evidence at Kuntillet ‘Ajrud that the Kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II
maintained a presence in the desert region of the Sinai Peninsula along the trade route between the
Gulf of Aqaba and the Mediterranean. It seems plausible that the unidentified place names in Numbers
33 could represent either a forgotten list of way stations dating to the earliest accounts of Exodus or a
series of stops along a pilgrimage route from the Levant to Mt. Sinai/Horeb. These places and even the
entire desert wandering tradition may have been incorporated into Israel’s Exodus charter myth as a
late addition arriving from contact with southern traders at Kuntillet ‘Ajrud. Alternately, Finkelstein’s
suggestion that ancient Canaanite populations fluctuated between agrarianism and pastoral nomadism
leaves open the possibility that migratory pre-Israelites mixed with southern YHWH worshippers. It also
seems possible that populations from northern Arabia or the southern Transjordan settled in the
highlands of Samaria along with other proto-Israelite tribes between 1200 and 1000 BCE, bringing with
them the desert wandering tradition. Finkelstein theorizes that biblical editors and redactors
substituted sites familiar to seventh century BCE Judah such as Kadesh-Barnea and ignored the
mysterious place names in Numbers that may represent earlier traditions of the northern kingdom.
Given the likelihood that the Exodus stations as we know them represent a composite work from two or
more geographical lists, it is reasonable to hypothesize that the legends of escape from slavery in Egypt
and the revelation at Sinai began as two entirely separate accounts.

18
 Biblical Literalism – The Late Camp

Exodus hunters who view the Torah as a legitimate, historically-grounded account and cite the
text in their attempt to date it typically fall into two groups: the more traditional “late camp” who
believe in a thirteenth century BCE event and the alternative “early camp” who claim the fifteenth
century BCE as the more likely time period. Proponents of a late date for Exodus point to the claim that
Hebrew slaves built the store cities of Pithom and Ramses, which would suggest it occurred during the
reign of Ramesses II (1279-1213 BCE.) Dating the events in Exodus to c. 1270 BCE makes sense from a
textual standpoint and could even be consistent with our evidence from the Merneptah Stele that Israel
as a people already existed in Canaan c. 1208.

But this theory is not without its problems; chief among them is the fact that Ramesses II
reigned over Egypt at the height of its golden age. He was quite possibly the most accomplished and
powerful pharaoh who ever existed and likely would not have struggled to contain a population of slaves
lacking military training and proper organization. Ramesses II had firm military control over the Sinai
Peninsula with an established garrison of forts guarding the viable water sources along existing trade
routes. Finkelstein does not believe it would have been possible for a population of escaped slaves –
regardless of their number, which we will discuss in short order – to escape the land of Goshen and then
evade capture. Others have argued that even if an Exodus during the reign of Ramesses II was possible,
the proliferation of scribal activity in Egypt would have resulted in some record of the plagues, if not also
the escape event. No such record exists; by all accounts, Egypt under Ramesses II enjoyed a booming
economy and suffered few setbacks. Proponents of the late Exodus theory have countered this
argument by pointing out that Egyptian rulers historically tended to embellish their victories and bury
evidence of their defeats. By this argument, even if Ramesses II was humbled by the plagues of YHWH
and failed to prevent the Exodus, he certainly would not have recorded the embarrassment for
posterity. Critics of a literal Exodus such as Finkelstein counter this point by citing the utter lack of
evidence for a c. 1270 BCE event in the archaeological record. Even a migratory population, Finkelstein
argues, would have left some record of their presence in the silt layers at their encampment. While
Kadesh-Barnea – the oasis where the Hebrew tribes reportedly stayed throughout the majority of their
wanderings – clearly suggests Judahite occupation during the seventh century, there is simply no record
it was occupied on any scale in the thirteenth century BCE. (Finkelstein 2001, 59-68).

Biblical Literalism – The Early Camp

Proponents of an early Exodus date tend to cite genealogical records in the Bible along with
date references between the Exodus and other established events, including the construction of
Solomon’s temple in Jerusalem c. 966 BCE. Working back from the construction of the temple and using
the events of the Torah to establish a chronology, it is possible to arrive at a date of 1446 BCE for the
Exodus. As proponents of an early Exodus have argued, a 40-year journey beginning at this time would
better fit the probable time period for Jericho’s destruction and resolve other conflicts present in the
late Exodus theory. The largest obstacle for a fifteenth century Exodus is that it occurs two centuries
before we can verify any proto-Israelite communities in Canaan. If a group of people left Egypt c. 1446
BCE, traveled in the desert for four decades, and then arrived in Canaan as conquerors, they would have
later become Canaanite citizens once again under Egyptian rule as opposed to residents of the highland
communities that gave birth to Israel. The archaeological record testifies to this unfortunate reality.

