Network Configuration

Cabling
Types of Cable
1. Coax cable
Coax Cable is a type of copper cable specially built with a meal shield and
other components engineered to block signal interference. It is primarily use b a
cable TV companies to connect
their satellite antenna facilities
to customer homes and
businesses. It is also
sometimes used by telephone
companies to connect central
offices to telephone poles near
customers. Coax cable was
invented in1880 by English
engineer and mathematician
Oliver Heaviside, who patented
the invention and design that
some year. AT&T established
its first cross-continental
coaxial transmission system in
1940. Coax cables have
concentric layers of electrical
conductors and insulating
material. This construction
ensures signals are enclosed
within the cable and prevents electrical noise from interfering with the signal. The
center conductor layer is thin conducting wire, either solid or braided copper. A
dielectric layer, made up of an insulating material with every well-defined
electrical characteristic, surrounds the wire. A shield layer then surrounds the
dielectric layer with metal foil or braided copper mesh. The whole assembly is
wrapped in an insulating jacket. The outer metal shielded layer of the coax cable
is typically grounded in the connectors at both ends to shield the signals and as a
place for stray interference signals to dissipate.

2. Unshielded Twisted Pair

(UTP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair
is a ubiquitous type of copper
cabling used in telephone
wiring and local area networks
(LANs). Inside a UTP cable is
up to four twisted pairs of
copper wires, enclosed in a
protective plastic cover, with
the greater number of pairs
corresponding to more
bandwidth. The two individual
wires in a single pair are
twisted around each other, and
then the pair are twisted around
each other, as well. This is done to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic
 interference, each of which can degrade network performance. Each signal on a
twisted pair requires both wires. Twisted pairs are color-coded to make it easy to
identify each pair. In North America, one wire in a pair is identified by one of five
colors: blue, orange, green, brown or slate (gray). This wire is paired with a wire
from a different color group: white, red, black, yellow or violet. Typically, one wire
in a pair is solid-colored, and the second is striped with the color of its mate so
they can be easily identified and matched.

3. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Shielded Twisted Pair is a special kind of copper telephone wiring used in
some business
installations. An outer
covering or shield is
added to the ordinary
twisted pair telephone
wires; the shield
functions as a ground.
Twisted pair is the
ordinary copper wire
that connects home
and many business
computers to the
telephone company.
To reduce crosstalk or
electromagnetic
induction between
pairs of wires, two
insulated copper wires are twisted around each other. Each signal on twisted pair
requires both wires. Since some telephone sets or desktop locations require
multiple connections, twisted pair is sometimes installed in two or more pairs, all
within a single cable. Shielded twisted pair is often used in business installations.
Twisted pair is now frequently installed with two pairs to the home, with the extra
pair making it possible for you to add another line (perhaps for modem use) when
you need it. Twisted pair comes with each pair uniquely color-coded when it is
packaged in multiple pairs. Different uses such as analog, digital,
and Ethernet require different pair multiples. Although twisted pair is often
associated with home use, a
higher grade of twisted pair is
often used for horizontal wiring
in LAN installations because it
is less expensive than coaxial
cable.

4. Fiber optics
Fiber optics or optical
fiber, refers to the medium and
the technology associated with
the transmission of information
as light pulses along a glass or
plastic strand or fiber. A fiber
 optic cable can contain a varying number of these glass fibers from a few up to a
couple hundred. Surrounding the glass fiber core is another glass layer called
cladding. A layer known as a buffer tube protects the cladding, and a jacket layer
acts as the final protective layer for the individual strand. Fiber optics transmit
data in the form of light particles or photons that pulse through a fiber optic cable.
The glass fiber core and the cladding each have a different refractive index that
bends incoming light at a certain angle. When light signals are sent through the
fiber optic cable, they reflect off the core and cladding in a series of zig-zag
bounces, adhering to a process called total internal reflection. The light signals
do not travel at the speed of light because of the denser glass layers, instead
traveling about 30% slower than the speed of light. To renew, or boost, the signal
throughout its journey, fiber optics transmission sometimes requires repeaters at
distant intervals to regenerate the optical signal by converting it to an electrical
signal, processing that electrical signal and retransmitting the optical signal.

