Fluid Mechanics

The Energy Equation

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1
 Introduction
• There are various types of devices and
components that are utilized in flow systems

• They occur in most fluid flow systems and they

either:
– add energy to the fluid (in the case of pumps)
– remove energy from the fluid (in the case of turbines),

or

– cause undesirable losses of energy from the fluid (in

the case of friction)
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 Pumps

• A pump is a common example of a mechanical

device that adds energy to a fluid

• A motor drives a rotating shaft in the pump

• The pump then takes this kinetic energy and

delivers it to the fluid, resulting in:
– fluid flow
– increased fluid pressure

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Pumps

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 Turbines
• Turbines are examples of
devices that take energy from
a fluid and deliver it in the
form of work, causing the
rotation of a shaft

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Turbines

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Turbines

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Turbines

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 Fluid Friction
• A fluid in motion suffers losses in energy into thermal energy
(heat) due to friction

• Heat is dissipated through the walls of the pipe in which the

fluid is flowing

• The magnitude of the energy loss (called headloss) is

dependent, in general, on the following:
– the properties of the fluid
– the flow velocity
– the pipe size
– the smoothness of the pipe wall
– the length of the pipe
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 Headloss in pipes due to Friction

• Generally, headloss in pipes due to friction is given in

the following general form (later we will see different
forms):

where hL is the headloss due to friction, L is the length,

D is the diameter, v is the velocity, and the constant
depends on the status of the internal surface of the
pipe, its type, and the viscosity of the fluid

• Apparently, the hL increases linearly with pipe length

and velocity and decreases with increasing the
diameter
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 Valves and Fittings

• Elements that control the

direction or flow rate of a
fluid in a system typically set
up local turbulence in the
fluid, causing energy
dissipation as heat

• Energy losses occur whenever

there is a:
– restriction of flow
– change in flow velocity
– change in the direction of flow
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Headloss due to Abrupt Expansion

The headloss caused by a

sudden expansion is given by
the following relationship:

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Headloss due to Abrupt Contraction

The headloss caused by a

sudden contraction is given
by the following relationship:

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 The Energy Equation

Now what we need to do is to update

Bernoulli equation to account for the addition,
removal, and losses in energy

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 The Energy Equation
• Take a control volume and do an energy balance

• Energy can enter the control volume in two different ways:

– Energy transported by the flowing fluid
– By a pump
• Energy can leave the control volume in three different
ways:
– Energy transported by the flowing fluid
– By a turbine
– By headloss (to heat)

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The Energy Equation

16
 The Energy Equation

• However, we will deal with head rather than

energy or work

• Head is the energy of the fluid per weight of fluid

• This implies that:

– hp: head added by the pump (pump head)
– ht: head extracted by the turbine (turbine head)
– hL: head loss due to friction

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 The Energy Equation

Head carried Head

by flow into + added by
the CV pumps

Head carried Head

by flow out + extracted + Head loss
of the CV by turbines
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The Energy Equation

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 The Energy Equation
• It is essential that the general energy equation be written in the
direction of flow

• After the fluid leaves point 1 it enters the pump, where energy is
added as a head (hp). A motor drives the pump, and the impeller of
the pump transfers the energy to the fluid in the form of hp

• Then the fluid flows through a piping system composed of a valve,

elbows, and the lengths of pipe, in which energy is dissipated from
the fluid and is lost as a head (hL)

• Before reaching point 2, the fluid flows through a fluid motor, which
removes some of the energy (ht) to drive an external device

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 The Energy Equation

where α is the kinetic energy correction factor. This

factor accounts for the cases when the velocity profile
is not uniformly distributed. However, in all the cases
that we will come across we will use α = 1

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Example

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 Example
• A horizontal pipe carries cooling water at 10°C from a
reservoir. The head loss in the pipe is given by the
following:

where L is the length of the pipe from the reservoir to the

point in question, V is the mean velocity in the pipe, and D
is the diameter of the pipe

