Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 477–486

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Sector diversity in Green Information Technology practices: Technology

Acceptance Model perspective
Ibrahim Akman a,1, Alok Mishra b,1,⇑
a
Department of Computer Engineering, Atilim University, Incek, 06836 Ankara, Turkey
b
Department of Software Engineering, Atilim University, Incek, 06836 Ankara, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper examines the existence of diversity between public-and private-sector establishments in
Available online 30 March 2015 Green Information Technology (GIT) adoption using the ‘Technology Acceptance Model’ (TAM). In this
study, GIT simply refers to using IT in ways that help to reduce environmental impacts, which include
Keywords: using energy more efficiently and reducing waste. The model is extended to include the external variables
Green Information Technology (GIT) as subjective norm and the level of GIT awareness. For this purpose, a survey was conducted among pro-
TAM fessionals from public- and private-sector establishments. The findings suggest the following: (1)
External variables
Diversity exists among establishments from public- and private-sectors in the influence of the
Sector
Diversity
Perceived Ease-of-Use (PEU) on Perceived Usefulness (PU) and on the Attitude Towards Use (ATU); (2)
Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) Most of the public-sector professionals have concerns for environmental sustainability in using IT; (3)
TAM is an important tool for investigating the specific barriers and facilitators of environmental behavior
at work; (4) TAM has a have significant predictive power in public -sector establishments; and (5) TAM is
significant for private-sector establishments except the relations between the PEU and PU, and PEU and
ATU.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Siegler and Gaughan (2008), GIT is about information technology

Green IT refers to the using of Information Technology (IT)
resources in an energy-efficient and cost-effective manner (Bose
& Luo, 2011), and it is foreseen as the most important strategic
technology in the imminent future. According to Mines (2009),
the GIT service market was expected to reach nearly $5 billion by
2013. Organizations are now actively pursuing GIT solutions for a
multitude of reasons and benefits, including lower power con-
sumption, lower costs, lower carbon emissions, less environmental
impact, improved system performance and use, increased collab-
oration and interaction amid constituents, space savings, and an
agile workforce (Bose & Luo, 2011). According to a 2009 GIT report
surveying 426 companies in North America including a total of
1052 companies worldwide, 86% stated that it is significantly
important that their IT organization implement GIT initiatives.
This report also states that 97% of these firms are at least con-
sidering a GIT startegy (Symantec, 2009).
GIT is attributed to the initiatives and programmes that directly
or indirectly address environmental sustainability. According to
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 312 5868377; fax: +90 312 5868091.
E-mail address: alok.mishra@atilim.edu.tr (A. Mishra).
1
Co-first authors (in order of surname) with equal contribution.
and system initiatives, including programs that address environ-
mental sustainability. It also addresses energy consumption as well
as waste associated with the use of hardware and software which
tends to have a direct and positive impact (Jenkin, McShane, &
Webster, 2011a). Hilty et al. (2006) also support this view by stat-
ing that the production, use, and disposal of IT have a direct effect
on the natural environment and eco-sustainability (Hilty et al.,
2006). Estimates indicate that the IT industry accounts for 2% of
global CO2 emissions, which is equivalent to the amount generated
by the aviation industry (Goasduff & Forsling, 2007). Jenkin et al.
(2011a) outlined the objective of GIT to be reducing the overall
environmental impact of Information Communication Technology
(ICT) by adopting a number of measures ranging from (1) taking
environment-friendly approaches to the production; and (2) use
of IT equipment and facilities to optimize the use of ICT equip-
ments along with network infrastructure in order to reduce energy
consumption at every stage.
A study by the Australian Computer Society (2010) noted that in
2009 Australia’s ICT users consumed 13.248 million KWh of elec-
tricity which generated an equivalent of 14,248 million tonnes of
CO2 emission, which is nearly 2.5% of Australia’s total emissions
(539 million tonnes). In 2010, Google’s overall consumption of
electricity was reported to be 2.26 million MW h (Albanesius,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.03.009
0747-5632/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
478 I. Akman, A. Mishra / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 477–486
2011) and, as Google has operations and major servers in many
countries with different types of energy sources and different
Green House Gases (GHG) emission rates, it is difficult to accu-
rately translate this energy consumption figure to its GHG emis-
sion equivalent. Corbett, Sayili, Zelenika, and Pearce’s (2010)
analysis of articles published in the CIO magazine shows that eco-
nomic benefit is the most commonly cited driver for Green IT. In
Australia, the ANZ Bank’s initiative to eliminate screensavers has
resulted in approximately 4% reduction in the annual electricity
bill with an estimated value of AU$500,000 per year (Molla &
Cooper, 2010). A global survey of 1260 IT professionals indicated
that 50% are concerned about climate change (Info-Tech, 2008).
Governments, in particular, can encourage the adoption of Green
IT by legislations that create the framework for a low carbon econ-
omy (Chen, Boudreau, & Watson, 2008).
Even though research to date suggests that organizations often
fail to incorporate the Information Technology (IT)/Information
System (IS) functions into their environmental assessments
(Huang, 2008), and to allocate personnel to address environmental
issues (Siegler & Gaughan, 2008), few empirical studies have exam-
ined whether – and if so, how – organizations are incorporating IT/
IS into their environmental management practices. Organizational
motive for IT adoption is a suitable, albeit largely under-used, theo-
retical lens in IT research (Rahim, Shanks, & Jagielska, 2010). Such a
perspective can also provide useful insights as to what extent eco-
sustainability considerations are influencing the IT decision-mak-
ing process in establishments. Further, the understanding of such
motivations can be beneficial to IT managers and other practition-
ers as it helps them to justify their Green IT actions or inactions
and to effectively participate in organizational eco-sustainability
strategic discourses (Molla & Abrashie, 2011).