Cabling Types & Configuration

1. Straight-Through cable
Straight-Through cable
refers to cables that have the
pin assignments on each end
of the cable. In other words Pin
1 connector A goes to Pin 1 on
connector B, Pin 2 to Pin 2 ect.
Straight-Through wired cables
are most commonly used to
connect a host to client. When
we talk about cat5e patch
cables, the Straight-Through
wired cat5e patch cable is
used to connect computers,
printers and other network
client devices to the router
switch or hub (the host device
in this instance). Straight-
through cables get their name
from how they are made. Out
of the 8 pins that exist on the
both ends of an Ethernet cable,
each pin connects to the same
pin on the opposite side. Notice
how each wire corresponds to
the same pin. Straight-through
cables are primarily used for
connecting unlike devices.
2. Crossover wired cables
Crossover wired cables
(commonly called crossover
cables) are very much like
Straight-Through cables with
the exception that TX and RX
lines are crossed (they are at
opposite positions on either
end of the cable. Using the
568-B standard as an example
below you will see that Pin 1
on connector A goes to Pin 3
on connector B. Pin 2 on
connector A goes to Pin 6 on
connector B etc. Crossover
cables are most commonly
used to connect two hosts
directly. Examples would be
connecting a computer directly
to another computer,
connecting a switch directly to
another switch, or connecting a
router to a router. In the past
when connecting two host
devices directly a crossover
cable was required. Now days
most devices have auto
sensing technology that
detects the cable and device
and crosses pairs when
needed. Crossover cables are
very similar to straight-through cables, except that they have pairs of wires that
crisscross. This allows for two devices to communicate at the same time. Unlike
straight-through cables, we use crossover cables to connect like devices.
Crossover cables are typically
used in connecting a computer
to a router, connecting a
computer to a computer,
connecting a router to a router,
connecting a switch to a
switch, and connecting a hub
to a hub.

3. Rollover wired cables

Rollover wired cables
most commonly called rollover
cables, have opposite Pin
assignments on each end of
the cable or in other words it is
"rolled over". Pin 1 of
connector A would be
 connected to Pin 8 of connector B. Pin 2 of connector A would be connected to
Pin 7 of connector B and so on. Rollover cables, sometimes referred to as Yost
cables are most commonly used to connect to a devices console port to make
programming changes to the device. Unlike crossover and straight-wired cables,
rollover cables are not intended to carry data but instead create an interface with
the device. Rollover cables, like other cabling types, got their name from how
they are wired. Rollover cables essentially have one end of the cable wired
exactly opposite from the other. This essentially “rolls over” the wires- but why
would we need to do such a thing? Rollover cables, also called Yost cables,
usually connect a device to a router or switch’s console port. This allows a
programmer to make a connection to the router or switch, and program it as
needed.

Configuration Materials

Router
A router is a device that analyzes the contents of data packets transmitted
within a network or to another network. Routers determine whether the source
and destination are on the same network or whether data must be transferred
from one network type to another, which requires encapsulating the data packet
with routing protocol header
information for the new network
type.

Today, high-speed modern

routers are actually very specialized
computers with extra hardware for
rapid data packet forwarding and
specialized security functions such
as encryption. When several routers
are used in a collection of
interconnected networks, they
exchange and analyze information,
and then build a table of the
preferred routes and the rules for
determining routes and destinations
for that data. As a network interface,
routers convert computer signals from one standard protocol to another that's
more appropriate for the destination network. Large routers determine
interconnectivity within an enterprise, between enterprises and the Internet, and
between different internet service providers (ISPs); small routers determine
interconnectivity for office or home networks. ISPs and major enterprises
exchange routing information using border gateway protocol (BGP).

Switch
 In a network, a switch is a device that channels incoming data from any of
multiple input ports to the
specific output port that will
take it toward its intended
destination. In a local area
network (LAN) using Ethernet,
a network switch determines
where to send each incoming
message frame by looking at
the physical device address
(also known as the Media
Access Control address
or MAC address). Switches
maintain tables that match
each MAC address to the port
from which the MAC address
has been received. If a frame is
to be forwarded to a MAC
address that is unknown to the
switch infrastructure, it is flooded to all ports in the switching domain. Broadcast
and multicast frames are also flooded. This is known as BUM flooding broadcast,
unknown unicast, and multicast flooding. This capability makes a switch a Layer
2 or data-link layer device in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
communications model. Switches, physical and virtual, comprise the vast
majority of network devices in modern data networks. They provide the wired
connections to desktop computers, wireless access points, industrial machinery
and some internet of things (IoT) devices such as card entry systems. They
interconnect the computers that host virtual machines in data centers, as well as
the dedicated physical servers, and much of the storage infrastructure. They
carry vast amounts of traffic in telecommunications provider networks.