19
 Egypt’s 20th Dynasty

Assuming that the Exodus story took place during a period of pain, disease, famine and other
disasters, Egypt’s 20th Dynasty c. 1189-1077 BCE may well have fostered the event known as the Exodus.
The pharaohs during this time period satisfied two important criteria: all but the first took the name of
Ramesses and several were weak rulers whose power was contested by rivals in Ethiopia or even the
high priests of the temple. The 20th Dynasty saw high priests usurp the power of the pharaoh by
commissioning artwork depicting them as equal or superior to the king. Diseases such as plague and
smallpox were present in Egypt at this time as evinced by the mummified remains of pharaohs. If the
Hebrew slaves that escaped from Goshen did not mention the name of their master they may have had
a very good reason for doing so: it was difficult to know who was in charge at any given time.
(“Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt”).

Egyptian Slaves in Canaan

Finkelstein and other scholars point to the well-documented campaign of Pharaoh

Shishak/Sheshonq in Canaan c. 925 BCE as another possible source for the Exodus narrative. In this
scenario, the earliest Hebrews could plausibly be described as slaves under Egypt, but slaves living in
Canaan rather than the land of Goshen. We have reconstructed a history in which an early Israelite
warlord named Saul potentially contested Egypt’s authority over Canaan by laying claim to the fertile
Jezreel Valley. The Pharaoh Sheshonq I decisively routed any such ambitions, marching through Canaan
and sacking city after city without formidable opposition. Shishak’s Levantine conquest could have
easily introduced Egyptian slavery components to the Exodus charter myth of the northern kingdom.
Even before Shishak’s late conquest, Egypt’s military dominance over Canaan could have engendered an
oral tradition of abuse and subjugation under pharaonic rule. Ramesses II, Merneptah, and several
other pharaohs ruled Canaan with an iron fist during large spans of pre-Israelite history. Paired with
impending conflict between Josiah and Pharaoh Necho II in the seventh century BCE, Egyptian
dominance over Canaan throughout its earliest history could have introduced elements of slavery to the
charter myth without ever necessitating the presence of a Hebrew population in Egypt. (Finkelstein
2013, 1450147).

20
 Let’s Talk About Miracles
Having established a plausible timeline for Israel’s rise and eventual destruction as well as
Judah’s ambition to succeed its northern sister kingdom to become the de-facto homeland of the Jewish
people, we are now ready to examine the literary elements for which the Exodus story has become
famous: its panoply of incredible miracles. Whereas the majority of this work has attempted to
establish a plausible explanation for the earliest history of the Jewish kingdoms, this portion will not be
constrained by conservative, evidence-based analysis. Many of these accounts will be speculative; some
will be entirely fabricated by your author based on his own personal biases and experiences. Be
forewarned that the following discussion represents only a hypothetical account that could potentially
fit within our established historical framework. Given the absence of any proof that a historical Moses
ever existed and the strong likelihood that the Hebrew people originated predominantly from local
Canaanite populations, we have no evidence to support any of the following theories.

600 Thousand Or 600 Contingents?

Let us begin by discussing the population figures of the Exodus story. The Torah records specific
numbers for the Hebrew horde departing from Egypt in at least two places:
The Israelites journeyed from Raamses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand men on foot, aside from children. Moreover, a mixed multitude
went up with them, and very much livestock, both flocks and herds. (EX 12:37-38)

Those are the enrollments recorded by Moses and Aaron and by the chieftains of Israel, who were twelve in number, one man to each ancestral
house. All the Israelites, aged twenty years and over, enrolled by ancestral houses, all those in Israel who were able to bear arms – all who were
enrolled came to 603,550. (NUM 1:44-46)

While these records may appear cut and dry, taken at face value they would suggest that at
least ONE MILLION people left Egypt and settled in Canaan during the exodus event. This would
represent a majority of the population of ancient Egypt and at least twenty times more than our
estimate for the highland population of Israel c. 1000 BCE. We do not need to debate this census to
conclude it has no basis in the historical record. Yet some have suggested that the Hebrew word ‫אלף‬
should be translated as “contingents” or “clans” rather than thousands. Given this supposition, it is
possible to read the Exodus census as either six hundred three thousand, five hundred fifty men OR
about six hundred contingents totaling about five thousand, five hundred men. For the purpose of this
exercise, let us assume a population of 5,500 men plus women, children and animals instead of the
impossible figure of 600,000.

