Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331 – 350

www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto

Morphological and microtectonic analysis of Quaternary

deformation from Puná and Santa Clara Islands, Gulf of Guayaquil,
Ecuador (South America)
J.F. Dumonta,T, E. Santanab, W. Vilemac, K. Pedojad, M. Ordóñezc, M. Cruzb,
N. Jiménezc, I. Zambranoc
a
IRD, UMR Geosciences Azur, and INOCAR, Guayaquil, Ecuador
b
INOCAR, Guayaquil, Ecuador
c
Petroproducción, Guayaquil, Ecuador
d
UPMC, UMR Geosciences Azur, France
Received 19 October 2002; received in revised form 13 August 2003; accepted 23 December 2004
Available online 5 February 2005

Abstract

This paper presents the neotectonic study of Santa Clara and Puná Islands sited in the Gulf of Guayaquil eastern part. Both
islands are located on the south-western segment of the fault zone bounding to the east the North Andean Block. Fault motion and
morphostructural analysis were carried out from Pleistocene age terrain. A two step deformation characterises the South Puná
tectonics. The first step involves the Zambapala Cordillera uplift that post-dates Pleistocene sediments and pre-dates a marine
terrace correlated with the M.I.S. 11 or 13 (440–550 ka). The second step is the formation of a pull-apart that shows evidence of
2.9 km dextral offset since the M.I.S. 11 or 13, giving an offset mean rate of 5.3 to 6.6 mm/yr. This rate is higher than the one
calculated on the Pallatanga Fault northeast of the study area, in the Western Andean Cordillera, suggesting that deformation is
split in different fault segments from the Gulf of Guayaquil to the continent. The Zambapala Cordillera uplift and transpression
deformation requires a compressive event that may have been induced by the subduction process during the early Pleistocene.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Neotectonics; Wrench faults; Gulf of Guayaquil; Uplift; Oblique convergence; Pull-apart

1. Introduction the Pacific coast, extending between the Western

Located on the Talara Arc (Fig. 1A), the Gulf of
Guayaquil is the most important fore-arc basin along
T Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dumont@geoazur.obs-vlfr.fr (J.F. Dumont).
0040-1951/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2004.12.029
Andean Cordillera piedmont and the Peru–Ecuador
Subduction Zone. The Gulf of Guayaquil is a tectonic
feature opened at the junction between the Guayaquil–
Caracas continental Megashear (GCM) and the Peru–
Ecuador Trench (Fig. 1). Both fracture zones isolate
the North Andean Block, which is migrating north-
332 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350

Fig. 1. (A) Structural sketch of north-western South America, modified after Ego et al. (1996). PF: Pallatanga Fault; BF: Bocono Fault, G:
Guayaquil; C: Caracas. B: Tectonic outline of the Talara arc, modified after Gutscher et al. (1999). The motion of the north Nazca plate refers to
De Mets et al. (1990) for the open arrow and Kellogg and Vega (1995) for the black one. Letters referring to cities, from south to north: T:
Talara; M: Machala; G: Guayaquil; Mt: Manta; E: Esmeraldas. GCM: Guayaquil–Caracas Megashear.

eastward due to the E–W relative convergence
between the Nazca and South American Plates
(Pennington, 1981; Kellogg and Bonini, 1982; Kel-
logg and Vega, 1995; Ego et al., 1996). Thus, the Gulf
of Guayaquil opens precisely in a free space formed at
the southern tip of the North Andean Block. The
dextral wrench motion along the eastern border of the
North Andean Block is documented by several studies
(Schubert, 1980; Aggarwal et al., 1983; Winter and
Lavenu, 1989; Ego, 1995; Ego et al., 1995, 1996;
Kellogg and Vega, 1995). The calculated mean offset
rate during Holocene ranges from 4 mm/yr along the
Pallatanga Fault in the southwestern part of the GCM
(Winter and Lavenu, 1989) up to 10 mm/yr in the
northeastern part (Schubert, 1980; Aggarwal et al.,
1983). This documents an offset rate increase from
 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350
Guayaquil toward Caracas, according to a structural
pattern similar to that of the Great Sumatra Fault
relatively to the Indonesian Subduction Zone (Bellier
and Sébrier, 1995). However, the Pallatanga Fault is
only one of the southwestern fault segments of the
GCM, the offset rate of 4 mm/yr is thus only a
minimum, and the slip variation along the fault poorly
constrained.
Seismic profiles acquired on the offshore part of
the Gulf of Guayaquil provided data on the sedimen-
tary and structural evolution, evidencing transtension
basins (Benitez, 1995; Lions, 1995; Deniaud et al.,
1999; Witt, 2002). On the basis of well section
sedimentary sequential analysis and seismic profiles
structural analysis these authors questioned the
possible occurrence of a transpression event during
the early Pleistocene. Also the structural transition
between the transtension basins offshore and the
wrench fault that characterises the GCM through the
Andean Cordillera is not known.
The assessment of coastal evolution and related
risk in the area of Guayaquil leads us to re-consider
the neotectonic evolution of the area on quantified
basis. The record of seismic activity should have been
a confident tool to determine which faults are
potentially active. Unfortunately, the available loca-
tions of epicentres are too poorly constrained to give a
neotectonic perspective and help to identify poten-
tially active faults (Alvarado, 1998). Most of the
coastal area of the Gulf of Guayaquil is composed of
marshes and mangroves where neotectonic study is
not possible. Field observations were carried out from
the Santa Clara and Puná Islands located off the
eastern coast of the Gulf of Guayaquil. The two
islands will be referred shortly here as Puná and Santa
Clara. The quantification of wrench fault motion
along the GCM in the Andean Cordilleras of Ecuador
and Venezuela has been made using the offset
moraines from the last glacial period (Schubert,
1980; Aggarwal et al., 1983; Winter and Lavenu,
1989; Ego, 1995; Ego et al., 1995, 1996; Kellogg and
Vega, 1995). We cannot use such morphologic
benchmark in the coastal area, but marine terraces
are present and we try to use them as time and
elevation benchmark. However, this method is not
very common, and we present in a separate paragraph
the particularity of marine terraces relative to their use
as a tectonic benchmark.
333
2. Geodynamic and neotectonic background
The present-day convergence between Nazca and
South American Plates trends roughly N808E with a
velocity ranging from 7 to 8 cm/yr (Minster and
Jordan, 1978; Pilger, 1984; De Mets et al., 1990;
Kellogg and Vega, 1995). The oceanic Nazca Plate is
composed of two different parts separated by the
N608E trending Grijalva Fracture Zone (Lonsdale and
Klitgord, 1978) (Fig. 1B): the northern part is younger
than 25 Ma and the southern part is older than 32 Ma
(Hey, 1977; Gutscher et al., 1999). The Grijalva
Fracture Zone presents a 500–1000 m southeast
looking high scarp that is entering the subduction
zone in front of the Gulf of Guayaquil (Fig. 1).
The young Nazca plate carries the Carnegie Ridge,
which is subducting beneath the South American plate
with a constant dip of 258–358 down to a depth of
about 200 km (Guillier et al., 2001). South of the Gulf
of Guayaquil (28S) the Peru bflat slabQ segment
(Jordan et al., 1983; Gutscher et al., 1999) shows a
nearly horizontal subduction to a depth of 80–100 km
beneath the Andean range.
The oblique plate convergence along the Ecuador–
Colombia segment of the subduction zone determines
the northward motion of the North Andean Block
along the GCM (Bourgois et al., 1975; Winter and
Lavenu, 1989; Kellogg and Vega, 1995; Ego et al.,
1996). This fault zone, that merges the Bocono and
Pallatanga segments is sometimes referred as
bDolores Guayaquil MegashearQ, but it appears now
that the Dolores Fault in Colombia do not belong to
the border fault zone of the North Andean Block, and
do not describe the entire shear zone. For this reason
we will refer it here as the Guayaquil Caracas
Megashear (GCM). The estimated slip rate along the
Bocono fault (Fig. 1A), which is the north-eastern
segment of the GCM, is about 1 cm/yr, determined
from the short term seismicity (Aggarwal et al., 1983)
and 0.8 cm/yr during the last 12,000 years, measured
from the right lateral offset of glacial moraines
(Schubert, 1980). This rate is about one half of the
1.7 to 1.9 cm/yr convergence rate between the North
Andean Block and the Caribbean and South American
plates based on the analysis of magnetic anomalies
(Kellogg and Bonini, 1982, 1985; Kellogg et al.,
1985). Along the south-western segment of the
Guayaquil Caracas Megashear, Winter and Lavenu
334 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350

