Power plant

Instrumentation

Dr. Christina Grace Danny

Contents of lec 6:
•Types of turbines
•Numerical problems
•Measuring head & flow
•Discharge measurements
•Turbine governor control

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Kaplan turbines

https://link.springer.com/chapter/
10.1007/978-3-642-20709-9_5

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Francis turbines

https://link.springer.com/chapter/
10.1007/978-3-642-20709-9_5

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https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-20709-9_5

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Hydel power - Equations

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Numerical

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Numerical

https://www.slideshare.net/yurremm/hydro-electric-power-plant-31597756
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Turbine Control

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Contents of lec 7:

•Structure of atom, nuclear stability,

Binding energy
•Radioactive decay & half life
•Nuclear Fission

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EOHYT5q5lhQ
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Thomson and electrons
• Cathode ray tube
• Negative discharge
• Mass a thousandth of
Hydrogen atom
• Called it corpuscles -
electrons

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Thomson and the plum pudding model

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=thnDxFdkzZs

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Rutherford and nucleus
• Bombarded thin gold foil
with alpha particles (decay
from Radium)
• Most passed through
• Few deflected
• Very few came straight
back

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Rutherford and nucleus

• Most of the atoms – empty space

• Positive charge is concentrated to the center in nucleus
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De Broglie
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De Broglie Schrodinger
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Atomic Imagination
Thompson’s plum pudding model

Rutherford’s model

Bohr’s discrete atom

Schrodinger’s standing waves

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Atomic Imagination
Thompson’s plum pudding model

Rutherford’s model

Bohr’s discrete atom

Schrodinger’s standing waves

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Atomic Imagination
Thompson’s plum pudding model

Rutherford’s model

Bohr’s discrete atom

Schrodinger’s standing waves

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Atomic Imagination
Thompson’s plum pudding model

Rutherford’s model

Bohr’s discrete atom

Schrodinger’s standing waves

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A quantum of quantized light
• Quantum theory
• A system is completely
described by wave function
• It is given by Schrodinger
equation
• Probability is related to the
square of amplitude of the
wave function
• Particle-wave duality
• Q M description of larger
systems correspond to classical
description
(Copenhagen interpretation)
Courtesy: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_harmonic_oscillator
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Atomic Imagination
Thompson’s plum pudding model

Rutherford’s model

Bohr’s discrete atom

Schrodinger’s standing waves

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The atom
• The size of the atom is ~ 10-10m.
• The size of the nucleus in atom is ~ 10-14m.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hgCui4Qpswk
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The atom

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hgCui4Qpswk
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Single Si atom in a graphene monolayer (EDS)

https://www.bruker.com/products/x-ray-diffraction-and-elemental-analysis/eds-wds-ebsd-sem-micro-xrf-and-sem-
micro-ct/quantax-eds-for-tem/applications/single-si-atom-in-graphene.html
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Atomic description

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Atomic interaction

Attraction and
repulsion

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particle#/media/File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg
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The four fundamental interactions of nature[4]
Property/Interactio Weak Electromagnetic Strong
Gravitation
n (Electroweak) Fundamental Residual
Acts on: Mass/Energy Flavor Electric charge Color charge
Bound states Planets, Stars, Solar
n/a Atoms, Molecules Hadrons Atomic nuclei
formed: systems, Galaxies

Particles Left-
All particles Electrically charged Quarks, Gluons Hadrons
experiencing: handed fermions

Not yet observed

Particles mediating: (Graviton hypothesi W+, W− and Z0 γ (photon) Gluons π, ρ and ω mesons
sed)
Strength at the Not applicable
10−41(predicted) 10−4 1 60
scale of quarks: to hadrons
Strength at the
Not applicable
scale of 10−36(predicted) 10−7 1 20
to quarks
protons/neutrons:

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Atomic interaction
A force called the strong force opposes and overcomes the force of repulsion between the protons and
holds the nucleus together. The net energy associated with the balance of the strong force and the force
of repulsion is called the binding energy. The electrons are kept in orbit around the nucleus because
there is an electromagnetic field of attraction between the positive charge of the protons and the negative
charge of the electrons.

In some atoms, the binding energy is great enough to hold the nucleus together. The nucleus of this kind of
atom is said to be stable. In some atoms the binding energy is not strong enough to hold the nucleus together,
and the nuclei of these atoms are said to be unstable. Unstable atoms will lose neutrons and protons as they
attempt to become stable.
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Chemical and nuclear reaction
Chemical reaction: The number of atoms in reactants and products
are the same; No change to nucleus; Only valance electrons
undergo sharing or shifting.

Nuclear reaction: The products and the reactants don’t have similar
nuclei. The number of nucleons are conserved.
(Neutrinos and gamma rays carry only energy and do not affect the
above balance.)

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Nuclear reaction

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Nuclear reaction

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Nuclear stability and binding energy
Nucleus stays together due to residual strong forces. Nuclear binding
energy is minimum required energy to disassemble nucleus.