Census of Israel from Numbers 1 as 1000’s and Contingents

Tribe ‫ = אלף‬1000 ‫ = אלף‬Contingent # Men # Men / ‫אלף‬
Reuben 46,500 46 500 11
Simeon 59,300 59 300 5
Gad 45,650 45 650 14
Judah 74,600 74 600 8
Issachar 54,400 54 400 7
Zebulon 57,400 57 400 7
Ephraim 40,500 40 500 13
Menashe 32,200 32 200 6
Benjamin 35,400 35 400 11
Dan 62,700 62 700 11
Asher 41,500 41 500 12
Naphtali 53,400 53 400 8
Totals: 603,550 598 5,550 Average = 9
(Thetorah.com)

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 The Plagues of disease

The plagues that afflicted Egypt in the Exodus story are fascinating not for their supernatural
claims, but for the fact that many could reasonably have occurred in rapid succession following an
outbreak of waterborne disease. The image of a poisoned Nile River stained red like blood implies
either a toxic event such as an algae bloom or the presence of widespread infectious bacteria, quite
possibly even anthrax. The early plagues progress as follows:

1. The Nile River turns red like blood and becomes poisonous. Fish die and the water stinks.
2. Frogs, able to survive on land and possibly even breed at higher numbers in the absence of fish,
then abandon the poisoned waters and spread across the countryside.
3. Gnats, lice or other pests capitalize on the population’s inability to use the Nile as a source of
hygiene.
4. Swarms of flies propagate. Flies lay their eggs on sources of food including dead fish or animals,
which the toxic waters have made rampant.
5. Livestock begins to die without drinkable water and possibly due to infection spread by the flies
and other pests; domesticated animals die en masse.
6. Boils appear on the local population either as a direct result of contact with the water or
infections linked to the general lack of sanitation and increased populations of disease-carrying
insects.

The Plagues of Volcanism

The last few Egyptian plagues seem relatively straightforward if we consider volcanic activity as
a possible source. Hail and thunderstorms occur in a region that experiences little rainfall. Unable to
travel in a poisonous atmosphere, locusts descend from the air and reap havoc on the local agriculture.
Pyroclastic ash clouds temporarily block out the sun and dust settles across the land. Even the
description of God appearing as alternating pillars of cloud and flame is consistent with how ancient
peoples might describe a volcano.

Equating God’s presence on Mt. Sinai and possible explanations for the plagues of Exodus to
volcanic activity is hardly a new idea; prominent researchers since the late nineteenth century have
made this connection. The greatest obstacle to this theory is the fact that the Sinai Peninsula is not
volcanically active. To this end, many have suggested the Thera eruption that destroyed Santorini could
be responsible for some of the plagues. While the Egyptians likely would have been affected by the
fallout of the Thera eruption and may even have received word from Minoan traders concerning the
calamity, there are at least two major problems with this proposition. For one, scientists have used
radiocarbon dating to estimate that the Thera eruption occurred c. 1650 BCE - far too early to have
impacted the formation of early Hebrew civilization. Secondly, the eruption occurred too far from the
land of Goshen to be seen as a pillar of fire and smoke; even if it was somehow visible in Egypt, it would
have manifested opposite to the Hebrew's direction of travel.

Despite our conclusion that the eruption at Thera could not have caused the plagues of disease
and volcanism in Egypt and that the Sinai Peninsula shows no sign at all of volcanic activity, there is a
third area in which we could search for a geologically active candidate for Sinai - The Hejaz region of

22
Saudi Arabia. The Hejaz area stretches southward from biblical Midian along the western coast of the
Arabian Peninsula and is home to scores of active harrat, or lava fields. The most recent major eruption
in the Hejaz region occurred at Harrat Rahat just south of Medina in 1256 CE, lasted at least fifty-two
days, and produced numerous surviving eye witness accounts. The eruption began on Monday, June
26th as a series of thunderous sounds that continued for two days followed by three days of earthquake
activity. Cities as far as 225 miles away reported a great fire that lit up the night sky. Sources closer to
Medina reported seeing a great mountain of fire the size of a city and smoke that obscured the horizon,
appearing to eclipse the sun and the moon. One account even suggested that light from the initial
eruptive blast could be discerned as far north as 600 miles away in Syria (El-Masry et al). Critics of a
theory relating the miraculous account of Sinai with volcanic activity will undoubtedly point out that
Medina is both too far south to have impacted Egypt and too distant from Kadesh-Barnea to represent a
10-day march. In this case the skeptics are correct. A volcano near Medina would likely not have been
perceivable from Egypt. And while there are many volcanic fields further north in the Hejaz region that
might satisfy such a criteria, we have argued the Egyptian slave and desert wandering narratives of the
Exodus account could well have formed separately in antiquity. As to whether early YHWHism may have
been influenced by volcanoes in the Arabian Peninsula before traveling north to Israel, it seems
plausible.