• If the pipe diameter is 20 cm and the rate of flow is 0.06

m3/s, what is the pressure in the pipe at L = 2,000 m?
Assume α2 = 1
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Example
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Example
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 Example
• Water is pumped through a pipeline at a rate of
130 cfs. The 5-ft-diameter suction line is 3,000 ft
long, and the 3-ft-diameter discharge line is 1,500
ft long. The pump adds energy to the water at a
rate of 40 ft.lb/lb and the total head loss is 56 ft
• If the water pressure at the pipeline entrance is
50 psi, what is the pressure at the exit, which is
15 ft higher than the entrance?

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Example

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 Example
Water flows from
a large reservoir
at the rate of
0.034 m3/s
through a pipe
system. Calculate
the total amount
of energy lost
from the system
because of the
valve, the elbows,
the pipe
entrance, and
fluid friction

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Example

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Example

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 Example

• The volume flow rate through the pump is 0.014

m3/s. The fluid being pumped is oil with a specific
gravity of 0.86

• Calculate the energy delivered by the pump to the

oil per unit weight of oil flowing in the system

• Energy losses in the system are caused by the

check valve and friction losses as the fluid flows
through the piping. The magnitude of such losses
has been determined to be 1.86 N.m/N
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Example

32
Example

33
Example

34
Example

35
 Power Required by Pumps
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work

• The unit of work is joule = N.m

• The unit of power is watt (W)

This is equivalent to N.m/s or J/s

• P = γ Q hp
where P is the power added by the pump to the fluid, γ
is the specific weight of the fluid, Q is the volume flow
rate, and hp is the head added by the pump
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 Power Required by Pumps
• Both pumps and turbines lose energy due to
mechanical factors

• To account for these losses, we use the term

efficiency η or e

• The efficiency of the pump is the ratio of power

output from the pump (Pout) to power input to
the pump (Pin)

η = Pout/Pin
e = Pout/Pin
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Power Added to the Fluid and Required by
Pumps

Required
Added
γ: Specific weight (N/m3)
Q: Flow rate (m3/s)
H: Head added by pump
(m) and is the same as hp
e: [-]
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Power Added to the Fluid by Pumps

Each one horsepower (HP) is equivalent to 746 Watts

where Q in ft3/sec, hp in ft, γ in lb/ft3, and the power is

in HP

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Example

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 Example

• A pipe 50 cm in diameter carries water (10°C) at a

rate of 0.5 m3/s. A pump in the pipe is used to
move the water from an elevation of 30 m to 40
m

• The pressure at section 1 is 70 kPa gage and the

pressure at section 2 is 350 kPa gage

• What power in kilowatts and in horsepower must

be supplied to the flow by the pump?

• Assume hL = 3 m and α1 = α2 = 1
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Example

42
Example

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 Example
• A small hydroelectric
power plant takes a
discharge of 14.1 m3/s
through an elevation
drop of 61 m
• The head loss through
the intakes, penstock,
and outlet works is 1.5
m. The combined
efficiency of the turbine
and electrical generator
is 87%
• What is the rate of
power generation?
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Example

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Example

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 Example
Water (10°C) is
flowing at a rate of
0.35 m3/s, and it is
assumed that hL =
2V2/2g from the
reservoir to the
gage, where V is
the velocity in the
30-cm pipe. What
power must the
pump supply?
Assume α = 1 at all
locations
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Example

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 Example

• In the pump test shown,

the rate of flow is 0.16
m3/s of oil (S = 0.88)

• Calculate the horsepower

that the pump supplies to
the oil if there is a
differential reading of 120
cm of mercury in the U-
tube manometer. Assume
α = 1.0 at all locations

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Example

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Example

51
 Example
Neglecting head
losses, determine
what horsepower
the pump must
deliver to produce
the flow as shown.
Here the
elevations at
points A, B, C, and
D are 35 m, 60 m,
35 m, and 30 m,
respectively. The
nozzle area is 90
cm2