Green user behavior has been recognized as an important com-
ponent of GIT or Green IS (Jenkin et al., 2011a), and several projects
have looked at the user behavior with regard to energy consump-
tions and user perceptions of their environmental impact. A review
of the literature reveals that IT usage behavior among the public-
sector employees is different from that of their private-sector coun-
terparts (Gupta, Gould, & Pola, 2004; Lau, 2003). Furthermore, the
literature also accepts motivational differences between public-
and private-sector establishment (Nel et al., 2001; Rashid &
Rashid, 2012). However, available studies do not focus on the
assessment of behavioral differences of professionals from these
establishments in terms of GIT usage in organizations.
Additionally, the literature on Green IT/IS is more recent, yet less
developed. Although there is some research at individual levels,
the majority of the Green IT/IS studies are at the organizational level
of analysis (Jenkin et al., 2011a). This means the investigation of the
differences in the behaviors of public and private sector employees’
adoption of GIT remains a popular and unexplored field of research.
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), the Theory of Reasoned
Actions (TRA), and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) are
amongst the well-recognized conceptual theoretical models in IT
research. TAM has been extensively adopted in prognosticating
the determinants of adoption and technology usage in various set-
tings (Lim, Lim, & Heinrichs, 2008). It proposes a link between the
acceptance of technology and utilization behavior (Nikkheslat,
Zohoori, Bekheirnia, & Mehrafshar, 2012). However, little system-
atic research has been conducted with in the GIT context, indicat-
ing a significant gap in our knowledge. Therefore, given the
substantial and growing significance of Green IT in advancing
environmental sustainability and business efficiency, the proposed
framework in this research utilizes TAM to empirically investigate
the existence of diversity between public- and private-sector
establishments for the adoption of GIT.
The rest of the paper is organized in eight sections. The follow-
ing section reviews background literature on TAM and IT adoption
in organizations. Section three develops the research model and
hypotheses. The research instrument, along with data and empiri-
cal findings are described in the fourth and the fifth sections
respectively. After discussing the main findings in the sixth section,
the seventh addresses GIT policy and implications. Finally, the last
section highlights the main contributions and some of the lim-
itations of the study that chart avenue for future research.
2. Literature review
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), introduced by Davis in
1989, is one of the most cited frameworks to understand and pre-
dict the process of user acceptance or adoption of information sys-
tems. The present study uses this model as the theoretical basis for
the development of a new model towards GIT selection among IT
professionals. TAM has been used primarily to explain the usage
of IT (Ma & Liu, 2004). However, research has supported its use
for investigating IT decision-making as well (Benamati &
Rajkumar, 2002). It establishes that the Perceived Ease-of-Use
(PEU) and Perceived Usefulness (PU) can predict ones’ attitude
towards the use of a given technology. Then, the Attitude
Towards Use (ATU) can, in turn, predict the behavioral intention
to use and, finally, intention predicts the Actual Use (AU) of that
technology (Davis, 1989). Behavioral intention is a measure of
the strength of one’s willingness to make an effort while perform-
ing certain behaviors. Also, attitude illustrates a person’s favorable
or unfavorable assessment regarding the behavior in question.
TAM has been validated over a wide range of systems
(Karahanna & Limayem, 2000). It has also proven to possess reli-
able and valid constructs (Chin & Todd, 1995) and has routinely
explained up to 40% of usage intentions and 30% of systems usage
(Meister & Compeau, 2002).
A variety of applications have been used to validate the model
(Ma & Liu, 2004). For example, it was employed to study user
acceptance of the World Wide Web (Lederer, Maupin, Sena, &
Zhuang, 2000), software, and decision support systems (Morris &
Dillon, 1997). Over the past decade, TAM appears to have become
well-established as a robust, powerful, and parsimonious model for
predicting user acceptance (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). Previous
attempts to study TAM have largely focused on personal computer
usage or relatively simple software applications, such as E-mail,
word-processing programs, spreadsheet software, and the
Windows operating system (Davis, 1989; Mathieson, 1991).
Recently, in line with the development of the Internet and
Internet-based technologies, various applications of TAM have
been made in the areas of organizational contexts, e-commerce
(Jiang, Hsu, & Klein, 2000), tele-medicine (Chau & Hu, 2002;
Karahanna, Straub, & Chervany, 1999), digital library systems
(Thong, Hong, & Tam, 2002), and dynamics of users’ belief in soft-
ware application adoption (Lee, Yan, & Joshi, 2011).
In addition to the relationships proposed by TAM, many
researchers have studied the antecedents of PU and PEU (Dishaw
& Strong, 1999; Lederer et al., 2000). Some have also ignored
ATU and/or the intention to use (Gefen & Straub, 1997) and,
instead, focused on the direct effect of the ease-of-use as well as
usefulness in system usage. Others have suggested that TAM could
be used for areas other than end-user and software acceptance
(Agarwal, Prabuddha, Sinha, & Tanniru, 2000). For example,
Benamati and Rajkumar (2002) applied TAM to technology-related
decision-making by employing a qualitative methodology to inves-
tigate the predictive capability of TAM for studying the decisions
regarding outsourcing of application developments.
A review of the literature indicates the existence of applications
of conceptual models for the assessment of environmental issues.
For example, Han, Hsu, and Sheu (2010) proposed and tested TPB
model to explain the formation of hotel customers’ intentions to
 I. Akman, A. Mishra / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 477–486
visit a green hotel. They used structural equation analysis and the
results revealed that attitude, subjective norm, and perceived
behavioral control positively affected the intention to stay at a green
hotel. Greaves, Zibarras, and Stride (2013) used TPB to explore
environmental behavioral intentions in a workplace setting, and
TPB constructs were found to explain between 46% and 61% of the
variance in employee intentions to engage in environmental behav-
iors. Marandu, Moeti, and Joseph (2010) investigated the power of
the TRA in explaining the conservation of residential water use in
Botswana. Furthermore, Melville (2010) developed a research
agenda on information systems innovation for environmental sus-
tainability to demonstrate the critical role of IS in shaping beliefs
about the environment, in enabling and transforming sustainable
processes and practices in organizations, and in improving environ-
mental and economic performance. As a result of a comprehensive
review, he proposed TAM to have an important role in modeling
not only conventional motivational factors, but also other external
factors shaping beliefs and attitudes about the outcomes.