Map of Harrat in Saudi Arabia (APAAME.org)

23
 The Death of the Firstborn

At this point we have argued that 90% of the Exodus plagues could be attributed to either
water-borne disease or volcanic activity. We have not yet attempted to dissect the most amazing and
terrifying plague - a divinely-guided affliction capable of discerning between friend and foe to slay the
youngest Egyptian male heirs while leaving the Hebrew people unscathed. Theories have been put forth
throughout history to explain how such an event could occur. One such idea relates the Exodus plague
story to an extremely rare natural disaster known as a limnic eruption that occurred at Lake Nyos in
1986.

Lake Nyos formed in a volcanically active area of Cameroon, which created high concentrations
of dissolved carbon dioxide and iron in its deepest waters. When seismic activity, meteorological
conditions, or a landslide disturbed the lakebed, water from the lake’s bottom rose to the surface where
the lower relative pressure released massive volumes of poisonous gas and atmospheric oxygen reacted
with the dissolved iron, turning the water blood red. The higher density of carbon dioxide then
displaced its surrounding atmosphere and rushed to the adjacent lowland areas where the nearby
villagers made their homes. Local residents went to sleep as they would any other night, but by the
morning 1700 people had suffocated in their homes along with 3000 cattle - a scene straight from the
Torah.

Simcha Jacobovici’s The Exodus Decoded speculates that the Egyptian practice of honoring the
firstborn son with a sleeping place close to the ground and near the doorway might have made them
singularly vulnerable to a sudden gas eruption as in the Nyos event. While we have to acknowledge a
minute possibility that a limnic eruption in antiquity could have inspired the Passover story, it could not
have happened in the Nile Delta. Limnic eruptions are ultra-rare phenomena specific to lakes; the flow
of the Nile would not allow carbon dioxide to accumulate at depth and suddenly rise to the surface.

Although we can likely rule out asphyxiation due to lower sleeping arrangements, it is not
implausible that the role of an eldest male child in ancient Egyptian culture could have increased their
disease exposure relative to the general population. As a privileged member of the family, the first born
male may have also eaten the first portion of each meal. If the grain supply was tainted by fungus or
other toxins it is then plausible that the eldest male child would be the first to fall sick. Alternately, if
society dictated responsibilities for the eldest male of a household that did not apply to others such as
looking after livestock or representing the family in certain situations, it would have been possible for
only that portion of the population to contact a disease vector.

Lake Nyos (usually blue) eight days after the 1986 limnic eruption (Wikipedia)

24
 The Passover of Jewish Households

Memphis, Thebes, Avaris, Pi-Ramesses, Tanis – these cities along with around fifteen others
have one thing in common: all have served as the capital of Egypt at some point in the last five thousand
years. From 1292 BCE to 1078 BCE the Egyptian Empire was ruled by Ramesses II from the capital he
built in Goshen practically adjacent to the Hyksos capital of Avaris. Differences in hygienic practices
between Hebrew and Egyptian populations in this period could plausibly help to explain how disease-
related plagues might appear to discriminate among human populations, but the Exodus story also
claims Hebrew livestock was miraculously unaffected. We have no theories to explain a disease capable
of distinguishing between Egyptian and Hebrew animals.

If we place the Exodus just before Ramesses II moved the capital to Pi-Ramesses – either before
his reign or early enough in his reign that the city was still under construction and sparsely populated –
then Pharaoh would have been located at Memphis 60 miles to the south of the Hebrew populations in
Goshen. The possibility that Pharaoh and his Hebrew slaves were separated by such a great distance
would have made it entirely possible for localized epidemics or natural disasters to affect one
population while sparing the other. Any other explanation for the discrepancy the plagues of Egypt and
the relative security in Goshen would appear tenuous at best.