(1989) determined from glacial moraines offset a Fault Zone (Fig. 2) (Deniaud et al., 1999; Deniaud,
dextral offset rate of 0.4 cm/yr since 10,000 to 12,000 2000). The three segments of the Puná–Pallatanga
BP along the N308E to N508E trending Pallatanga Fault Zone cumulate a piedmont line offset of 60
Fault (Fig. 1A). From a neotectonic study, the authors km. This cumulated offset post-dates the uplift onset
determined that a compressive strike slip regime with of the western Andean Cordillera about 9 Ma ago
j3 trending about N–S and j1 trending roughly E–W (Steinmann et al., 1999). However, the precise
currently prevails on the northern part of the continuity from Bucay–Naranjal to Puná is not
Pallatanga Fault. This is coherent with motion observed, as it goes through the flood plain and
observed along the GCM in Northern Ecuador, mangrove of the eastern part of the Guayas estuary,
Colombia and Venezuela (Schubert, 1980; Ego et and cross the north Jambeli Channel. Several
al., 1996). The Pallatanga Fault extends southward to occurrences of deviated and captured drainage
Bucay (Fig. 2), showing a 10 km offset of the patterns observed in the coastal plain (Ruidoso,
cordillera piedmont where the valley merges with Bobo, Cañar rivers) give evidence of surface
the coastal lowland. deformation induced by fault, however the structural
Between Bucay and Naranjal (Fig. 2) two other style, simple wrench zone or ben échelonQ faults as
fault segments are located respectively 2 and 7 km suggested by Winter and Lavenu (Winter and
southward of the Pallatanga Fault (CODIGEM, Lavenu, 1989) is not clear. There is no major fault
1993b). They extend to Puná through the coastal zone observed in northeast Punà, thus most authors
plain, defining the N60E trending Pallatanga–Puná suggest that the Punà–Pallatanga Fault Zone goes

81°W C ho n g a
2°S on C
Cordil olonche ng

ult
Carnegie Ca lera a ta lt

Fa
? rriz ll u
Ridge al G Guayas Pa Fa
Fa uil Basin
aq
ult
Santa Elena
ay
Gu

Peninsula n e
lt Zo
? Progreso au
La

F
Basin Guayas ga
Cr

an
lat
uz

Sa Estuary al
? á-P
Fa

nt n e
Pu lin
ult

Young a t
El
en on
Nazca Po a m
so Up ed
Plate rja lift Pi Andean
Fa Jambeli Cordillera
ult Basin
Gulf of
Upper edge of trench slope