Hub

A network hub is a node

that broadcasts data to every
computer or Ethernet-based
device connected to it. A hub is
less sophisticated than
a switch, the latter of which can
isolate data transmissions to
specific devices. Network hubs
are best suited for small,
simple local area network
(LAN) environments. Hubs
cannot provide routing
capabilities or other advanced
network services. Because
they operate by
forwarding packets across all ports indiscriminately, network hubs are sometimes
referred to as "dumb switches." With limited capabilities and poor scalability,
network hubs had primarily one competitive advantage over switches: lower
prices. As switch prices fell in the early to mid-2000s, hubs began getting phased
out of use. Today, hubs are far less commonly deployed. But network hubs have
some niche uses and continue to offer a simple means of networking.

Cable Tester

A cable tester is a
device that is used to test the
strength and connectivity of a
particular type of cable or other
wired assemblies. There are a
number of different types of
cable testers, each able to test
a specific type of cable or wire
(some may be able to test
different types of cables or
wires). A cable tester can test
whether a cable or wire is set
up properly, connected
correctly, and the
communication strength
between the source and destination. The picture is an example of a cable tester
from TRENDnet.

For computers, one of the most common types of cable testers used is for
testing Cat5, Cat5e, and Cat6 network cables. Because so many different types
of data can be transmitted over a network cable, it is important that the network
cable connects properly between the computer and server. Also, make sure the
signal strength between computers is adequate for transmitting data and that
there is no outside interference causing a loss of data or decrease in signal
strength. A cable tester can test
for these factors and verify the
network cables connections
are correct and will work for the
intended purpose.

LAN Card

The LAN (Local Area

Network) card is a 'door' to the
network from a computer. Any
type of network activity
requires a LAN card: the
Internet, network printer,
connecting computers together,
and so on. Today many
devices contain a network
card, including televisions for their Internet apps, Blu-ray players, mobile phones,
VoIP, desk phones, and even refrigerators. LAN cards are hardware devices that
can be added to a computer, or they can be integrated into the main hardware of
the computer.

LAN cards also make it possible to connect many different computers

together through the LAN. As long as each of the computers has the
proper IP package addresses. The speeds of each LAN will vary however. This
will be depenanct on the LAN cards themselves. Some are capable of speeds
up to 10/100 mbps and then there are some that are rated up to 10/100/1000.
What this means is that some are capable of speeds of to 1 gbps. This all
depends on the specifications of the computer when purchased.

WLAN Card

A wireless LAN (WLAN)

is a wireless computer
network that links two or more
devices using wireless
communication to form a local
area network (LAN) within a
limited area such as a home,
school, computer laboratory,
campus, office building etc.
This gives users the ability to
move around within the area
and yet still be connected to
the network. Through
a gateway, a WLAN can also provide a connection to the wider Internet. Most
modern WLANs are based on IEEE 802.11 standards and are marketed under
the Wi-Fi brand name. Wireless LANs have become popular for use in the home,
due to their ease of installation and use. They are also popular in commercial
properties that offer wireless access to their employees and customers.

Crimping Tools

A crimping tool is one of

the most crucial network
connecting tools. In order to
connect a connector to the
cable, you will need a tool to
crimp or connect. Known as
the crimping tool, this tool is
used to connect RJ-45, RJ-11
and other connectors to the
end of a cable. Some crimping
tools have a built-in wire cutter
near the handle. This wire cutter can be used to cut a phone cable or a Cat5
cable.

While using a crimping tool, the wires that need to be crimped are first
placed into the connector. Once this is done, the jack with the wires is placed in
the designated slot of the crimping tool and the handles of the tool are squeezed
tight. By doing this, you can ensure that the plastic connector you are using
punctures the wires inside and holds them all in place. This prevents the wires
from loosening and coming out. If the wires are crimped securely in place, data
can be easily transmitted by every wire. We offer several varieties of crimping
tools such as the hex crimp tool.