A Burning Bush
Now Moses, tending the flocks of his father in law Jethro, the priest of Midian,
drove the flock into the wilderness, and came to Horeb, the mountain of God.
An angel of the Lord appeared to him in a blazing fire out of a bush all aflame, yet the bush was not consumed.
Moses said, "I must turn aside to look at this marvelous sight; why doesn’t the bush burn up?"
When the Lord saw that he had turned aside to look, God called to him out of the bush: "Moses! Moses!" He answered, "Here I am."
And He said, "Do not come closer. Remove your sandals from your feet, for the place upon which you stand is holy ground." (EX 3:1-5)

God’s appearance before Moses as a supernatural flame that burns without consuming fuel
could have originated as little more than a clever literary device to help unify the followers of El and
YHWH, but that has not stopped readers from attempting to explain the event. An explanation
consistent with the theory that YHWH originated as a volcano deity in the Hejaz region might suggest a
thermal vent leading to actual combustion, but that would negate the miraculous aspects of the
account. While the species Dictamnus Albus excretes volatile oils that can actually ignite in hot weather
and rapidly burn away without harming the plant, the burning bush account suggests a prolonged flame
rather than a momentary flash and this species does not occur in our region of concern. Others have
suggested that Moses actually saw a burning bush and communed with the voice of YHWH, but only
because he was experiencing visual and auditory hallucinations. This is a theory worth exploring.

Psilocybin mushrooms have been proposed as a potential source of these hallucinations. From
the author’s experience it would certainly have been possible for Moses to perceive supernatural flames
under the influence of mushrooms and even to experience a sense of heightened spirituality at a high
enough dose (though he likely would not have had true auditory hallucinations.) Unfortunately, while
psychoactive mushroom species exist in humid regions all over the world, none are endemic to the arid
climates of Egypt, the Sinai Peninsula and Saudi Arabia. To this end, others have suggested that the
burning bush story approximates the visual and auditory hallucinations and particularly the supernatural
religious experience many report while under the influence of DMT.

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 Dimethyltriptamine has been extracted from the ayahuasca plant in South America and used in
religious ceremonies for hundreds of years. Species of acacia also produce DMT and, unlike psilocybin
mushrooms, these trees are native to Midian and were even specified as the source material for the Ark
of the Covenant. Joe Rogan and Hamilton Morris recorded a fascinating video segment where they
discussed whether Moses could plausibly have had a hallucinogenic spiritual experience by inhaling the
smoke from a burning acacia tree. Morris’ contact with cultures that heavily utilize DMT-containing
plants for building material and firewood unfortunately suggests that a psychoactive experience cannot
be achieved through combustion of the raw plant. Isolating concentrated DMT requires a complex acid-
base extraction method and, while shaman in South America discovered a process for performing the
extraction, we have no evidence that ancient cultures in Africa and the Middle East ever achieved such a
feat. (Rogan and Morris)

Though we have to rule out psilocybin mushrooms and DMT as potential catalysts for Moses’
hallucination, we do not necessarily have to abandon the theory. There is another hallucinogenic
compound that would have been ubiquitous in the region of Midian throughout ancient and even
modern times: subterranean gasses released by volcanic fissures. To find real examples in which
subterranean gas emissions shaped religious ideas in the ancient world one has to look no further than
Greece. Researchers have connected gas emissions beneath the temple of Apollo to the famous
prophecies of Pythia, more commonly known as the oracle at Delphi. Ethylene, methane, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulfide have all been proposed as potential sources of the oracle’s divine visions.
While far from conclusive, ancient descriptions of fissures beneath the temple and geological studies
placing the site directly above a fault line lend credibility to this explanation. (“Pythia”). Not far from
Delphi, deadly gasses emanating from “Pluto’s Gate” near the Greek city of Hierapolis in western Turkey
once provided tangible evidence of the underworld to ancient pilgrims. The temple was constructed
next to a cave that emitted deadly carbon dioxide. Birds flying near the mouth of the cavern would
suffocate in mid-flight and drop to the ground dead. Priests of Pluto reportedly even sacrificed animals
as large as bulls to the god of the underworld in their religious ceremonies, leading the beasts into the
cavern and dragging their bodies back out after they had expired. Let us consider the possibility that the
tectonically and volcanically active Hejaz region near Midian may have produced similar sites.

Plutonian gate to hell at Hierapolis in Turkey (Holloway)

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 In this imagined scenario, Moses tends to his flocks when suddenly the animals start acting
erratically, perhaps even moving away from the direction of a solitary thorn bush on the mountainside.
Moses also notices that he is beginning to experience unusual sensations, so he advances toward the
bush to investigate. Unaware that the bush is situated next to a volcanic fissure venting high
concentrations of toxic gas into the atmosphere, the strange sensation builds in intensity with his
approach. By the time Moses is within striking distance of the bush his senses are completely
overcome; vibrant colors swirl among the plant’s limbs and he hears the voice of God imploring him to
remove his sandals and come no closer. Near the threshold between breathable atmosphere and toxic
fumes, Moses communes with the terrifying presence of the Almighty. As he retreats back to his flocks,
unsure of what has just transpired, Moses again gazes in the direction of the bush and notices that the
flames have vanished and the plant appears entirely unchanged. He then returns to his father in law,
Jethro - a priest of YHWH - and attempts to describe the miraculous scene that has just unfolded. Jethro
informs Moses that the place he has just visited must be none other than the sacred mountain of God
and helps to decipher YHWH’s divine message.