3°S Guayaquil N 3°S

FZ

Fig. 4
ZL

North Basin
Fig. 3 PF
n e Esperanza Fig.11
lva Zo Horst
Structure

ija re
Amistad

Gr actu Jubones Fault

Fr Gulf of
Guayaquil
South Basin
Old
Nazca
Plate 50 km

Modified after from Deniaud, 1999 Loja Basin

Witt, 2002, and Steinman et al. 1999 80°W
81°W

Fig. 2. Structural sketch of the Gulf of Guayaquil with the terminology used in the paper. Offshore structures are after Deniaud et al. (1999) and
Witt (2002). G: Guayaquil; PQF: Piqueros Fault; ZLFZ: Zambapala–Lechuza Fault Zone. The thin dotted line shows the limit of the Loja Basin
and his paleogeographic extension to the west according to Steinmann et al. (1999).
 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350
east of North Punà, with a necessary change of the
main trend from N458E in north Puná to N608E
between Puná and the Andean Piedmont (Winter and
Lavenu, 1989). Going southward the next clear
evidence of a main fault zone is in south Puná,
along the Zambapala Cordillera and the Lechuza
Depression, interpreted respectively as a pop up and
a pull-apart.
3. Geologic and structural background
The Tertiary history of the coastal margin of
Ecuador is that of a fore arc basin (Jaillard et al.,
1995). On the northern margin of the Gulf of
Guayaquil the Progreso Basin is limited to the north
by the Carrizal Fault and to the south by the La Cruz
Fault. This basin was opening during the Miocene,
extending eastward to north Puná and the Jambeli
Basin (Fig. 2) (Benitez, 1995). The northern part of
the Santa Elena Uplift and the Progreso Basin
emerged at the end of the Miocene, due to the
reorganisation of fore arc basins after the break out of
the Farallon Plate and a slower convergence rate
(Daly, 1989), but the sedimentation continued in
North Puná and the Jambeli Basin. According to the
paleogeographic reconstitution of Steinmann et al.
(1999), the Progreso and Loja basins (Fig. 2) were
connected before 10 Ma. Since 9 Ma, the uplift of the
Andean Cordillera and the opening of the Gulf of
Guayaquil disrupted the basin. The Pliocene and the
Pleistocene ongoing transtension deformation in the
Gulf of Guayaquil resulted in the deposition of up to
4000 m of sediments (Benitez, 1995; Lions, 1995;
Deniaud et al., 1999; Deniaud, 2000). More than 1000
m of Pleistocene deposits accumulated in the Guayas
Basin (Fig. 2) (Baldock, 1982). According to seismic
profiles analysis, the Gulf of Guayaquil comprises
three main parts (Fig. 2) (Benitez, 1995; Deniaud et
al., 1999): (1) an eastern part constituted by the
Jambeli Basin and located east of Puná, Santa Clara
and the Amistad Structure, (2) a shallow north-
western part covering the south part of the Santa
Elena Uplift, and limited to the south by the Posorja
Fault and to the east by Puná and (3) the Gulf of
Guayaquil Basin located west of Santa Clara and the
Amistad structure and divided into two parts by the
E–W trending Esperanza Horst (Fig. 2).
335
4. Santa Clara
Santa Clara is an island in the Gulf of Guayaquil,
located about 50 km south of Posorja and 40 km west
of Machala (Fig. 2). Santa Clara is 240 m wide, 850 m
long and 56 m high, trending NE–SW (Fig. 3).
Several islets are lined up north-east and south-west of
Santa Clara and they represent the remnant part of a
larger island (Santana et al., 2001). Santa Clara and
the islets stand over a large shallow rocky platform
(INOCAR, 1983). The morphological section (Fig.
3C) shows that the island constitutes a striking salient
morphology of this platform.
4.1. Geological setting
The main part of Santa Clara is a platform
dipping 58 to 108 to the NE. The NE–SW trending
Piqueros Fault delimits a 25–308 SE dipping block
that extends north-eastward in the islets (Fig. 3A).
Santa Clara exposes well stratified sedimentary
layers of the Upper Puná Formation (Vera, 1982;
Benitez, 1995; Santana and Dumont, 2000), includ-
ing two very different units: the lower one consists
of shallow marine green sandstone and silt from
estuary environment, and the upper one yellow
sandstone and conglomerate with transported shells
from littoral to delta environment. According to our
paleontologic determination the lower unit belongs
to the upper levels of the Pliocene or to the
Pleistocene, in agreement with previous dating by
Vera (1982). The correlation with outcropping
terrain in Puná, as well as stratigraphic consider-
ations from Benitez (1995) allow to attribute the
two units observed in Santa Clara, respectively, to
the upper and lower parts of the Placer and
Lechuza Members of the Upper Puná Formation,
which is attributed to the Pleistocene by Benitez
(1995).
4.2. Faults analysis
The most important fault of Santa Clara is the
Piqueros Fault (Figs. 3 and 9A), trending N40E and
dipping 508 to the south-east. The fault plane
constitutes a cliff, with a 10 to 50 cm fault breccia
covering it. The slickensides are observed over tens
of centimetres, showing a transtension, dextral-
336 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350

X Santa Clara Island (63 m) Y

40
0
-40 20 m
-80 1000 m Vertical exageration 15
m
C

0-2.5m
2.5-10m
10-20m
20-30m
Santa Clara Island
3°10'S 30-50m
50-100m

Jambeli
Basin
Y
80°30'W

80°20'W
5 km
B

Limit of rock
shore platform
Main fault
ult

Secondary fault
Fa

PQF Estimated fault

N
ros

Limit of upper
ue

morphology
Piq

Upper platform
500 m ~60 m

Fig. 3. (A) Structural sketch of Santa Clara Island, located on Fig. 2. PQF: Observation point of the Piqueros Fault. (B) Simplified bathymetric
chart of the surroundings of Santa Clara, from the IOA 10820 map (INOCAR, 1983). (C) Topographic cross section along the profile X–Y of
panel B.

normal motion (Fig. 9A). Only 9 well determined
measurements were obtained; however, a fault plane
dipping north (Fig. 9A) and the about 458 dispersion
range of the other fault planes allow to process the
data with the Carey method (Carey, 1979; Carey and
Mercier, 1987). The result indicates a transtension
deformation with a maximum stress j1 nearly
vertical and a minimum stress j3 trending N2008E
(Fig. 9A). The dip of the hanging block shows that
the Piqueros Fault is a dip fault, a structure
frequently associated with flower structure (Harding,
1985). Trend and dip of gypsum-coated fractures are
 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350 337

observed parallel to the plane defined by j1 and j2 5. Puná

(Fig. 9A) suggesting tension joints associated to the
transtension deformation.
Nearly pure normal fault planes observed in several
places along the coast of Santa Clara (Fig. 9B)
underline the main trend of the island. The calculation
with the Carey method gives a N3308E trending
extension (Fig. 9B). In the data processing the fault
20a (Fig. 9B) looks to control the calculation, but the
result remains stable if this fault plane is not
considered. Most of these pure normal fault planes
are hardly compatible with the motion of the Piqueros
Fault. A normal fault plane cuts the Piqueros Fault to
the north-east, giving a relative local chronology of
the fault events.
Puná, the greatest island of the Gulf of Guayaquil,
is located offshore the estuary of the Guayas River
(Fig. 2), separated from the mainland by the 3 km
wide El Morro Channel (Fig. 4). The north-east
trending island is 50 km long and 25 km wide. The
highest elevations are the Zambapala Cordillera (297
m) and the Cerro Mala (170 m), both located along the
eastern margin of the island but separated by the
mangrove area of Campo Alegre (Fig. 4). The
northern part of Puná is a low platform constituted
of two steps: the lower one to the north at an elevation
below 20 m (T1) and the higher one to the south at an
elevation culminating at about 40 m (T2, Fig. 5).

Posorja
Puerto El Limbo
l
ne
an

Punta
Ch

Mandinga
ro
or

J
M

Cerro Yanzun
El

K
Cerro Mala
Campo

l
ne
Subida Alegre
Alta an
Ch
eli
mb
Ja

Lechuza Lake and Depression

Lechuza Depression
Fig. 6 and 7
Beach ridges, salty
marshes
C Topographic platform
SR or marine terraces
ZC
Lechuza Member
Pleistocene
Placer Member
Plio-Pleistocene
Miocene
10 km
modified after CODIGEM, 1993 Oligocene

Fig. 4. Geological outline of Puná Island located on Fig. 2, after DGGM-IGM, 1973. The main area of topographic platforms and marine
terraces is detailed on Fig. 5. The letters J and K show the observation points presented on Fig. 9. ZC: Zambapala Cordillera; SRC: San Ramon
Cordillera.
338 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350

Puerto El Limbo Punta

Posorja Mandinga
T1

T1 T2
Cerro Yanzun

T2 CM
20-40m
Subida
Alta Campo Alegre
200-300 m

40-60m 180-200 m
160-180 m
60-80m
T4 140-160 m
T3
120-140 m

m 100-120 m
-80
60 C 80-100 m
LD

T4 SR
60-80 m
ZC

40-60 m
20-40 m

80-100m Fig. 6 and 7 0-20 m

5 km Limit of Mangrove
and salted marshes
Modified from the topographic map at 1/50 000°

Fig. 5. Topographic outline of Puná, with 20 m contour lines. The letters T1 to T4 refer to the successive terraces interpreted as marine terraces.
ZC: Zambapala Cordillera; SRC: San Ramon Cordillera; LD: Lechuza Depression; CM: Cerro Mala.