3. Research methodology
3.1. Research model
Specifically, the objective of this paper is to analyse sector
diversity in accepting GIT by using a conceptual framework based
on TAM (Davis, 1989). TAM traditionally involves five constructs:
‘Perceived Ease-of-Use (PEU)’, ‘Perceived Usefulness (PU)’,
‘Attitude Towards Using (ATU)’, ‘Behavioral Intention to Use
(BIU)’, and ‘Actual System Usage (AU)’ (Fig. 1). Furthermore, it pro-
poses that external variables intercede indirectly, thus impacting
the intention to use. These variables are mediated by the perceived
usefulness, perceived ease-of-use, attitude, and their relative
weight (Filimban & Aljahdali, 2009; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000).
Therefore, we included two external constructs as ‘Subjective
Norms (SN)’ and ‘Level of Awareness (LA)’ (Fig. 1).
According to Jin, Drozdenko, and Bassett (2007), the behavior of
different groups in a society with different socio-demographic
characteristices may show entirely different patterns. The
Professionals were suggested as one of such groups by Akman
and Mishra (2010). They constitute one of the largest groups in
all societies and play a significant role in the adoption of new tech-
nologies (Akman & Mishra, 2010). This study again focuses on pro-
fessionals by assuming that they have a higher level of awareness
concerning GIT issues than other groups in the society. Besides, the
existence of differences were reported between public- and pri-
vate-sector establishments in terms of organizational characteris-
tics (Akman & Mishra, 2009). Some studies reported significant
diversities between the type of IT applications among different sec-
tor establishments (see, for example, Gupta et al., 2004; Lau, 2003),
which may also affect the attitude of their employees in adopting
GIT (Yen, Chen, Lee, & Koh, 2003). However, the existing literature
has not paid much attention to organizational diversity in terms of
employees’ GIT adoption and, as such, our hypotheses have been
constructed to fill in this gap accordingly.
The justification of the constructs and their corresponding
hypotheses are given in the following section.
3.2. Hypotheses regarding external constructs
One of the purposes of TAM is to provide a basis for tracing the
impact of external variables on internal beliefs (Legris, Ingham, &
Collerette, 2003) since it assumes that external variables predict
usage through their effect on PU and PEU (Jones & Hubona,
2006). Legris et al. (2003) also argued that it is important to study
external variables because they are the ultimate drivers of usage.
Yaghmaei’s (2010) study is one of the more recent examples,
479
which supports this view by reporting that external variables can
have an influence in one of the three ways, such as on attitudes,
intentions and the relative weights of the two components. This
means that concept of external variables is important and is origi-
nally recommended to be examined in greater detail in research
(Al-Gahtani & King, 1999). There is no clear pattern with respect
to the choice of external variables (Legris et al., 2003), and this
study proposed the level of awareness and subjective norm as
the external variables.
Broadly put, subjective norm has been defined as an indication
of engaging or not engaging in a behavior. Based on this definition,
it can imply perceived social pressure and is determined by the
normative expectations of others. Therefore, its significance is an
evidence of existence of the perceived social pressure, which basi-
cally relates to one’s intuition about others’ exertion of influence
(Nchise, 2012). Park (2007) also concluded that subjective norm
may be an extrinsic motivational factor that can help individuals
to self-regulate their motivation (Park, 2007). A number of studies
have found that attitude, together with subjective norms, can be a
predictor of behavior. Venkatesh and Davis (2000) supported this
view for TAM, and subjective norms were proposed to be used as
the extension. In their study, Schepers and Wetzels (2007) con-
ducted a quantitative meta-analysis of previous research on the
technology acceptance model and reported subjective norms to
have a significant effect on perceived usefulness and the behavioral
intention to use. In a recent study, Sawang and Kivits (2014) sup-
ported this view for the adoption of green practices, stating that
senior management’s environmental-related subjective norms
from stakeholders significantly influenced their decision to adopt
green practices initiatives. Moreover, Choon, Sulaiman, and
Mallasi (2014) examined the factors influencing GIT adoption by
Malaysian students and pointed that an individual who perceives
greater social pressure to practice GIT has a more positive intention
towards it. An organizational context, the voice of stakeholders
may not be equal; thus, in order to measure GIT adoption, subjec-
tive norms should be considered (Bingham, Nabatchi, & O’Leary,
2005). Against this backdrop, we lay out the following hypotheses.
H1. There is not any sector diversity in practicing GIT in terms of
the impact of SN on PU.
H2. There is not any sector diversity in practicing GIT in terms of
the impact of SN on PEU.
Prior studies addressed the role of demographic (gender, age,
etc.), external (institutional, cultural, etc.) and internal (e.g.,
motivation, attitudes, awareness) factors regarding environmental
sustainability from different perspectives (Csutora, 2012). Among
these, environmental awareness has attracted special attention
(see, for example, Csutora, 2012; Molla, 2008; Olson, 2008;
Sayeed & Gill, 2009; Srivastava & Srivastava, 2012) and was
reported to be capable of influencing consumer behavior
(Csutora, 2012). Additionally, awareness has been vastly used in
empirical research in different fields of IT (see, for example,
Tracy, Webster, & McShane, 2011; Young, 2008). Today, establish-
ments from all sectors are taking steps in adopting GIT practices
since regulations and green movements towards reducing environ-
mental footprints are putting them under mounting pressure
(Molla, 2008). However, there are few organizations spreading
the awareness in adopting Green IT practices (Srivastava &
Srivastava, 2012). Sayeed and Gill (2009) reported that organiza-
tional GIT initiatives are in their infancy and that firms reflect little
or no awareness about the environmental consequences of IT use.