The Parting of The Re(e)d Sea...

Pharaoh and his charioteers close in on the Hebrews, pinning them between the merciless sea
and the might of Egypt’s military. Thunderclouds swirl overhead; women and children cry out in fear,
certain of their impending destruction. Ever confident in the strength of his God, Charlton Heston raises
his staff and stretches his hands over the sea. With this gesture, the wind suddenly begins to howl and
the sea churns like boiling water, then flies to the right and the left like a waterfall in reverse. The
panicked masses rush into the dry void - walls of water hundreds of feet tall stretching upward from the
seabed on their right and left. Pharaoh encourages his terrified forces despite their pleas to leave,
“Better to die in battle with a God than live in shame!” Since debuting in 1956, this scene has surpassed
all others to define popular culture’s collective imagination of the Exodus story. Unfortunately our
recent understanding of the text suggests that the words Yam Suph should be translated not as “Red
Sea,” but as “the Sea of Reeds” - a distinction that while subtle, dramatically alters the scope of the most
famous Exodus miracle.

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 Modern scholarly consensus holds that if a mass flight of Hebrew slaves from Egypt ever actually
happened, the body of water through which Moses led his followers would not have been in the Gulf of
Suez or the Gulf of Aqaba, but rather a tidal marshland somewhere near the present day Suez Canal.
While both translations recount what was either an amazing stroke of luck, a divine act of salvation for
the Hebrew people, or a brilliant military maneuver by Moses, only one presents a scenario with a
plausible scientific explanation.

...As an Unplanned Miracle

Then the angel of God, who had been going in front of the Israelite camp, moved and went behind them,
and the pillar of cloud moved away from in front of them and stood behind them.
And he came between the camp of Egypt and the camp of Israel, and there were the cloud and the darkness,
and it illuminated the night, and one did not draw near the other all night long.
And Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and the Lord led the sea with the strong east wind all night,
and He made the sea into dry land and the waters split.
Then the children of Israel came into the midst of the sea on dry land,
and the waters were to them as a wall from their right and from their left.
The Egyptians pursued and came after them all Pharaoh’s horses, his chariots, and his horsemen, into the midst of the sea.
It came about in the morning watch that the Lord looked down over the Egyptian camp through a pillar of fire and cloud,
and He threw the Egyptian camp into confusion.
And He removed the wheels of their chariots, and He led them with heaviness, and the Egyptians said,
Let me run away from the Israelites because the Lord is fighting for them against the Egyptians
Thereupon, the Lord said to Moses, Stretch out your hand over the sea,
and let the water return upon the Egyptians, upon their chariots, and upon their horsemen
So Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and toward morning the sea returned to its strength,
as the Egyptians were fleeing toward it, and the Lord stirred the Egyptians into the sea.
And the waters returned and covered the chariots and the horsemen, the entire force of Pharaoh coming after them into the sea;
not even one of them survived. (EX 14:19-28)

A 2010 study explored whether a natural phenomenon known as “wind setdown” could have
been responsible for the Hebrews’ miraculous transit through Yam Suph over dry land. Researchers
identified a lagoon known as the Lake of Tanis that once met with a branch of the Nile near ancient
Egypt’s northern coast in much the same area as present day Lake Mazaleh. Computer simulations
demonstrated that a sustained 63 mile per hour easterly wind would have been capable of opening a
muddy bridge over two miles long and three miles wide for up to four hours. This analysis would have
required Moses to march in a somewhat circuitous northern route despite his preference against taking
the coastal road to Canaan for fear of the Philistines. (Drews and Han). While the sudden appearance of
a land bridge in this area appears to have been possible, there is no way Moses could have predicted
such an event. A Reed Sea parting due to wind setdown would indeed have been a miracle of God that
saw the Hebrew slaves escape Egypt’s chariots by the skin of their teeth.