Except the mangrove area, the southern part of the
island is a wide platform rising progressively from 20
to 40 m high along the west coast up to 80 to 120 m at
the western and southern slopes of the Zambapala
Cordillera (T3 and T4, Fig. 5).
5.1. Geological setting
Puná exposes sedimentary deposits from the
Oligocene to the Quaternary (Fig. 4) (DGGM-IGM,
1973). Shallow marine and estuary deposits of the
Oligocene crop out on both sides of the El Morro
Channel. Miocene deposits crop out in the central part
of Puná, showing an evolution from bathyal to littoral
deposits. The Pliocene represented by the Lower Puná
Formation is not present in Puná, but the Upper Puná
Formation including the Placer and Lechuza members
(Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977) covers large parts of
north-east and south Puná, respectively. The age
attribution of the Upper Puná Formation is a key
element for the evolution interpretation of Puná. A
well drilled in the Lechuza Depression (cf. Fig. 4) cuts
883 m of fine to coarse marine sandstone showing
platform environment and 341 m of shallow sand-
 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350
stone with shells and delta-estuary detritus attributed
respectively to the Lechuza and Placer members. On
micropaleontology bases, the Lechuza Member has
been attributed to the biozone N22 (Ordóñez, 1991),
which began 1.7 or 1.9 Ma ago according to the zone
scheme considered (Bergreen et al., 1985; Bolli et al.,
1985). Pollen study from the Placer Member gave
evidence of Alnipollenites verus down to a depth of
2860 m in a well drilled south of the Zambapala
Cordillera. This fossil is considered as characteristic
of the Pleistocene (Benitez, 1995), with a time range
similar to the zone NN19 and a lower limit of 1.7 or
1.9 Ma (Martini, 1971; Bolli et al., 1985; Ordóñez,
1991). According to these data, both the Placer and
Lechuza Members are Pleistocene and post-date 1.7 or
1.9 Ma, and in this paper, we will consider a mean
value of 1.8 Ma. Do this stratigraphic attribution apply
also to the sedimentary rocks at the top of the
Zambapala Cordillera? The shallow sandy marine
deposits fit with an attribution to the Lechuza Member
as proposed by Deniaud et al. (1999). We find several
samples of Argopecten circularis at the top of the
Zambapala Cordillera as well as in the sea cliffs south
of Subida Alta, showing that those deposits post-date
the closure of the Panama Isthmus that was completed
by 3.5–3 Ma (Tsuchi, 1997). The time period
necessary to display the Panama fauna to south
Ecuador suggests that the deposit should post-dates
3.5–3 Ma, which gives consistency to the attribution
of the top levels of the Zambapala Cordillera to the
upper Pleistocene.
The Lower Puná Formation observed below the
Placer member in the Gulf of Guayaquil SW of Puná
includes about all the Pliocene biozones, that is N19
and N21 and probably N18 and N20 (Ordóñez, 1991).
This is also consistent to attribute the Placer and
Lechuza Members in Puná to Pleistocene. The upper
limit of the Pleistocene biozone N22 is 0.6 Ma
(Bergreen et al., 1985), and the biozone N23 (upper
Pleistocene to Holocene) has been identified only
offshore in the Gulf of Guayaquil. This allows to fix
the end of the deposition of the Lechuza Member
between 1.8 Ma and 0.6 Ma.
According to the geological map (Baldock, 1982;
CODIGEM, 1993a) the Tablazo Formation covers all
the SW part of Puná between the lower slopes of the
Zambapala Cordillera and the western coast of the
island, and includes Quaternary littoral deposits with
339
abundant shells. The Tablazo Formation as defined by
Baldock (1982) crops out only in the sea cliff south of
Subida Alta. In an attempt to correlate Pliocene and
Pleistocene deposits from the Gulf of Guayaquil
Benitez (1995) concluded to the identity of micro-
paleontologic contents and macrofacies between the
Tablazo Formation as observed in Subida Alta and the
Lechuza Member. Our observations agree with this
interpretation, in particular for the tidal to subtidal
facies including numerous samples of A. circularis.
As observed in other areas of the Ecuadorian coast
(Pedoja, 2003), the Tablazo Formation includes
frequently Pliocene and sometimes early Pleistocene
shallow marine deposits that pre-dates the installation
of true marine terraces during the Pleistocene.
According to our analysis the Tablazo Formation in
Puná (Baldock, 1982) corresponds to the totality or
only part of the Lechuza Member.
5.2. Marine terraces in Puná
More than 50% of the of Puná morphology are
constituted by flat surfaces at elevations ranging from
15 m to 80–100 m (Figs. 4 and 5). This morphology
requires a comparison with the marine terraces
observed along the Ecuadorian and northern Peru
coasts (Pedoja, 2003). Raised marine terraces, estab-
lished on uplifting coasts during interglacial high sea
levels, are correlated to Marine Oxygen Isotopic
Stages or Sub-Stages (M.I.S. and M.I.S.S.). This age
attribution allows to determinate precisely uplift rates
(Ota, 1986).
Along the sea cliff of northern Puná, a flat deposit
of shallow marine sediments covers discordantly the
Oligocene basement (Fig. 5, T1). The sedimentary
setting is that of a wave cut marine terrace, blanketed
by 1-to-2 m of soft sand including abundant shells.
According to the 1/50,0008 topographic map, the
shoreline angle representing the paleo sea level related
to this marine terrace is located 1 km inland at an
elevation of about 20+/ 5 m (Fig. 5, T1). The
radiocarbon dating of Anadara grandis shells gave a
conventional age of 38,820+/ 790 yr BP while and
the U/Th dating on a similar shell of the same deposit
indicate an age of 49,057+/ 590 yr BP. Both are
minimum ages, the first one because it is inside the
limit range of radiocarbon dating application and the
second one because the 230Th/234U ratio clearly
340 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350
indicates post-diagenetic contamination. The raw ages
obtained from these datations could lead to correlate
this marine terrace to a high sea level occurred during
M.I.S. 3 (60 to 30 ky) (Chappell et al., 1996; Kissel et
al., 1999; Dumas et al., 2000; Cabioch and Ayliffe,
2001; Yokoyama et al., 2001). Emerged marine
terraces related to this M.I.S. are observed only on
coast experiencing strong uplift rates (N1 mm/an)
(Cabioch and Ayliffe, 2001; Chappell et al., 1996) and
this is not the case of the coast of northern Peru and
Ecuador (Pedoja, 2003).
Unlike considering the Puná terraces as a specific
case along the Peru–Ecuador coast, what is not
consistent with the apparent continuity of terraces
observed from Santa Elena to Puná, we are led to
consider a correlation with the widely represented
M.I.S. 5 (85–130 ky) (Shackleton, 1987; Chappell et
al., 1996), that includes the M.I.S.S. 5a (85 ka) and 5e
(130 ka). The M.I.S.S.5e has been identified 10 km
west of Puná near Posorja, in the eastern part of the
Santa Elena Peninsula (Fig. 2), as well as in North
Peru (Pedoja, 2003). The attribution of the T1 terrace
to the M.I.S.S. 5a or 5e in Puná permits consequently
to determine uplift rates of 0.15+/ 0.08 mm/yr and
0.23+/ 0.05 mm/yr, respectively. The second uplift
rate is similar to that of the western and eastern parts
of the Santa Elena Peninsula (Pedoja, 2003) and is
probably the more realistic to be considered here.
The topography of North Puná shows a wide T2
surface at an elevation ranging between 20 and 40 m.
The topographic map suggests that this surface is
limited inland by a slope gradient at an elevation of
40+/ 10 m around the Cerro Yanzun (in north Puná)
and east of Subida Alta (Fig. 5). We interpret this
slope gradient as the T2 shoreline angle. Two other
topographic surfaces are observed in south-west Puná
at elevations of 40–60 m (T3) and 60–80 m (T4), the
upper one joining the western piedmont of the
Zambapala Cordillera at 80+/ 10 m. We interpret
these 3 last surfaces as marine terraces, with shoreline
angle raised at elevations of about 40+/ 10 m (T2),
60+/ 10 m (T3) and 80+/ 10 m (T4). These
observations agree with the extension of the marine
terraces observed in the Santa Elena Peninsula to
Puná. The identification of marine deposits associated
to the formation of elevated marine terraces is
difficult because these surfaces are blanketed by
recent continental deposits, or cover conformably
shallow marine deposits of the Lechuza Member
including shells similar to that of the Pleistocene. In
South Puná the T4 terrace extends to the western and
south slopes of the Zambapala Cordillera with a
shoreline angle at 80+/ 10 m (Fig. 5). However, the
elevation of the surface at the southern tip of the
Zambapala Cordillera seems to be higher, up to about
120 m, with a change of the gradient suggesting a
shoreline angle at 100 mF10 m.
On aerial photos and radar image (Fig. 6D), a NE–
SW trending lineament interpreted as a fault (CODI-
GEM, 1993a) runs along the north-west piedmont of
the Zambapala Cordillera, splitting the 60–80 m
elevation surface in two parts. This can result from
the presence of a higher marine terrace at the south tip
of the Zambapala Cordillera (M.I.S. 13?), or more
probably from the motion of the fault after the
formation of the T4 terrace. The observation of
marine terraces succession at elevation of about 20
m (T1), 40 m (T2), 60 m (T3) and 80 m (T4) implies
an ongoing uplift since at least the last 4 interglacial
periods. Consequently, we correlate T1 with the
M.I.S. 5 (about 125 ka), T2 with M.I.S. 7 (about
220 ka), T3 with M.I.S. 9 (about 330 ka) and T4 with
M.I.S. 11 (about 440 ka). This interpretation is
coherent with the uplift of the Santa Elena Peninsula,
where the uppermost terrace at an elevation of about
80 m is correlated with the M.I.S. 11 (Pedoja, 2003).
The age interpretation for the three first terraces is
relatively confident, and remains acceptable for the T4
terrace. The correlation of the uppermost surface
(100+ 10 m) observed only at the south tip of the
Zambapala Cordillera to MIS 13 (about 550 ka) is
hypothetical, and must be considered here as an
attempt to fix quantified limits. As a preliminary
conclusion, the analysis of the Puná topographic
surfaces suggests that the formation of the Zambapala
Cordillera predates the formation of T4 (about 440
ka), with an upper limit at about 550 ka.
5.3. The Zambapala–Lechuza Structure
The Zambapala Cordillera is structurally associated
to the Lechuza depression and the Cordillera San
Ramón forming the Zambapala–Lechuza Structure
(Figs. 6 and 7). The NE–SW trending structure is
about 17 km long and 6 km wide. The Zambapala
Cordillera is an elongated bulge about 10 km long, 3
 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350 341