Emerging studies also indicate a gap between awareness and
action (Olson, 2008). This means GIT awareness in organizations
480 I. Akman, A. Mishra / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 477–486
External Factors
H1 PU
SN
H2
H5
H6
H3
PEU
LA
H4
Fig. 1. Research model. Boxes represent the constructs. The constructs inside the dashed rectangle represent the TAM, whereas others are extensions to it. Casual effects are
given by arrows connecting the boxes.
is critical to initiating strategic actions in this area (Sayeed & Gill,
2009), and that the awareness level about the environmental con-
sequences of IT use need to be understood further in organizations.
Additionally, most studies on environmental issues have used only
samples from students, which somewhat limits the findings. When
it comes to establishing environmental behavior and designing
environmental awareness, different groups in the society should
be taken into account (Carmen et al., 2012). Additionally,
Kowalski and Goldstein (2006) referred to the need for further
research to validate the role of social awareness. Furthermore,
Sayeed and Gill (2009) suggest the need for more academic
research to underscore the sector differences in the impact of pro-
fessionals’ GIT awareness on actual usage. Therefore, the following
hypotheses are postulated.
H3. There is not any sector diversity in practicing GIT in terms of
the impact of LA on PU.
H4. There is not any sector diversity in practicing GIT in terms of
the impact of LA on PEU.
3.3. TAM constructs
TAM was originally proposed to predict the likelihood of a new
technology being adopted within a group or an organization (Lai,
W., C. C. F., & W. W. C., 2010). It has been adopted in predicting
the determinants of adoption and technology usage in various set-
tings (Lim et al., 2008). According to TAM, perceived ease-of-use,
perceived usefulness, attitude and intention have been theorized
to be the prime influencers for usage and acceptance attitude
(Hsu & Lin, 2008; Lai et al., 2010; Lim et al., 2008). In other words,
TAM makes use of the casual chain of belief, attitude, and intention
behavior for predicting the employees’ acceptance of technology
(Nikkheslat et al., 2012).
TAM is one of the most widely employed conceptual models in
IS research, mainly due to its high predictive power (Melville,
2010). Although substantial theoretical and empirical support has
accumulated in favor of TAM, understanding the conditions under
which information technologies will be embraced by individuals
and organizations remains a high-priority topic (Venkatesh &
Davis, 2000). TAM has also been used as the theoretical framework
in studies regarding green practices in recent years (see, for exam-
ple, Lai et al., 2010; Nikkheslat et al., 2012; Zoysa & Wijayanayake,
2013). Over the past few years, GIT strategy, design and practice
initiatives have gradually evolved into an active research area in
the information system discipline and, presently, there are few
empirical researches in this field (Bose & Luo, 2011; Jenkin,
Webster, & McShane, 2011b). In a majority of GIT research to date,
H7
ATU H8 BIU H9 AU
H10
TAM
there is also a lack of social perspective (Erek, Schmidt, Zarnekow,
& Kolbe, 2009). Having considered all these, and in order to be in
the line with the previous studies, TAM has been chosen in this
paper as the theoretical framework. Therefore, the following
hypotheses are postulated:
H5. There is not any sector diversity in practicing GIT in terms of
the impact of PEU on PU.
H6. There is not any sector diversity in practicing GIT in terms of
the impact of PEU on ATU.
H7. There is not any sector diversity in practicing GIT in terms of
the impact of PU on ATU.
H8. There is not any sector diversity in practicing GIT in terms of
the impact of ATU on BIU.
H9. There is not any sector diversity in practicing GIT in terms of
the impact of BIU on AU.
H10. There is not any sector diversity in practicing GIT in terms of
the impact of PEU on AU.
4. Research instrument and data
A survey was conducted to examine the application of
extended TAM (Fig. 1) to compare the acceptance of GIT usage
among public- and private-sector establishments. The data was
obtained by means of a questionnaire for this purpose containing
15 questions grouped under 7 constructs according to TAM and
inquiring data as given in Table 1. On top of the questionnaire,
the statement ‘‘using IT in ways that help to reduce the environ-
mental impact, which includes using energy more efficiently and
reducing waste’’ (Rouse, 2010) was given as a definition of GIT for
the respondents.
The respondents were professionals from major public- and
private-sector establishments as the attendees of an annual
one-day meeting on issues - problems and developments - in the
use of IT in establishments organized by the Turkish Informatics
Association (TIA). The sample was limited to professionals since
GIT is a new concept and professionals are believed to possess a
higher level of awareness compared to other groups. The invitations
were limited to 190 establishments, and selected from public- and
private-sector establishments using judgment sampling. A total
of 182 completed survey questionnaires were received, and
 I. Akman, A. Mishra / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 477–486 481

Table 1 effects among the constructs. To our best knowledge, this approach
List of constructs and corresponding items. has not been used in the context of GIT for analyzing the relation-
Empirical Construct Item Item Construct ship between the constructs of extended TAM.
category loadings loadings
External SN I believe that people who 0.893 0.733
are important to me
5. Results
practice GIT. (SN1)
I believe that people who 0.893 The demographic profile of respondents is summarized in
are important to me expect Table 2. The respondents consisted of 62.4% male and 37.6%
me to practice GIT. (SN2)
female. Most of the males practice GIT at an average level or more
External LA I believe I have sufficient 0.862 0.816
awareness of the effect of (56.45%); this percentage is 55.77% for the female respondents.