Coaxial Compression Tool

The coaxial cable is the

cable that includes the outer
metal that does the conducting.
A central conducting core
ensures that the metal is
insulated. High frequency
signals are transmitted through
this coaxial cable line. A coaxial
compression tool is a useful
device that uses connectors to
properly compress the coaxial
cable. The side of the cable
wire will enable you to know which type of cable it is.

You will need to use a connector that is the right fit with the cable wire.
Using the male and female F-style and N-type connectors you will be able to
connect the coaxial wire. Once the connector is attached, it is a simple matter to
use the compression tool and compress the coaxial cable by closing the level
and sealing tightly.

Punch Down Tool

The punch down tool is

also known as the Krone tool. It
is small tool that is used most
frequently by network
troubleshooting technicians.
The basic purpose of a punch
down tool is to insert wires into
various devices like pinch down
 blocks, patch panels, surface mount boxes, and more with the help of insulation-
displacement connectors.

The impact type of punch down tool is the most popular and commonly
used one. The impact punch down tool consists of a slot for inserting removable
blades, an internal spring impact mechanism and a handle to hold the tool. Other
than just inserting the wire, a punch down tool can also be used to cut off the
excess wire. Some punch down tools come with a fixed blade and may even lack
an impact mechanism. Ensure that you are acquiring the right type of punch
down tool to suit your needs. If you need it for a large number of connections, an
impact mechanism can make life much simpler and stave off muscle fatigue.

Network
Creation of local network

Setting up a local network and file sharing

Use the steps in this section to set up a home network using standard RJ-45
hardware and cables.

NOTE: When using steps involving Windows, log in using the main
administrative account. Normally this is the first account that was created when
the computer was first turned on.

Before you begin

Before setting up your local wired network, confirm that you have the following
hardware and follow these steps:

Network interface card (NIC) or an on-the-motherboard network port for each

computer. HP and Compaq computers are network ready with NICs installed.
Confirm the computer has a
RJ-45 network port on the
back.

Figure 1: Shape of RJ-45

connector

Network hub (or router). A

separate network hub may not
be necessary if your home is
already equipped with RJ-45
jacks in the walls or if your DSL
or cable modem provides RJ-
45 ports (select models). If you need a network hub, consult with a network
specialist at your local computer store to determine a hub that meets your needs.

NOTE: A crossover cable can be used to connect two computers without a hub.
However, it only allows two computers to connect and is not expandable.

Network cables for each computer. Disconnect the Internet. If you have a DSL or
cable modem, disconnect it. Disable any firewall software. Firewall software may
interfere with network setup. You can enable the firewall after network setup is
complete.

Step 1: Connecting the network hardware and cables

Do the following to set up the wired network hardware and connect the
networking cables.

Figure 2: Example of one possible setup configuration

1. Set up and turn on the power for the network hub or other networking device.
(Follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer).

2. Connect the computers to the networking device. If a crossover cable is used,

connect the cable to the RJ45 network ports
on each computer.

3. Connect the computer power cords and

turn the computers on.

Step 2: Setting up a HomeGroup

Set up a HomeGroup to share

libraries and devices with other computers
on the wired network. You can also stream
media between devices.

Figure 3: Clicking Create a homegroup

1. In Windows, search for and

open Homegroup.
2. If a homegroup has not been created,
click Create a homegroup.
3. In the Create a Homegroup window,
click Next.

Figure 4: Clicking Next

In the Share with other homegroup

members window, select Shared in the box
next to the folders or devices you want to
share, then click Next.
Figure 5: Permissions for folders and devices

The password displays in the Use this password to add other computers
to your homegroup window. Click Finish.

Figure 6: Use this password to

add other computers to your
homegroup window

NOTE: Use the homegroup

password on each computer or
device in the homegroup.

Step 3: Sharing drives, folders, and files

To access the computers on your wired network, you must turn on network
discovery. You can also set files and printers to be shared as well as set sharing
options for specific files or folders.

Turning on network discovery and file and printer sharing

Setting sharing options and permissions for specific files or folders

Step 4: Testing the wired network

Check the network by browsing through the shared folders on each computer on
the network. To verify the setup of your wired network and browse the shared
folders, follow these steps:

1. In Windows, search for and open Network.

2. Double-click the name of the computer or device to access.
3. If prompted, enter the user name and password to connect to the computer or
device.

If the computer is able to read and access files from a remote computer, the
remote computer or device is set up correctly. Browse to every available
computer or device from each computer on the network. If there are any issues,
go back through these steps and verify that the settings are correct.