C'
NTF

2
D
1
B
A

STF
C
5 km

Fig. 6. Radar image from Puná (Good-Year, 1983) showing the Zambapala–Lechuza Structure in the central part. A: Zambapala Cordillera; B:
San Ramon Cordillera; Numbers 1, 2 and 3 show the Lechuza Depression with the three parts of the Lechuza pull-apart; C–CV: Zambapala–
Lechuza Fault Zone; D: Faulted border of the Zambapala–Lechuza Structure with the terrace area of central and western Puná. The south and
eastern margins of the image show salted marshes and mangrove. NTF (North Transverse Fault) and STF (South Transverse Fault) are
morphologic scarps interpreted as a transverse fault scarp that was continuous before the formation of the element (1) of the pull-apart.

km wide and 300 m high, with relatively sharp
morphological boundaries (Fig. 6). The internal
structure is made of longitudinal slices dipping NE
and SW (Fig. 9D). The main morphology as well as
the structure suggest a pop up along a flower
structure. The Lechuza Depression (Figs. 6 and 7) is
5 km long, 1 km wide on the south-western part and
less than 250 m at the north-eastern part, bordered to
the SE by the San Ramón Cordillera. Based on radar
image (Good-Year, 1983) the Lechuza Depression
appears as a pull-apart formed along a right hand fault
zone (Fig. 6). The depression is composed of three
elements (Fig. 6), aligned along the SE leading border
and disposed en echelon along the north-west one.
The prominent lineament zone observed along the SE
slopes of the Zambapala Cordillera and extending
along the Lechuza depression defines the Zambapala–
Lechuza Fault Zone (Fig. 6, C–CV). The dextral
motion of the lineament zone is expressed by the
pull-apart opened in the Lechuza Depression. On the
radar image two transverse faults underline the limit
of the main element of the pull-apart (1 on Fig. 6),
noted respectively North Transverse Fault and South
Transverse Fault (NTF and STF, Fig. 6). These
segments show similar patterns on the radar image,
suggesting that they were lined up before the opening
of the pull-apart, and giving evidence of a total
horizontal offset for the pull-apart of 2.9F0.2 km.
5.4. Analysis of Puná fault motions
5.4.1. Zambapala Cordillera
A network of microtectonic faults was observed at
the south-eastern tip of the Zambapala Cordillera (Fig.
9C). No slickensides are observed but the high dip of
the layered sandstone allows the observation of the
horizontal offset, evidencing dextral and sinistral
conjugated fault motions. Due to the lacking of
slickensides only the Anderson method (Anderson,
1942) can be used, giving a N1108E to N1378E
342 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350

ion

NT
s
es

F
pr
De lle
ra
ra a di I
lle huz r
r di ec Co
Co
L ón
m H
a Ra Salt marshes
al an
ST

and
b ap S G beach ridges
F

m
Za
E F
200-300 m
N 100-200 m
20 - 100 m
C D
0 - 20 m
5 km
Lineaments / faults

Fig. 7. Fault and lineament pattern of the Zambapala Lechuza Structure, located on Fig. 5. The letters in circles refer to the observation location
points. The lineaments and fault come from the observation of the radar image Fig. 6. NTF and STF are reported from Fig. 6.