GIT on the environmental Indeed, gender diversity is not found significant in terms of GIT
issues. (SN1) adoption (Chi-Square = 3.372, DF = 3, P-Value = 0.338). This may
I believe I have sufficient 0.862 be because our respondents are professionals, and the traditional
awareness of practicing
GIT. (SN2)
dominating role of males in the society is not valid in professional
TAM PEU Do you think it is easy for 0.780 0.746 environments. Also, males and females are equally likely to share
you to learn how to the opportunities and developments, including ICT. Most of the
practice GIT? (PEU1) respondents were from public-sector establishments (53.5%).
Do you think you have no 0.780
Also, test results do not show a significant difference for the
problems in practicing GIT?
(PEU2) respondents’sector regarding GIT usage (Chi-Square = 1.757,
TAM PU Do you think practicing GIT 0.828 0.828 DF = 3, P-Value = 0.624). In general, most of the respondents belong
is useful for reducing to the group aged less under 30 for both males (42.9%) and females
environmental effects? (39.0%), and the difference between age categories was found to be
(PU1)
Do you think practicing GIT 0.826
significant (Chi-Square = 9.552; DF = 3; P-Value = 0.023). It has also
is useful for saving money? been observed that the relationship between the level of experi-
(PU2) ence and practicing GIT is significant (Chi-Square = 22.040,
Do you think practicing GIT 0.771 DF = 12, P-Value = 0.037). Naturally, age and experience show par-
is useful for improving the
allel dispersions for both genders.
quality of your work? (PU3)
TAM ATU Practicing GIT is convenient 0.736 0.840
for me. (ATU1)
5.1. Test results
Practicing GIT is necessary 0.834
for me. (ATU2)
Practicing GIT is worth for 0.740 The proposed hypotheses based on the research model were
me. (ATU3) tested individually using the structural equation modeling
TAM BIU I intend to consider 0.802 0.708 approach. The least squares regression was employed for this pur-
practicing GIT in buying a
pose and the results are given in Table 3.
new hardware. (BIU1)
I intend to consider 0.802 Interestingly, the inspection of p-values regarding the influence
practicing GIT in buying a of SN on PU indicated a significant impact for public (p-
new software. (BIU2) value = 0.046) and private (p-value = 0.036) sector establishments.
TAM AU I practice GIT while using
Therefore, we accept H1. Similarly, based on the p-values, SN sig-
ICT
nificantly influences PEU for public (p-value = 0.000) and private
(p-value = 0.032) sector and, therefore, H2 is also accepted. This
means sector diversity does not exist and there is no behavioral
twenty-five responses were discarded from the analysis due to the difference between public- and private-sector workers in terms
incomprehensible content. This represents an 82.1% response rate. of social pressure in adopting GIT. This can also be interpreted as
In this study, the data was collected using a five-point Likert Scale the increase in perceived social pressure positively affects the pro-
(5 = very much, 4 = much, 3 = moderate, 2 = little, 1 = very little) fessionals’ adoption of GIT regardless of sector.
for each item (Table 1) since it is the most widely used and effective Based on the p-values, the external factor LA has a significant
tool for scaling responses in survey-type studies. impact on PU for both public (p-value = 0.000) and private (p-
The overall internal reliability as measured by Cronbach’s alpha value = 0.005) sector establishments. This leads to the acceptance
was found as 0.829 and, thus, exhibits adequate reliability (Brown, of H3 at 0.05 significance level and there is no sector diversity
2002). The last column of Table 1 shows that the loadings for for PU in terms of awareness. Similarly, significance test results
multi-item constructs of SN, LA, PEU, PU, ATU and BIU are 0.737, do not indicate any sector difference regarding the impact of LA
0.826, 0.749, 0.832, 0.854 and 0.658, respectively. According to on PEU for public (p-value = 0.005) and private (p-value = 0.043)
Tavakol and Dennick (2011), this is an evidence of the fact that sector establishments, leading to the acceptence of H4. This can
all the items in the test exhibit high reliability and measure the be interpreted as the level of GIT awareness has a significant indi-
same concept. The fourth column of Table 1 shows factor loadings rect impact on its adoption for employees working in public- and
for the items in the measurement model to be greater than 0.6, private-sectors. In other words, professionals’ GIT awareness
meaning that a significant relationship between the observed vari- results in the belief in usefulness and ease of its adoption. This
ables and their underlying latent construct(s) exists (Hurley et al., means, regardless of sectors, as the employees’ awareness
1997). For the establishment of content validity, the items and increases their adoption of GIT increases as well since all the least
their correspondings constructs were adapted from prior studies squares coefficients were observed to be positive.