...As a Military Scheme

The Lord said to Moses:
Tell the Israelites to turn back and encamp in front of Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea,
before Baal-Zephon; you shall encamp facing it, by the sea.
Pharaoh will say about the Israelites, “They are astray in the land; the wilderness has closed in on them.”
Then I will stiffen Pharaoh's heart and he will pursue them, that I may gain glory through Pharaoh and all his host;
and the Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord. And they did so. (Ex 14:1-5)

Consider the possibility that, rather than partaking in expansive negotiations with the fickle
pharaoh of Egypt, Moses recognized a period of calamity and plotted to exploit the situation for the
benefit of the Hebrew people. In this imagined scenario, Moses did not repeatedly warn Pharaoh that
God would precipitate a series of disasters, but recognized that Egyptian society was already

28
preoccupied with serious problems and decided to set a plan in motion. Perhaps instead of leaving
Goshen with the blessings of Egypt and gifts of treasure, Moses told his people, “Borrow whatever
valuables you can, eat a good meal tonight, and pack lightly; tomorrow we’re making a run for it.” And
when the people objected to the dangers of his plan maybe Moses said, “It’s fine… Pharaoh said we
could leave. Really, he said it’s okay. Just prepare quietly and don’t tell anyone about this or Pharaoh
might decide to change his mind.” If we hypothesize that the Exodus took place when the City of
Ramesees was still under construction and the center of Egyptian power was still sixty miles south of
Goshen in Memphis, then ten thousand or so Hebrew slaves might have plausibly had a two or three-
day head start before Pharaoh received word of their escape and could mobilize a response.

Let’s go a step further and speculate that Moses headed southeast rather than northeast and
had a strong hunch that Pharaoh would pursue on horseback or even received word of his approach.
Realizing as they neared the border between Egypt and the desert that families on foot could not hope
to outrun Egyptian horses and that the southern marshlands connected to the Gulf of Suez would
recede with the low tide, Moses commanded the people to backtrack to the southwest and make camp
on the western shores of the Sea of Reeds. Pharaoh arrived just as the sun was setting and, rather than
risk engaging a weak enemy at night, he directed his chariots to flank the encampment and cut off their
escape routes to the north and the south. Meanwhile, the tide receded and a strong east wind pushed
the remaining water out of the Hebrews’ path. While the Egyptians waited to advance at first light,
Moses quietly led his people in a single file line through the marshlands. Then, as the sun rose over
Egypt, Pharaoh saw that the last of the slaves had disappeared into the Sea of Reeds and ordered his
chariots to give pursuit. Stable for pedestrian traffic, the muddy bridge between shores sank under the
concentrated weight of the chariots wheels and trapped them in the muck just as the tide was rising and
the east wind was fading. The Egyptian soldiers struggled to free their horses while the waters swirled
around them, but they were too far from solid land. As the last of the Hebrew contingents emerged on
the opposite shores, they saw their Egyptian pursuers stuck in the mud, drowning along with their
horses.

Where Does This Leave Us?

We just managed to compress the first six hundred years of Jewish history into sixteen pages of
text, leaving enough time and energy to explore the Exodus charter myth in the second half of this
account. Like a young child learning spatial reasoning skills, we have dissected the Passover tradition
into its constituent pieces and attempted to cram them into the gaps of our model. But the earliest
history of Israel and Judah is not a jigsaw puzzle and in this analogy we cannot even be sure if we are
playing with puzzle pieces or building blocks. Luckily this paper set out to create a Picasso in lieu of a
Rembrandt, and in that regard we may have succeeded. While the plausibility of an Exodus event
against the backdrop of our historical narrative appears no more intelligible than when we began, the
author can only hope that the result has stirred the reader’s soul and inspired the imagination.

Our discussion has stretched from the first emergence of isolated hilltop settlements in the
highlands of Canaan to the Kingdom of Israel’s rise to regional supremacy under Omride rule and
eventually to the ambitious reforms of King Josiah that produced the Jewish literary tradition as we
know it. In Josiah, we found a young leader who inherited the vast legacy of Israel along with the throne
of Judah at a time when proponents of national YHWH worship endeavored to obliterate any trace of
the old gods. We deduced that the Bible only began to take shape in the wake of Israel’s destruction as

29
the written identity of a Judahite kingdom becoming relevant for the first time in its history. Close
examination of Josiah’s motivation for re-crafting the books of Moses gave us insight into the centuries-
long editorial process that created the Torah and also provided a new lens through which to understand
its purpose. We saw that the story of Moses leading his people away from harm and into the path of
God was also the story of Josiah establishing monotheistic worship of YHWH. We re-examined the
conquest of Canaan not as a historical fact, but as Josiah’s ambition to lead a military campaign that
would recapture Israel’s lost territory and establish a new Jewish kingdom whose spiritual and political
power rightfully emanated from Jerusalem. In light of the archaeological evidence for Israel’s rise and
our understanding of King Josiah, we then re-examined the Exodus tradition as a composite story and
attempted to discover whether it might have roots in verifiable history.