trending shortening (Fig. 9C), approximately orthog-
onal to the Zambapala pop up axis (Fig. 9D). This
suggests that the faulting is associated to the
formation of the pop up and post-dates it, giving an
indication of the shortening trend that formed the pop
up. To assess it we tested the alternate hypothesis of a
fault motion pre-dating the tilting. We graphically
tilted back the fault planes applying a breverseQ dip
equivalent to the one observed in the area. The result
gives an anarchic fault pattern suggesting that the
faults effectively post-date the tilting. Another inter-
pretation must be considered: the striking elevation
contrast of the Zambapala Cordillera with respect to
the surrounding lowlands lets us infer a gravitational
effect along its margins. However, in this case the
point of fault observation is located south of the main
elevation of the Zambapala Cordillera, in an area
where gravitational effect cannot be determining.
Thus, we consider that the NW–SE shortening is
representative of a deformation that accompanied the
formation of the Zambapala pop up.
5.4.2. San Ramón Cordillera
The E and F points (Fig. 7) are located near the
border of the Lechuza Depression, within layers of
relatively well-cemented sandstone and silt. The fault
planes include a thin layer of fault breccia. The
slickensides are rough and clearly observed. The
offsets are decimetral or above (i.e. over the limit of
the outcrop). We classify these fault planes as
representative of regional tectonics because they are
associated to the main lineaments observed along the
Zambapala Cordillera and the Lechuza Depression.
The point E (Fig. 9) includes the observation of 6
fault planes among which at least three of different
directions, the regional and best-represented one
 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350
trending NE–SW, parallel to the Zambapala–Lechuza
Structure. The fault planes analysis with the Carey
method (Carey, 1979; Carey and Mercier, 1987)
gives a N838E trending shortening, with horizontal
j1 and j3.
The point of observation I (Figs. 7 and 9) is located
at the north-eastern tip of the San Ramón Cordillera.
Only 4 fault planes were observed, the most important
one trending north-east and a smaller one conjugated
trending WNW–ESE. This does not allow a tensor
calculation; however, the stereogram shows a rela-
tively narrow angle including the maximum stress
direction. The G point is located in the upper part of
the San Ramón Cordillera, within outcrops of poorly
cemented sandstone and conglomerate from the
Lechuza Formation. The horizontal sedimentary
layers evidence centimetric offsets, but slickensides
were not observed due to the poorly cemented
material. Pebbles crushed in the fault planes give a
rough estimation of the fault motion, which is normal
(Fig. 9G).
5.4.3. Lechuza Depression
The H point (Figs. 7 and 9) is located near the
north-western border of the Lechuza Depression. The
faults are repetitive, with slickensides indicating
normal motion. These faults are very similar in trend
and style to the faults of G point, but the trend of
faults is too constant to allow a calculation of the state
of stress.
5.4.4. North-east Puná
The north-east Puná rocky coast gives good
outcrops where several measures of fault motion
have been made (Fig. 4K). Most of them are related
to an extensional event represented by 19 normal
fault planes with centimetrical offsets. The diagram
Fig. 9K groups the data collected over a distance of
about 1 km south-west of Punà Mandinga (Fig. 4).
Most of the planes trend in the WNW–ESE direction
with a variation of about 508 and present conjugated
planes dipping north and south. However, the
coherency of the data allows to process them
together. The result of stress tensor calculation with
the Carey method (Carey, 1979; Carey and Mercier,
1987) is a N2078E trending extension, and the
quality histogram shows that all the fault planes
are located within 208 from the calculated slicken-
343
side (Fig. 9K). The regional structure presents wide
undulations with dips of 108 to 208 trending parallel
to the extension (Fig. 9L).
The set of data J (Fig. 9, located on Fig. 4) includes
4 strike-slip faults observed near a reverse faulted
fold. The fault planes extend all over the sea cliff, and
present clear slickensides. The low angle between the
conjugated right and left-hand strike-slip fault planes
gives a compressive stress tensor trending NNW–
SSE. A narrow angle is observed between the trend of
the shortening and the dip of the structure forming the
faulted fold. The change from the shortening to the
extension is interpreted as an inversion between j1
and j2, the position of j3 remaining unchanged.
Most of these faults are more or less parallel to the
border faults of the Progreso Basin.
6. Interpretation and discussion
6.1. Calculated uplift and offset rates
Stratigraphic considerations exposed before lead to
consider that the uplift of the Zambapala Cordillera
post-dates a period between 1.8 Ma and 0.6 Ma,
estimated age of the more recent levels of the
cordillera. The uplift was mostly completed around
0.4 or 0.5 Ma, which is the estimated age of the T4
surface in south Puná (Fig. 10). As both Placer and
Lechuza Members should be included in the time
period of the N22 zone, we can estimate that the uplift
occurred during the recent period of the N22 zone, i.e.
after 1 Ma. This gives an estimated uplift rate of about
0.3 to 0.4 mm/yr, with a lower value of 0.15 mm/yr
(200 m uplift between 1.8 and 0.4 Ma) and an upper
one of 2 mm/yr (200 m uplift between 0.6 and 0.5
Ma). The fault analysis of the Zambapala–Lechuza
Structure suggests an offset of 2.9F0.2 km since the
formation of the uppermost level of the T4 surface
observed south of the Zambapala Cordillera that we
correlated with the M.I.S. 11 or 13 (440 ka or 550 ka).
The calculated offset rate along the Zambapala–
Lechuza Fault Zone ranges from 6.6 to 5.3F0.45
mm/yr, the error margin being related to the error
measurement of the Zambapala–Lechuza Structure
offset.
The mean offset rate calculated for the Zambapala–
Lechuza Fault Zone is about 5–7 mm/yr, higher than
344 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350
the one (about 4 mm/yr) calculated for the Pallatanga
Fault by Winter and Lavenu (1989) for the last 12,000
to 10,000 yr. A slow down of the offset rate during the
Holocene may be hypothesised, however the struc-
tural sketch of the area suggests that only the
northern–and apparently more active–segment of the
Pallatanga fault has been considered, and that some
additional motion could occur along other fault
segments located some kilometres apart. The mean
offset rate calculated for the 60 km offset affecting the
Andean Cordillera piedmont since its uplift 9 Ma ago
(Steinmann et al., 1999) is 6.6 mm/yr, about the same
order than the 5–7 mm/yr calculated in this study for
the Quaternary. This suggests that the opening of the
Gulf of Guayaquil has probably been a relatively
constant process.
Regarding the offset rate at the two ends of the
Guayaquil–Caracas Megashear the 8 mm/yr to 10
mm/yr offset rate observed to the north (Schubert,
1980; Aggarwal et al., 1983) is higher than the offset
rate to the south (5–7 mm/yr). Further study is
necessary to establish if this difference is significant;
however, from the present data a comparison can be
suggested with the slip rate variation observed along
the Great Sumatra Fault (Bellier and Sébrier, 1995).
This fault together with the Indonesian subduction
zone presents a structural pattern comparable to the
Guayaquil–Caracas Megashear relative to the Ecua-
dorian subduction zone. In both cases the block or
microplate located between the subduction zone and
the fault zone is moved due to oblique subduction.
The interesting comparison is that a significant slip
rate variation is observed along the Great Sumatra
Fault, and in a higher proportion (from 6 to 21–23
mm/yr over 1600 km from the Sunda Strait to the
Andaman Sea) than what is observed in the Ecua-
dorian case (5–7 to 8–10 mm/yr over 2000 km from
Guayaquil to Caracas). Some geometrical particular-
ity, such as importance of the oblique convergence,
can hypothetically explain the difference.
6.2. Formation of the Zambapala–Lechuza Structure
Fig. 8A presents a reconstruction of the Zamba-
pala–Lechuza Structure before the formation of the
pull-apart. The resulted picture suggests that the
Zambapala and the San Ramón Cordilleras were
previously lined up as a continuous range, giving
NT
F
km N
ST
9
2.
F
B: Present state
NT
F
ST
F
A: Before offset
Fig. 8. Interpretative structural evolution of the Zambapala Lechuza
Structure, on the basis of Fig. 7. (A) Before the offset of the
Lechuza pull-apart along the Zambapala–Lechuza Fault Zone, and
(B) as it is presently. The transverse faults NTF and STF (North and
South Transverse Faults) are used as benchmark. No transverse
(NW–SE) shortening was applied, because this motion is not
precisely documented. However, the closure of the Lechuza pull-
apart would probably result in reference points (black and circle)
closer than it appears on the reconstruction figure, and the uplifted
areas more precisely lined up than what appears on the panel A.
consistency to a two stage deformation. Otherwise, the
formation of the San Ramón Cordillera on the border
of the pull-apart is hard to explain. Deformations
outside the boundaries of the Zambapala–Lechuza
Fault Zone should be considered as continuous, and
the Zambapala pop up and Lechuza pull-apart appear
as tectonic accommodations inside the fault zone. The
stereograms Fig. 9C and D are related to the pop up,
showing a shortening about normal to the wrench zone
axis, as classically observed in wrench zones (Harding,
1985). The shortening observed along the pull-apart
bordering faults (Fig. 9E, F and I) is about parallel to
plate convergence and probably corresponds to the
regional state of deformation. The change from short-
ening (the wrench fault motion) to extension (the pull-
apart) is represented by a relatively steady position of
 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350 345