If you are unsure how to browse shared folders or are experiencing difficulties,
refer to the section Accessing shared files and directories .
 When all computers are able to network to each other computer on the network,
continue to the next step.

Step 5: Enabling Internet access and firewall

Once you have verified that your home network is capable of transferring files,
connect and enable Internet connections for computers with Internet access.

CAUTION: Make sure that each computer with Internet access is well protected
from security threats. At the minimum, each computer should have its Internet
connection protected with a firewall and Windows should be updated with the
latest critical updates from Microsoft Windows Update. If malicious activity comes
though one computer, the activity can quickly spread through the entire network.

Accessing shared files and directories

Do the following to access shared files and directories:

1. Make sure network discovery and file sharing is turned On.

2. In Windows, search for and open Network.
3. The Network window opens and displays computers with shared folders that
are detected on local networks.
4. Double-click the computer you want to access.
5. If prompted, enter the username and password to access that computer.

NETWORK NAMING

network name is a text string that devices use to reference a particular computer
network. These strings are, strictly speaking, separate from the names of individual
devices and the addresses they use to identify each other. There are several different
forms of network names.

SSID

Wi-Fi networks support a type of network name called a Service Set Identifier, usually
abbreviated as SSID. Wi-Fi access points and clients are each assigned a SSID to help
identify one another. When we speak of wireless network names, we typically are
referring to SSIDs.

Wireless broadband routers and wireless access points establish a wireless network
using a SSID. These devices are configured with a default SSID (network name) by the
manufacturer at the factory. You should change the default name for your devices.

Windows Workgroups and Domains

Microsoft Windows supports assigning PCs to named workgroups to facilitate peer-to-

peer networking. Alternatively, Windows domains segregate PCs into named sub-
networks. Both Windows workgroup and domain names are set separately from the
names of each PC and function independently from SSIDs.

Clusters

Yet another distinct form of network naming is used to identify computer clusters. Most
server operating systems, for example, such as Microsoft Windows Server, support the
independent naming of clusters. Clusters are a set of computers that work as a single
system.

Network vs. DNS Names of Computers

It's fairly common in the IT world for people to refer to computer names as maintained in
the Domain Name System as network names even though they aren't technically names
of networks.

NETWORK CONFIGURATION

network configuration is the process of setting a network's controls, flow and operation
to support the network communication of an organization and/or network owner. This
broad term incorporates multiple configuration and setup processes on network
hardware, software and other supporting devices and components. Network
configuration is also known as network setup.

Network configuration allows a system administrator to set up a network to meet

communication objectives. The process involves the following tasks:

Router configuration: Specifies the correct IP addresses and route settings, etc.

Host configuration: Sets up a network connection on a host computer/laptop by logging

the default network settings, such as IP addressing, proxy, network name and
ID/password, to enable network connection and communication.

Software configuration: Any network-based software, like an intrusion detection system

(IDS), is allowed access and provided with the appropriate credentials to monitor
network traffic.

Moreover, network configuration includes Internet/network sharing, software/application

installation and firewall installation/configuration.

TESTING YOUR NETWORK CONNECTION

Options

Slow or congested network connections can affect page load times, upload/download
speeds, and syncing.

To test the speed and health of your Internet connection to Box, follow these steps to
run a Connection Diagnostics test from within your Box account:

-Open the Account menu by clicking your profile image (or initials) in the upper-right
corner. Click Account Settings.

-Select the "Diagnostics" tab

-Under the "Connection Diagnostics" section, click the "Run Test" button

-This will run a multi-step connection test to see if your connection is at an optimum
level. When the test completes, you will see a short summary of test results.

NETWORK ADDRESSING
A network address is a key networking technology component that facilitates identifying
a network node/device and reaching a device over a network. It has several forms,
including the Internet Protocol (IP) address, media access control (MAC) address and
host address. It

Computers on a network use a network address to identify, locate and address other
computers. Besides individual devices, a network address is typically unique for each
interface; for example, a computer's Wi-Fi and local area network (LAN) card has
separate network addresses.

A network address is also known as the numerical network part of an IP address. This is
used to distinguish a network that has its own hosts and addresses. For example, in the
IP address 192.168.1.0, the network address is 192.168.1.