and modified according to the context of this study. Additionally, The perceived usefulness and attitude towards behavior were
an extensive refinement process was also used during the selection both found to be significantly determined by PEU for the respon-
of items. dents from the public- sector establishments (p-value = 0.000 and
The structural equation modeling through least square regres- p-value = 0.008, respectively) but not for those from the private
sion was used to analyze the survey data and to test the main sector (p-value = 0.194 and p-value = 0.089, respectively) in
482 I. Akman, A. Mishra / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 477–486

Table 2 (chi-square = 8.298; DF = 7; p-value = 0.307). Also, our finding

Demographic profile of respondents. shows an indirect effect by SN on the actual behavior for practicing
Variable-description Male (N = 98) Female (N = 59) GIT since the p-values were all found to be significant for both sec-
N Percentage N Percentage tors. This means beliefs fully mediate SN. A plausible explanation
for this observation may be based on motivational theory that,
Sector 98 100.0 59 100.0
1 = public 53 54.1 31 52.5
regardless of the sector of establishments, GIT adoption may be
2 = private 45 45.9 28 47.5 considered as an intrinsic motivational factor, whereas subjective
Age 98 100.0 59 100.0
norm may be an extrinsic motivational factor that could help pro-
1 = 21–30 42 42.9 23 39.0 fessionals with similar backgrounds to self-regulate their motiva-
2 = 31–40 22 22.4 20 33.9 tion on GIT adoption (Park, Lee, & Cheong, 2007). Therefore,
3 = 41–50 26 26.5 10 16.9 professionals perceive social pressure to engage in GIT to reduce
4 = >50 8 8.2 6 10.2
energy consumption and waste in their usage of IT in the work-
Work-experience 98 100.0 59 100.0 place since subjective norm refers to perceived behavioral expecta-
1 = 0–5 32 32.6 21 35.6
tions of important referent individuals or groups. This may be
2 = 6–10 24 24.5 13 22.0
3 = 11–15 17 17.4 10 16.9 taken as the indication of existence of a supportive and social
4 = 16–20 15 15.3 4 6.8 atmosphere among professionals, which also refers to the conge-
5 = >20 10 10.2 11 18.7 nial and cooperative working environment in public and private
sectors (Rashid & Rashid, 2012). Aggorowati et al. (2012), and
Venkatesh and Davis (2000) are some of the studies in line with
adopting GIT. This implies the existence of sector diversity and
our findings. Aggorowati et al. (2012) developed TAM in the imple-
rejection of H5 and H6. In other words, only public-sector respon-
mentation of census data-processing systems, and their model has
dents agree that PU and ATU are influenced by PEU because the
shown that the relationship between SN and PU is significant.
easier the system is to use, the more useful it can be
Similarly, Venkatesh and Davis (2000) found the stability correla-
(Aggorowati, Iriawan, Gautama, & Gautama, 2012). The key
tions for subjective norms to be high, which indicates its direct
construct PU significantly affects ATU for both of the public
influence on user acceptance. Although the role of IT in causing
(p-value = 0.000) and private (p-value = 0.000) sector professionals,
and resolving eco-sustainability issues is an under-researched area
which concludes the acceptance of H7. In other words, if the
(Molla & Abrashie, 2011) to be conflicting with our finding, there
individual believes that GIT is useful in protecting the environ-
are studies from different perspectives of IT usage reporting
ment, then he/she develops a positive attitude for its adoption.
insignificancy for the influence of SN (Li, 2008). In their study,
The p-values in Table 3 show that there is no difference between
Dishaw and Strong (1999) stated that ‘‘subjective norms are not
public (p-value = 0.014) and private (p-value = 0.000) sectors
important in understanding individual choices to use IT’’ and
regarding the impact of ATU on BIU. Similarly, sector diversity does
Lewis, Agarwal, and Sambamurthy (2003) found no significant
not exist in terms of the influence of BIU on AU (p-value = 0.004 for
empirical support for the expected relation. Several explanations
public; p-value = 0.0002 for private). Therefore, both H8 and H9 are
are possible for these conflicting results. For example, ‘‘the relative
accepted. In other words, attitude and behavioral intention can be
importance of constructs in the model may vary from one behavior
treated as the given conditions of ICT environments in practicing
and one population to another’’ (Ajzen, 1991). Another plausible
GIT for both sectors. Finally, H10 is also accepted since public (p-
explanation may be based on the sample differences in the level
value = 0.000) and private (p-value = 0.000) sector professionals
of respondents’ extent of knowledge and experience for IT usage.
both agree that the perception of making less effort increases the
Furthermore, most of the above studies were performed in differ-
actual usage of GIT.
ent societies, where socio-cultural characteristics in these societies
can result in differences in user’s responses to innovations in tech-
6. Discussion nology (Gefen & Straub, 1997).
The comparison of the test results (Table 3) shows that there is
The discussions regarding sector diversity are mainly based on no sector diversity, and that LA significantly influences PU and PEU
the significance of relationships among external and TAM con- for both sectors. Therefore, the level of awareness has a significant
structs, as introduced in the following paragraphs. indirect impact on professionals’ actual behavior regarding reduc-
Interestingly, a comparison of p-values in Table 3 does not show ing energy consumption and waste in IT usage in establishments
any sector diversity for the influence of SN on PU and PEU. This from public and private sectors. In other words, beliefs fully med-
finding was supported by the chi-square test results iate LA and establishments should consider increasing the

Table 3
Test results.

Emp. Factor Hyp. Public Sector Private Sector Diversity based on test results
a a
Indep. const. Depend. constr. Coeff. p-val Coeff. p-val
External factors
SN PU H1 0.286 0.046a 0.231 0.036a Not diverse
PEU H2 0.380 0.000a 0.158 0.032a Not diverse
LA PU H3 0.782 0.000a 0.387 0.005a Not diverse
PEU H4 0.261 0.005a 0.185 0.043a Not diverse
TAM factors
PEU PU H5 0.817 0.000a 0.220 0.194 Diverse
PEU ATU H6 0.165 0.008a 0.241 0.089 Diverse
PU ATU H7 0.427 0.000a 0.664 0.000a Not diverse
ATU BIU H8 0.170 0.014a 0.375 0.000a Not diverse
BIU AU H9 0.107 0.004a 0.147 0.002a Not diverse
PEU AU H10 0.242 0.000a 0.241 0.000a Not diverse
a
Indicate statistically significant at 5%.
 I. Akman, A. Mishra / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 477–486
motivations of their employees on GIT issues with activities such
as special training programs and seminars. Hsu and Shiue (2008)
also suggested that establishments should set up awareness pro-
grams on GIT issues for their employees. An obvious explanation
for our finding is that the respondents were professionals and it
is not likely to expect sector differences in the perceptions regard-
ing usage of information technologies in groups with similar IT
backgrounds and experiences. It is probable that, this group of
employees will exert a positive influence on other employees in
the workplace in this respect. Our finding is in line with that of
Chow and Chen (2009) and Koyuncu and Lien (2003). Chow and
Chen (2009) reported that IT users’ intention to exercise green
computing highly depends on their awareness of the same issue.