N N
North-east Puná N
*3 R=0.68 K
n
19a
23 17
2 *2 6
7 15 16
* 1*
1* 18
15,19a
14 12
14
8 5,16,10
13 11
17 11
9 10 18
129
1,2,23
J
13
4 5 6 7
3
J * K 1 2 4 8 L
0 5 10 15 20 (T,s)

N N N N

F G H I
N N N South
34
3*
1
of Puná
5

1* R= 0.47
2* 6 n
+
4
3
2
C D E 0
1 6 5 3
10 20 (T,s)

N N
3 12
3*
11
8 R=0.27
4,9,2
6 2 R=0.41
5 n 17
1 * 14 n
4
* 2 2 5 1
16
17
Santa Clara
* 11 6
* 15
15
12 8 20a W
A *
3 3 9
(t,s)
B 21
20a 21 14 16
0 5 10 15 (t,s)
0 5 10

Fig. 9. Stereogram representation of fault measurements, using Wulff net projection on the lower hemisphere. The lines represent fault planes,
except for diagram D (Stratigraphic planes-lines- and poles-points- from the southern Zambapala Cordillera) and L (poles of structural planes
and majority lines of poles associations). The arrows represent slickensides. The stars mark the positions of j1, j2 and j3, determined with the
Carey method (Carey, 1979; Carey and Mercier, 1987). The quality of the calculation is represented by the histogram pointing the difference
between the calculated and the observed position of slickensides. The fault planes are identified by the same number on the histogram and on the
Wulff net. Arrows show the position of the shortening and extension axis, estimated graphically when the Carey method cannot be applied. See
text for the commentary on the different stations.
346 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350

the minimum stress axis j3, and invert positions of j1
and j2.
6.3. Fault events and regional deformations
The salient morphology of Santa Clara over the
surrounding platform (Fig. 3C) and the deformation
style of the Piqueros Fault support the interpretation
of a flower structure formed during the Pleistocene.
The fault motion analysis shows two extension events:
a former NNE–SSW trending transtension affecting
the Piqueros Fault and a later NNW–SSE trending
extension underlining the present shape of the island
(Fig. 10). Even though poor evidence of the E–W
shortening has been observed, it should pre-date the
extension event. We interpret the two main events,
transtension and extension, in relation to a deforma-
tion continuum along the wrench zone running from
Santa Clara to Puná.
The NE Puná fault motion occurs in an area located
outside the Puná–Pallatanga Fault Zone, which
probably presents a steplike arrangement transition
to the north-east (Fig. 11). Two apparently incompat-
ible events are observed, a ESE–WNW shortening
followed by a NNE–SSW extension. The stereograms
(Fig. 9J and K) show that the position of j3 is about
the same in the two events, and that j1 and j2 are
inverted. Such succession of events suggests a
regional relaxation following a shortening event. This
type of succession is relatively frequent in active
margins and microplates, and a precise comparison
can be suggested here with the ENE–WSW trending
grabens of western Turkey (Dewey and Sengör, 1979;
Dumont et al., 1980; Angelier et al., 1981). The
grabens open nearly parallel to the trend of the
shortening induced by the motion of the Anatolian
microplate (Dewey and Sengör, 1979; Angelier et al.,
1981) and the change from strike slip to normal

Main Santa South North

Time
Structures Clara Puná Puná
N
N

3*
B
Holocene 2
* *2
1 *
1
*
G
Wrench tectonics push-up and pull apart

N
*3 K
Extension Extension
Lechuza
Late pull-apart
Pleistocene
3*

0.44 Ma
? 2*
+
1*

Shortening
0.55 Ma E N
*3

2
* 1*
N

Zambapala
Transtension
J
San Ramón N

uplift
1
* C
?
2
*
1.8 Ma
*
3
A
Fig. 10. Interpretation table of the different events. The letters refer to the diagrams of Fig. 9 and to the text. The arrows show the duration
period of continuous stress resulting in discontinuous deformation according to the place and the structural style. See text for comment.
 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350 347