IP address (Internet Protocol)

In order for systems to locate each other in a distributed environment, nodes are given
explicit addresses that uniquely identify the particular network the system is on and
uniquely identify the system to that particular network. When these two identifiers are
combined, the result is a globally-unique address.

An IP address is the most significant and important component in the networking

phenomena that binds the World Wide Web together. The IP address is a numeric
address assigned to every unique instance that is connected to any computer
communication network using the TCP/IP communication protocols.

Network nodes are assigned IP addresses by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
server as soon as the nodes connect to a network. DHCP assigns IP addresses using a
pool of available addresses which are part of the whole addressing scheme. Though
DHCP only provides addresses that are not static, many machines reserve static IP
addresses that are assigned to that entity forever and cannot be used again.

IP addresses falls into two types:

• Classfull IP addressing is a legacy scheme which divides the whole IP address

pools into 5 distinct classes—A, B, C, D and E.

• Classless IP addressing has an arbitrary length of the prefixes.

IP CLASSES

• Class A

Class A addresses always have the first bit of their IP addresses set to “0”. Since Class
A networks have an 8-bit network mask, the use of a leading zero leaves only 7 bits for
the network portion of the address, allowing for a maximum of 128 possible network
numbers, ranging from 0.0.0.0 – 127.0.0.0. Number 127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback,
used for internal testing on the local machine.

• Class B

Class B addresses always have the first bit set to “1” and their second bit set to “0”.
Since Class B addresses have a 16-bit network mask, the use of a leading “10” bit-
pattern leaves 14 bits for the network portion of the address, allowing for a maximum of
16,384 networks, ranging from 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.0.0.

• Class C

Class C addresses have their first two bits set to “1” and their third bit set to “0”. Since
Class C addresses have a 24-bit network mask, this leaves 21 bits for the network
portion of the address, allowing for a maximum of 2,097,152 network addresses,
ranging from 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.0.

• Class D

Class D addresses are used for multicasting applications. Class D addresses have their
first three bits set to “1” and their fourth bit set to “0”. Class D addresses are 32-bit
network addresses, meaning that all the values within the range of 224.0.0.0 –
239.255.255.255 are used to uniquely identify multicast groups. There are no host
addresses within the Class D address space, since all the hosts within a group share
the group’s IP address for receiver purposes.

• Class E

Class E addresses are defined as experimental and are reserved for future testing
purposes. They have never been documented or utilized in a standard way.

The Paessler network monitoring product PRTG Network Monitor use the IP address in
order to connect to the respective machines they are intended to monitor / graph.

What is IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)?

IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) is the fourth revision of the Internet Protocol (IP) used
to to identify devices on a network through an addressing system. The Internet Protocol
is designed for use in interconnected systems of packet-switched computer
communication networks (see RFC:791).

IPv4 is the most widely deployed Internet protocol used to connect devices to the
Internet. IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing for a total of 2^32 addresses (just
over 4 billion addresses). With the growth of the Internet it is expected that the number
of unused IPv4 addresses will eventually run out because every device -- including
computers, smartphones and game consoles -- that connects to the Internet requires an
address.

What is IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)?

A new Internet addressing system Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is being deployed
to fulfill the need for more Internet addresses.

IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6) is also called IPng (Internet Protocol next generation)
and it is the newest version of the Internet Protocol (IP) reviewed in the IETF standards
committees to replace the current version of IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4).

IPv6 is the successor to Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4). It was designed as an

evolutionary upgrade to the Internet Protocol and will, in fact, coexist with the older IPv4
for some time. IPv6 is designed to allow the Internet to grow steadily, both in terms of
the number of hosts connected and the total amount of data traffic transmitted.

IPv6 is often referred to as the "next generation" Internet standard and has been under
development now since the mid-1990s. IPv6 was born out of concern that the demand
for IP addresses would exceed the available supply.

The Benefits of IPv6

While increasing the pool of addresses is one of the most often-talked about benefit of
IPv6, there are other important technological changes in IPv6 that will improve the IP
protocol:

• No more NAT (Network Address Translation)

• Auto-configuration

• No more private address collisions

• Better multicast routing

• Simpler header format

• Simplified, more efficient routing

• True quality of service (QoS), also called "flow labeling"

• Built-in authentication and privacy support

• Flexible options and extensions

• Easier administration (say good-bye to DHCP)

Differences Between IPv4 and IPv6

The following table lists the important differences between IPv4 and IPv6

MAC ADDRESS (Media Access Control)

Stands for "Media Access Control Address," and no, it is not related Apple Macintosh
computers. A MAC address is a hardware identification number that uniquely identifies
each device on a network. The MAC address is manufactured into every network card,
such as an Ethernet card or Wi-Fi card, and therefore cannot be changed.
The address is composed of up to 6 pairs of characters, separated by colons. You may
need to provide your MAC address to a router in order to successfully connect to a
network. To find your MAC address on any system with a network connection, use one
of the following methods.