Koyuncu and Lien (2003) stated that individuals possessing more
ICT experience compared to others are likely to apply it more effec-
tively since they are likely to find better solutions in a shorter per-
iod of time and in a more efficient way. Although, as mentioned
earlier, the effect of IT usage on the environment is an emerging
active research area and the literature is not matured yet (Molla
& Abrashie, 2011). There are studies supporting the significance
of the role of LA from different perspectives of IT. The recent stud-
ies by Humaidi and Balakrishnan (2012), Cassim and Obono
(2011), Chiemeke and Evwiekpaefe (2011) and Kowalski (2006)
constitute some of such efforts. Cassim (2011) examined the fac-
tors affecting the adoption of ICT for the teaching of word problems
based on the theoretical framework of TAM, and reported sufficient
evidence for the impact of teachers ICT awareness on the adoption
of ICT in teaching. Humaidi and Balakrishnan (2012) focused on the
influence of security awareness on ICT user’s behavior, and report-
ing that with an increased level of user awareness, positive influ-
ence on the implementation of system’s security can be achieved.
Finally, in their study, Chiemeke and Evwiekpaefe (2011) sug-
gested the need for the consideration of awareness as one of the
most important factors in using ICT. Therefore, these studies may
be taken as an indication of the notion that awareness should be
taken into consideration as an important external factor in future
GIT studies.
For the public-sector establishments, the objectives of this study
were all supported by the test results and, therefore, we conclude
that TAM constructs have both direct and indirect effects on behav-
ior in adopting GIT. In other words, there is a positive significant
relationship between TAM constructs (perceived ease of use, per-
ceived usefulness, attitude towards usage, behavioral intention to
use and actual usage) and TAM represents the data for public sector
establishments. Additionally, the respondents, who reported their
GIT usage to be average or more constitute 80.12% for public-sector
establishments. From a wider perspective, this suggests that most
of the public-sector professionals have concerns for environmental
sustainability. On the other hand, TAM was found to be significant
for private-sector establishments, except for the relations between
PEU and PU, and PEU and ATU. As a matter of fact, TAM is based on
PEU and PU, and it affects the intention to use the system, and even-
tually, actual usage (Kowalski, 2006). Therefore, public-sector
respondents are likely to assume that the easier the system is to
use, the more useful it can be (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000) and gener-
ally to perceive practicing GIT to not require much effort in reduc-
ing the negative impact of ICT on the environment. This view was
also supported by the correlations, since they were found to be sig-
nificantly high between PEU and PU (corr = 0.275, p-value = 0.008)
and PEU and ATU (corr = 0.288, p-value = 0.006). Interestingly,
these findings are not valid for the private-sector. Plausible expla-
nations for the observed diversity may be based on Esteve and
Ysa (2011), and Wal, Graaf, and Lasthuizen (2008). According to
the findings of these studies, the public sector appears to be adopt-
ing new practices to achieve greater efficiency (Esteve & Ysa, 2011),
and that social and sustainable policies are not yet internalized
483
within the private-sector value patterns (Wal et al., 2008). Sector
diversity in terms of PEU was also supported by Venkatesh and
Davis (2000), who reported that PEU exhibits a less consistent effect
on attitude and intention. The differences between public and pri-
vate sectors have been studied by scholars and practitioners in
the past. Some of these studies support our findings on PEU and
support the presence of significant differences between public-
and private-sector employees (Goulet & Frank, 2002). The literature
seems to accept that public sector is motivated by responsibility,
growth, feedback or recognition and opportunities to the high
levels of performance, more so than simply earning a competitive
salary (Nel et al., 2001). Additionally, Rashid and Rashid (2012) also
supported the difference in motivational dimensions, which also
includes employees’ perceptions.
The implications of our findings can be discussed from different
perspectives. First, theoretically and also as indicated by Greaves
et al. (2013), a large portion of the variance for actual behavior is
explained by the model since, except the influence of PEU on PU
and on ATU for the private-sector, all of the remaining relations
including external ones were found to be significant. Therefore,
inspection of the antecedent variables in the model provides
answers to the question of whether the TAM constructs account
for variance in behavioral intentions, which also leads to an expla-
nation of its reason. In this case, understanding and suggestions
become possible for why employees engage or not engage in par-
ticular environmental behaviors, and also how they can contribute
to their organizations’ efforts to become more ecologically sustain-
able in the workplace (Greaves et al., 2013). Second, practically, the
variables in the model provide an indication for targets of specific
practical interventions to change and improve pro-environmental
behaviors. This also shows that TAM is an important tool for
investigating the specific barriers and facilitators of environmental
behavior at work. Therefore, it may be used to understand and
explain how employee’s behavior can contribute to an organiza-
tion’s wider ecological objectives (Greaves et al., 2013).
7. Green IT policy and implications
Today, businesses are under pressure from customers, com-
petitors, regulators and society to implement sustainable busi-
ness practices. Hence, balancing economic and environmental
performance is a strategic issue, as a result, managers can draw
upon the framework proposed in this paper in assessing the con-
ditions for successful adoption of GIT. Better understanding of the
behavior of individuals, social groups and organizations is
required in order to design effective intervention strategies to
accelerate GIT/GIS adoption (Gholami, Sulaiman, Ramayah, &
Molla, 2013).
In creating a green economy, the information and communica-
tion technology (ICT) industry has been identified as one of the key
driving sectors (Zhang & Liang, 2012). Also based on many studies
on the environmental impacts of ICT, it has been considered not
only as part of the global environmental problem, but also part
of the solution (International Telecommunication Union [ITU],
2009; Organisation for Economic Co-operation, 2010). To this end
governments and businesses globally have initiated a wide range
of programs to implement green ICT (Asia-Pacific Telecommunity
[APT], 2011; Organisation for Economic Co-operation, 2009b).