We reviewed the 925 BCE campaign of Pharaoh Sheshonq I in Canaan against the earliest
archaeological evidence of Israelite defensive fortifications in the highland settlements belonging to the
tribe of Benjamin to reconstruct a Saulide “united monarchy” that was far less sophisticated than the
Bible imagines and that was also militarily obliterated not by the Philistines, but by the Egyptian army.
Paired with the Egypt’s renewed interest in Canaan under Pharaoh Nacho II during the reign of King
Josiah, we were able to re-examine the Passover tradition in the context of a seventh century Kingdom
of Judah still very much threatened by Pharaoh. In discussing the archaeological finds from Kuntillet
‘Arjud, we realized that monotheistic YHWH worship likely did not emerge during a singular event at Mt.
Sinai, but possibly as a tradition from the southern desert regions that began separately from the
Hebrew flight from Egypt before it was edited into the Exodus story.

Given the unworkable number of 603,550 Hebrew men emigrating from Egypt to Israel, we
discussed how the text might instead suggest a reasonable population in the range of 10,000 people.
We then imagined several scenarios in which the historical seeds of the Exodus story may have taken
place sometime between 1300 and 1000 BCE. While we must acknowledge that something akin to the
Exodus story could plausibly have happened, history does not support the event as retold in the Torah.

Why Do We Still Tell the Story 3000 Years Later?

At this point one might ask, if the Exodus from Egypt, the desert wandering tradition, and the
conquest of Canaan did not occur as described in the Torah, then why do the Jewish people continue to
relive the story every year? Is there any truth to an Exodus tradition that has little to no basis in
archaeology? Why celebrate an event that was never “real” in the first place?

The only response is that the Exodus event and the story of Passover is unquestionably “real.”
The mere fact that this tradition has persevered throughout the oppression of the Jewish people and
survived as a cornerstone of their worship for thousands of years makes Passover more historically-
verifiable than almost any other ritual in human history. Where else has a population preserved their
most sacred traditions when deprived of their ancestral homeland, scattered across the globe and
denigrated by their neighbors? Just as Josiah remade the Exodus story so that it might remain relevant
to his subjects in the seventh century Kingdom of Judah, modern Jews must imbue their faithful
observation with everything that makes Judaism essential to twenty-first century life. God chose Israel
to be a light unto the nations. It is therefore Israel’s responsibility to guide the way forward in any
circumstance – whether from oppression in ancient Egypt or from present day racism, bigotry, or
socioeconomic inequality. And thus the Exodus tradition survives today.

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 Works Cited

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2018, www.haaretz.com/archaeology/3-600-year-old-trading-town-found-in-gaza-1.5385023.

“Canaan.” www.crystalinks.com/canaan.

DeLancey, John. “The Four-Room Israelite House.” Biblical Israel Tours, 2 Mar. 2016,
biblicalisraeltours.com/2016/03/the-four-room-house/.

“Documentary Hypothesis.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Mar. 2019,

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis.

Drews, Carl, and Weiqing Han. “Dynamics of Wind Setdown at Suez and the Eastern Nile Delta.” PloS
One, Public Library of Science, 30 Aug. 2010, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2932978/.

“Israel Finkelstein | Tel Aviv University.” Academia.edu, telaviv.academia.edu/IsraelFinkelstein.

Finkelstein, Israel and Neil Asher Silberman. The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient
Israel and the Origin of its Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster, 2001

Finkelstein, Israel. The Forgotten Kingdom: the Archaeology and History of Northern Israel. Society of
Biblical Literature, 2013.

Hasson, Nir. “A Strange Drawing Found in the Sinai Could Undermine Our Entire Idea of
Judaism.” Haaretz.com, 14 Apr. 2018, www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-a-strange-
drawing-could-undermine-our-entire-idea-of-judaism-1.5973328.

Holloway, Henry. “Ancient 'GATE TO HELL' Uncovered...and It Can KILL Anyone Who Gets Too
Close.” Dailystar.co.uk, Daily Star, 19 Feb. 2018, www.dailystar.co.uk/news/world-
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Science.

“Kings of Israel and Judah.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Mar. 2019,

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings_of_Israel_and_Judah.

“Merneptah Stele.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 14 Mar. 2019,

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneptah_Stele.

“Mesha Stele.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Mar. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesha_Stele.

“Pythia.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Mar. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythia.
“The Campaign of Shishak and Rehoboam's Defense Lines.” StudyLight.org: Search, Read and Study with
Our Bible Tools, www.studylight.org/miscellaneous/bible-maps/getImage.cgi?b=b&i=81&s=l.
“Twelve Tribes of Israel.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 25 Feb. 2019,
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel.

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