Additional Information

If definitions are helpful to you, use these vocabulary terms in order to get you started:

• Address - The unique number ID assigned to one host or interface in a network.

• Subnet - A portion of a network that shares a particular subnet address.

• Subnet mask - A 32-bit combination used to describe which portion of an address

refers to the subnet and which part refers to the host.

• Interface - A network connection.

If you have already received your legitimate address(es) from the Internet Network
Information Center (InterNIC), you are ready to begin. If you do not plan to connect to
the Internet, Cisco strongly suggests that you use reserved addresses from RFC 1918 .

Understand IP Addresses

An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely identify a device on an IP

network. The address is made up of 32 binary bits, which can be divisible into a network
portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask. The 32 binary bits are broken
into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits). Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by a
period (dot). For this reason, an IP address is said to be expressed in dotted decimal
format (for example, 172.16.81.100). The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255
decimal, or 00000000 - 11111111 binary.

Here is how binary octets convert to decimal: The right most bit, or least significant bit,
of an octet holds a value of 20. The bit just to the left of that holds a value of 21. This
continues until the left-most bit, or most significant bit, which holds a value of 27. So if
all binary bits are a one, the decimal equivalent would be 255 as shown here:

1 1 1 11111

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 (128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1=255)

Here is a sample octet conversion when not all of the bits are set to 1.

0 1000001

0 64 0 0 0 0 0 1 (0+64+0+0+0+0+0+1=65)

And this sample shows an IP address represented in both binary and decimal.

10. 1. 23. 19 (decimal)

00001010.00000001.00010111.00010011 (binary)
These octets are broken down to provide an addressing scheme that can accommodate
large and small networks. There are five different classes of networks, A to E. This
document focuses on classes A to C, since classes D and E are reserved and
discussion of them is beyond the scope of this document.

Note: Also note that the terms "Class A, Class B" and so on are used in this document
in order to help facilitate the understanding of IP addressing and subnetting. These
terms are rarely used in the industry anymore because of the introduction of classless
interdomain routing (CIDR).

Given an IP address, its class can be determined from the three high-order bits (the
three left-most bits in the first octet). Figure 1 shows the significance in the three high
order bits and the range of addresses that fall into each class..

In a Class A address, the first octet is the network portion, so the Class A example in
Figure 1 has a major network address of 1.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255. Octets 2, 3, and 4
(the next 24 bits) are for the network manager to divide into subnets and hosts as
he/she sees fit. Class A addresses are used for networks that have more than 65,536
hosts (actually, up to 16777214 hosts!).

In a Class B address, the first two octets are the network portion, so the Class B
example in Figure 1 has a major network address of 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255.
Octets 3 and 4 (16 bits) are for local subnets and hosts. Class B addresses are used for
networks that have between 256 and 65534 hosts.

In a Class C address, the first three octets are the network portion. The Class C
example in Figure 1 has a major network address of 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255. Octet
4 (8 bits) is for local subnets and hosts - perfect for networks with less than 254 hosts.

Network Masks

A network mask helps you know which portion of the address identifies the network and
which portion of the address identifies the node. Class A, B, and C networks have
default masks, also known as natural masks, as shown here:

Class A: 255.0.0.0

Class B: 255.255.0.0

Class C: 255.255.255.0

An IP address on a Class A network that has not been subnetted would have an
address/mask pair similar to: 8.20.15.1 255.0.0.0. In order to see how the mask helps
you identify the network and node parts of the address, convert the address and mask
to binary numbers.