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Example

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 Example

Water at 10°C is flowing at a rate of 115 L/min through

the fluid motor shown in the figure. The pressure at A
is 700 kPa and the pressure at B is 125 kPa. It is
estimated that due to friction in the piping there is an
energy loss of 4 N.m/N of water flowing:

(a) Calculate the power delivered to the fluid motor by

the water
(b) If the mechanical efficiency of the fluid motor is
85%, calculate the power output

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Example

62
 Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
• Engineers find it useful to employ the "energy grade line"
(EGL) and the "hydraulic grade line" (HGL) in working with
the pipe systems

• These imaginary lines help the engineers find the trouble

spots in the system (usually points of low pressure)

• HGL is the line that indicates the piezometric head at each

location in the system (p/γ + z)

• EGL is the line that indicates the total head at each location
(V2/2g + p/γ + z)
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Ideal Fluid

A pitot tube, a small tube that will

intercept the kinetic energy of the
flow in addition to the piezometric
head. So its liquid level indicates the
total energy head 64
Real Fluid

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 Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines

• As the
velocity goes
to zero, the
HGL and the
EGL approach
each other

• Thus, in a
reservoir, 66
Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Energy Addition by Pumps
A pump causes an abrupt (sudden spike) rise
in the EGL and HGL by adding energy to the
flow

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Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Energy Removal by Turbines
A turbine causes an abrupt drop in the EGL
and HGL by removing energy from the flow

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Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Discharge to Atmosphere

When a pipe discharges into the atmosphere

the HGL is coincident with the system because
p/γ = 0 at these points

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Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Negative Pressure
If the HGL falls below the pipe, then p/γ is
negative indicating sub-atmospheric pressure
and a potential location of cavitation

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Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Negative Pressure

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Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Negative Pressure

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 Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Diameter Change
• For a steady
flow in a pipe of
constant
diameter and
wall roughness,
the slope of the
EGL and HGL
will be constant

• However, when
there is a 73
Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Diameter Change

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Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Diameter Change

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 Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Diameter Gradual Change

• The chief loss of head is in the diverging portion and just beyond the throat
• Note how the conical diffuser (diverging pipe) greatly reduces this loss
• The large pressure changes that occur in converging—diverging pipes
provide a very convenient means of measuring flow rates 76
Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Diameter Gradual Change

77
Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
A general Case

78
 Example
• Water flows
from the
reservoir
through a pipe
and then
discharges from
a nozzle. The
head loss in the  What is the discharge of water?
pipe itself is  Draw the HGL and EGL for the
given as hL = system
0.025 (L/D) 79
2
Example

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Example

81
Example

82
 Example
What power Assume that the head loss in the pipes is
must be given by hL = 0.018 (L/D) (V2/2g), where L
and D are the length and diameter of the
supplied to pipe and V is the velocity in the pipe.
the water to Sketch the HGL and the EGL
pump 0.1
m3/s at 20°C
from the
lower to the
upper
reservoir?
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Example

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Example

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Example

86
 Example
• Water flows from the reservoir on the left to the
reservoir on the right at a rate of 0.45 m3/s. The formula
for the head losses in the pipes is hL = 0.02 (L/D) (V2/2g)

 What elevation in the left reservoir is required to produce

this flow? Sketch the HGL and the EGL for the system
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Exmple

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Example

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 Example
• In a fire fighting system, a pipeline with a
pump leads to a nozzle as shown in the figure
• Find the flow rate when the pump develops a
head of 80 ft, given that we may express the
friction head loss in the 6-in – diameter pipe
by hf = 5V62/2g, and the friction head loss in
the 4-in – diameter pipe by hf = 12V42/2g

(a) Sketch the energy line and hydraulic grade

line
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Example

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Exam
92

ple
Example

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Example

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Example

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