MASS DEFECT: Mass of nucleus is always lesser than the sum of

individual masses. The difference is called mass defect. ∆m

m A = n m + z(m +m ) - ∆m
z n n p e

Nuclear binding energy = ∆mc2.

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Nuclear stability and binding energy
1 amu mass converted to energy
∆E = 1.66 * 10-27 kg * (3 * 108 m/s)2.
∆E = 14.9 * 10-11 J = 9.31 * 108 eV = 931 MeV

Binding energy per nucleon:

Energy to be given to nucleus to make it into the constituent particles.

For He atom: 4 nucleons; B.E / nucleon = 7 MeV

To give 28 MeV to nucleus to make He to its constituents

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Nuclear stability and binding energy

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Nuclear stability and binding energy
• Higher the B.E / nucleon = Higher the stability

• The intermediate mass number range is the most stable

• Low mass number  Fuse  More stable elements

• Hydrogen, Deuterium

• High mass number  Fission  More stable elements

• Uranium

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Nuclear stability and binding energy

• 92U 238 with 92 p and 146 n is quite stable and required high

energy for excitation

• 92U235 with 92 p and 143 n fissions with low energy n.

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Radioactive decay and half life

• Unstable nucleus spontaneously disintegrates through a

process called RADIOACTIVE DECAY.
• Radioactivity is accompanied by decrease of mass or
liberation of energy – as K.E or Gamma rays
• Naturally occurring radioisotopes emit α, β particles and γ-
rays or undergo positron decay, electron absorption (K
capture) or emit neutrons / neutrinos.

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Radioactive decay and half life
Alpha decay The nucleus emits an alpha particle and energy. An
alpha particle consists of two protons and two
neutrons, which is actually a helium nucleus.

That’s because alpha particles are relatively heavy, so they can travel only a few centimeters through the air. They
also are not very penetrating. For example, they can’t pass through a sheet of paper or thin layer of clothing.
However, if alpha particles are emitted inside the body, they can do more damage. One way this can happen is by
inhaling cigarette smoke. People who smoke actually inhale the radioactive element polonium-210. It undergoes
alpha decay in the lungs. Over time, exposure to alpha particles may cause lung cancer.
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Radioactive decay and half life
Beta decay

N13  C13 + e0 + energy

7 6 1

Beta particles can travel about a meter through air.

They can pass through a sheet of paper or a layer
of cloth but not through a sheet of aluminum or a
few centimeters of wood. They can also penetrate
the skin and damage underlying tissues. They are
even more harmful if they are ingested or inhaled.

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Radioactive decay and half life
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic

Gamma radiation waves are waves of electric and magnetic energy that travel
through space at the speed of light.

Gamma rays are produced when radioactive elements decay.

Radioactive elements are elements with unstable nuclei. To
become more stable, the nuclei undergo radioactive decay. In
this process, the nuclei give off energy and may also emit
charged particles of matter.

In alpha and beta decay, both particles and energy are

emitted. In gamma decay, only energy, in the form of gamma
rays, is emitted.

Gamma rays are the most dangerous type of radiation. They can travel farther and penetrate materials more
deeply than can the charged particles. Gamma rays can be stopped only by several centimeters of lead or several
meters of concrete. It’s no surprise that they can penetrate and damage cells deep inside the body.

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Radioactive decay and half life
An alternate way for a nuclide to increase its neutron to

K capture proton ratio is by a phenomenon called electron capture. In

electron capture, an electron from an inner orbital is
captured by the nucleus of the atom and combined with a
proton to form a neutron. For example, silver-106 undergoes
electron capture to become palladium-106.
that the overall result of electron capture is identical to
positron emission. The atomic number decreases by one
while the mass number remains the same.

Cu 64 + e0  Ni64
29 -1 28

Gamma rays are the most dangerous type of radiation. They can travel farther and penetrate materials more
deeply than can the charged particles. Gamma rays can be stopped only by several centimeters of lead or several
meters of concrete. It’s no surprise that they can penetrate and damage cells deep inside the body.

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Radioactive decay and half life
For xenon, the B.E of neutron is ~ 8 MeV. So if atom

Neutron emission possesses very high excitation energy, neutron emission is

possible.

Neutron emission does not vary the atomic number, but it

decreases the mass.
Isotopes have varying number of neutrons.

Neutron rich nuclei above the band of stability will emit

neutrons.

Xe137  Xe136 + n1
54 54 0

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Radioactive decay and half life
N is the number of radioactive nuclei
T is time
λ is decay constant

Activity, A is given by
𝑑𝑁
𝐴=− = λ𝑁
𝑑𝑇

𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −λ𝑇

𝐴 = λ𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −λ𝑇 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑒 −λ𝑇

ln 2 0.6931
𝑇1/2 = =
λ λ
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Radioactive decay and half life

ln 2 0.6931
𝑇1/2 = =
λ λ

U235 has a half life of 7 x 108 years

Unit of radioactivity is curie = 3.6 x 1010 dis/s (1 dis/s = 1 Becquerel)

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Nuclear fission of Uranium

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