8.20.15.1 = 00001000.00010100.00001111.00000001

255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

Once you have the address and the mask represented in binary, then identification of
the network and host ID is easier. Any address bits which have corresponding mask bits
set to 1 represent the network ID. Any address bits that have corresponding mask bits
set to 0 represent the node ID.
8.20.15.1 = 00001000.00010100.00001111.00000001

255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

-----------------------------------

net id | host id

netid = 00001000 = 8

hostid = 00010100.00001111.00000001 = 20.15.1

Understand Subnetting

Subnetting allows you to create multiple logical networks that exist within a single Class
A, B, or C network. If you do not subnet, you are only able to use one network from your
Class A, B, or C network, which is unrealistic.

Each data link on a network must have a unique network ID, with every node on that
link being a member of the same network. If you break a major network (Class A, B, or
C) into smaller subnetworks, it allows you to create a network of interconnecting
subnetworks. Each data link on this network would then have a unique
network/subnetwork ID. Any device, or gateway, that connects n networks/subnetworks
has n distinct IP addresses, one for each network / subnetwork that it interconnects.

In order to subnet a network, extend the natural mask with some of the bits from the
host ID portion of the address in order to create a subnetwork ID. For example, given a
Class C network of 204.17.5.0 which has a natural mask of 255.255.255.0, you can
create subnets in this manner:

204.17.5.0 - 11001100.00010001.00000101.00000000

255.255.255.224 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000

--------------------------|sub|----

By extending the mask to be 255.255.255.224, you have taken three bits (indicated by
"sub") from the original host portion of the address and used them to make subnets.
With these three bits, it is possible to create eight subnets. With the remaining five host
ID bits, each subnet can have up to 32 host addresses, 30 of which can actually be
assigned to a device since host ids of all zeros or all ones are not allowed (it is very
important to remember this). So, with this in mind, these subnets have been created.

204.17.5.0 255.255.255.224 host address range 1 to 30

204.17.5.32 255.255.255.224 host address range 33 to 62

204.17.5.64 255.255.255.224 host address range 65 to 94

204.17.5.96 255.255.255.224 host address range 97 to 126

204.17.5.128 255.255.255.224 host address range 129 to 158

204.17.5.160 255.255.255.224 host address range 161 to 190

204.17.5.192 255.255.255.224 host address range 193 to 222

204.17.5.224 255.255.255.224 host address range 225 to 254

Note: There are two ways to denote these masks. First, since you use three bits more
than the "natural" Class C mask, you can denote these addresses as having a 3-bit
subnet mask. Or, secondly, the mask of 255.255.255.224 can also be denoted as /27 as
there are 27 bits that are set in the mask. This second method is used with CIDR. With
this method, one of these networks can be described with the notation prefix/length. For
example, 204.17.5.32/27 denotes the network 204.17.5.32 255.255.255.224. When
appropriate, the prefix/length notation is used to denote the mask throughout the rest of
this document.

Notice that each of the routers in Figure 2 is attached to four subnetworks, one
subnetwork is common to both routers. Also, each router has an IP address for each
subnetwork to which it is attached. Each subnetwork could potentially support up to 30
host addresses.

This brings up an interesting point. The more host bits you use for a subnet mask, the
more subnets you have available. However, the more subnets available, the less host
addresses available per subnet. For example, a Class C network of 204.17.5.0 and a
mask of 255.255.255.224 (/27) allows you to have eight subnets, each with 32 host
addresses (30 of which could be assigned to devices). If you use a mask of
255.255.255.240 (/28), the break down is:

204.17.5.0 - 11001100.00010001.00000101.00000000

255.255.255.240 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000

--------------------------|sub |---

Since you now have four bits to make subnets with, you only have four bits left for host
addresses. So in this case you can have up to 16 subnets, each of which can have up
to 16 host addresses (14 of which can be assigned to devices).

Take a look at how a Class B network might be subnetted. If you have network
172.16.0.0 ,then you know that its natural mask is 255.255.0.0 or 172.16.0.0/16.
Extending the mask to anything beyond 255.255.0.0 means you are subnetting. You can
quickly see that you have the ability to create a lot more subnets than with the Class C
network. If you use a mask of 255.255.248.0 (/21), how many subnets and hosts per
subnet does this allow for?

172.16.0.0 - 10101100.00010000.00000000.00000000

255.255.248.0 - 11111111.11111111.11111000.00000000

-----------------| sub |-----------

You use five bits from the original host bits for subnets. This allows you to have 32
subnets (25). After using the five bits for subnetting, you are left with 11 bits for host
addresses. This allows each subnet so have 2048 host addresses (211), 2046 of which
could be assigned to devices.