La
Cr
Santa Elena

uz
Fa
Uplift

ult
Puná

?
+
+ +
Po + +
so
rja
Fa 9
ult * * ZC
*
Tengel 8
T en g u

N
* Block 7
lF
* * + CP 6
a ult + S
e

5
Esperanza Santa Clara 4
Horst
***
+++ 3
Amistad 20 km 2
Structure 1

Fig. 11. Structural sketch showing the relations between the Santa Elena Uplift and the deformations observed in Puná, Santa Clara and around
the Tenguel Block. 1: anticline or antiform; 2: motion of wrench faults; 3: flower structure; 4: reverse fault motion; 5: relative motion of the
Santa Elena Uplift due to differential transmission of the stress from the subduction zone; 6: main faults; 7: subdued faults, suggesting steplike
arrangement northeast of Puná; 8: plate motion according to Kellogg and Vega (1995); 9: plate motion according to De Mets et al., 1990.

faulting is clearly observed as a short transition
between two states of deformation in continuum
tectonics (Dumont et al., 1980). The north-eastward
escape of the North Andean Block will result in the
queue part of the block in tectonic evolution from
transpression/transtension deformations to pure exten-
sion trending about parallel to plate convergence, as it
is observed in north Puná.
The regional structural sketch shows the particular
position of the Zambapala Cordillera in front of the
Santa Elena Uplift (Figs. 2 and 11). The position of
the Santa Elena Uplift just east of the subduction zone
suggests that this structure is able to transmit eastward
the stress issued from the subduction zone better than
the Progreso and Guayaquil basins located respec-
tively north and south. This is particularly true for the
Gulf of Guayaquil Basin located in escape position of
the moving North Andean Block. On the contrary the
low angle between the trend of the Santa Elena Uplift
and that of the plate convergence will result in good
transmission of stress variation along the subduction
zone. To suggest a picture the Santa Elena Uplift
appears to have rammed the Zambapala Cordillera in
front of it. According to this picture the Tenguel Block
and Tenguel Fault (Fig. 11) located in front of the SE
corner of the Santa Elena Uplift appear as part of an
escape structure directed toward the weak central part
of the Gulf of Guayaquil, due to the structural contrast
between the two domains.
The striking and isolated position of the Zambapala
Cordillera remains a problem as far as continuum
deformation is considered. The uplift of the Zamba-
pala Cordillera cannot be only related to structural
contrast along a homogeneous converging system,
because the effect of the stress in front of the Santa
Elena Uplift should has been more continuous
through time. The possibility of stress variation inside
a wrench zone must also be considered. The N458E
trend of the Santa Clara to south Puná fault segment
compared to the N508–608E trend of the main
Guayaquil Caracas Megashear suggests a possible
restraining along the former segment. However, the
area does not present evidence of other pop up than
the Zambapala Cordillera, and the uplift has had a
limited effect through time. This leads to question the
possibility of a specific event responsible of the uplift
348 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350
of the Zambapala Cordillera. The deformations
observed in Santa Clara and south Puná, and in
particular the uplift of the Zambapala Cordillera, have
no known equivalent in the Pleistocene history of the
area. Several authors risen the question of the
existence of a compressive event during the early
Pleistocene on the basis of seismic profile observation
and sedimentary analysis (Winter and Lavenu, 1989;
Lions, 1995; Marocco and Lions, 1995; Deniaud et
al., 1999). Since there is no evidence of change in the
trend or rate of plate convergence, the compressive
event origin should be searched in the structure or
geometry of the subduction. Winter and Lavenu
(1989) pointed out the situation generated by the
introduction of a younger and more buoyant part of
the Nazca oceanic crust in the Ecuadorian Trench, in
front of a continental margin made of hardly buoyant
oceanic material since the late Pliocene or Pleistocene.
This timing is also quite coherent with the introduc-
tion of the Carnegie Ridge in the trench during the late
Pliocene (Pedoja, 2003). The boundary between the
old and recent part of the Nazca plate is the Grijalva
Fracture Zone (Gutscher et al., 1999), and Deniaud et
al. (1999) suggested that the introduction of the
Grijalva Fracture Zone in the trench, in front of the
Santa Elena Uplift, may be responsible for the reverse
motion of normal faults in the north-eastern part of the
Gulf of Guayaquil. According to Guillier et al. (2001),
the lack of shallow coastal seismicity in central
Ecuador suggests that the oceanic accreted basement
of the Ecuadorian coastal plain presently acts as a
rigid, undeformed body, that transmits to the Andes
the stress originating along the interplate coupling
surface. On the basis of these elements, we consider
that the pop up of the Zambapala Cordillera was
generated by a compression event resulting of the
introduction of the Grijalva Fracture Zone in the
trench, and that the effect was stronger in front of the
massive Santa Elena Uplift than in any other part of
the Gulf of Guayaquil coastal area due to structural
contrasts in the margin of the continent.
7. General conclusions
Neotectonic study from Puná emphasises the two-
stages formation of the Zambapala–Lechuza Structure
in relation with a continuous dextral strike-slip motion
occurring along the south-western segment of the
Guayaquil–Caracas Megashear. The main motion
along the Zambapala–Lechuza Fault Zone is clearly
related to the convergence of the Nazca and South
American plates. A stronger interplate coupling
resulting in a transpression deformation during the
Pleistocene seems necessary to explain the fast uplift
of the Zambapala Cordillera as a pop up, and its
location in front of the massive Santa Elena Uplift.
Geometry and timing suggest that the subduction of
the Grijalva Fracture Zone can have determined a
compression event in the continent margin. The mean
offset rate of the Zambapala–Lechuza Fault Zone
calculated for the upper Pleistocene is of 5–7 mm/yr.
This is quite the same order than the mean offset rate
calculated for the offset of the piedmont of the
Western Andean Cordillera since the uplift of the
Andes (about 6.6 mm/yr). This implies that the offset
rate of the opening of the Gulf of Guayaquil has
probably been relatively constant, and that most of the
wrench motion is accommodated along the Zamba-
pala–Lechuza Fault Zone. The calculated offset is
slightly higher than the offset calculated along the
Pallatanga Fault, suggesting that inland from the Gulf
of Guayaquil the motion is divided up into several
fault lines.
Acknowledgements
This work is part of the DEMA3 project (Défor-
mation des Marges Actives et Aléa Associés), a
cooperation research project between the IRD-UMR
6526 Géosciences Azur, the INOCAR (Instituto
Oceanográfico de la Armada, Guayaquil, Ecuador)
and Petroproducción (Ecuador). We thank in partic-
ular CPNV-EM Fernando Zurita, Director of the
INOCAR, TNNV-SU Rodney Martı́nez, Chief of the
Marine Science Department, and Ing. Edgar Riofrio
and Galo Montenegro, successive Directors of the
CIG-G of Petroproducción in Guayaquil for their
supports. We are grateful to the Quirola Group for
facilities in Puná, and to Henry Galvez, Edgar Rivas
and Guido Saigua for their help during coastal
fieldwork. We thank the two reviewers Thierry Winter
and Luc Ortlieb for their useful comments that help
improve the original manuscript, and Yvonne Font for
her critics and corrections of the final text.
 J.F. Dumont et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 331–350
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