The ICT industry regards green ICT as an emerging opportunity that
would create a large market in the future (Gartner Research
[Gartner], 2008). For policy-makers, GIT has become a new policy
area and has been included in the national planning and strategies
of many countries (APT, 2011; OECD, 2009).
Molla, Cooper, and Pittayachawan (2009) observed that GIT is a
systematic application of environmental sustainability criteria to
484 I. Akman, A. Mishra / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 477–486
design, produce, source, use and dispose IT technical infrastructure
as well as within the human and managerial instrument of the
infrastructure of information technology to decrease information
technology. According to their study, there are five important
properties for success in GIT such as attitude, policy, practice, tech-
nology and governance, and that the drivers enable organizations
to deploy environmental sustainability (Molla et al., 2009). This
means managers play an important role in conveying the strategic
importance of Green IS across the organization and in making
resource allocations. In particular, their positive managerial atti-
tude is necessary for Green IS adoption to be successful (Butler,
2011).
Alderson (1993) recognized that support from top management
plays a serious role in attainment and diffusion of change, since
they can encourage change by communicating and emphasizing
values over an articulated vision for the organization (Thong,
1999). Support from top management also seems pivotal in areas
where existing attitudes, beliefs and values can prohibit change
(Combs, 2002). This is because management commitment will help
the organizations to defeat prejudice, stereotypes and negative
feelings by legitimizing the diversity caused to the organizational
society (Gröschl, 2005). GIS adoption by an organization can be
observed by determining the extent to which an organization is
embedding IS in its pollution prevention (i.e., reducing overall
emissions, waste and hazardous materials), product stewardship
(i.e., enhancing the environmental friendliness of upstream and
downstream supply chain management), and sustainable develop-
ment (transforming the business) (Chen, Watson, Boudreau, &
Karahanna, 2010).
Based on the relevant literature, the key issues to realize shift
towards GIT and achieve emission reduction objectives include
what follows:
Green ICT provides an opportunity for a synthesis of policies of
different areas. It addresses multiple objectives of economic
growth, environmental sustainability, technological innovation,
and ICT development simultaneously. Therefore, policy- makers
should have a systematic and cross-sector view in formulating
green ICT policies (Zhang & Liang, 2012).
Going green is now viewed as a potential competitive advan-
tage. Wati and Koo (2010) observed that leading electronic
companies addressed optimization of the digital infrastructure
in which computing energy consumption is reduced and the
efficient use of energy in manufacture, operation, and disposal
of electronic devices is maximized. Also these organizations uti-
lized technology to conserve energy and lower carbon
emissions.
Electronic waste disposal is another major concern. Therefore,
new policies are required to increase the awareness of cus-
tomers of the need to return their used and old devices, and
in this way assist companies to handle electronic waste.
Support from top management is very important towards the
successful adoption of Green IT and environment sustainability
(Yunus, Jailani, Hairuddin, & Kassim, 2013). According to Sarkar
and Young (2009), a strong commitment from senior IT man-
agement is highly needed in developing policies relating to
GIT, and this should not be driven by government regulations
and alerts from legal environment watchdogs; rather, but it
should become an attitude of the top management towards
environmental issues.
Gholami et al. (2013). Concluded in their study that Green IS
adoption contributes positively to environmental performance,
and suggested that there is a need for a better understanding of
the behavior of people, social groups, and organizations in order
to design effective intervention strategies to accelerate green IS
adoption.
Regulations and legislations should be enforced for low-carbon
economy and environmental protection.
8. Conclusion
This study uses a survey approach for the purpose of investigat-
ing the existence of diversity among public- and private-sector
establishments in terms of the adoption of GIT practices. For the
analysis, the conceptual predictive model TAM was used and the
factors incorporated in the analysis were selected with due con-
sideration of the elements of this model. The model was also
extended to include two external constructs, namely as
‘Subjective Norms (SN)’ and ‘Level of Awareness (LA)’. According
to this study, public- and private-sector establishments show simi-
lar tendencies, except for the impact of Perceived Ease of Use
(PEU), towards using GIT. The external factors SN and LA also show
similar views towards GIT usage in both sectors.
This study possesses some limitations. First, the generalizability
of the results may be limited due to the data collection method,
which was based entirely on how the participants have perceived
their practices towards GIT. Replacing such data-gathering tech-
niques with interviews can lead to a better probing of the
responses in the future efforts. Second, this study considered the
relationships between perceptions/behaviors towards GIT among
professionals only. Finally, the data were collected from Turkey
only. This limitation implies that the generalization of the findings
documented here to other environments should be cautioned and
requires further research. Future studies covering several countries
would be of interest to find out how relationship among attributes
are different from this study. Therefore, an extension to consider
the impact of the working environment on practicing GIT in public-
and private-sector establishments from different areas would also
be of interest. In this respect, the influences imposed by the group
under analysis, as well as factors regarding administration in dif-
ferent firms, may also provide additional interesting results. Final
limitation, as addressed by Calhoun, Teng, and Cheon (2002),
Chirkov, Ryan, and Kim (2003), and a number of others, is related
with the significant impact of culture in using ICT. As such cultural,
social, geographical, and economic factors deserve a closer look in
terms of their impact on organizational, as well as personal, per-
spectives in practising GIT.
References
Aggorowati, M. A., Iriawan, N., Gautama, S., & Gautama, H. (2012). Restructuring and
expanding technology acceptance model structural equation model and
bayesian approach. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 9(4), 496–504.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, 50, 179–211.
Akman, I., & Mishra, A. (2009). Ethical behavior issues in software use: An analysis
of public and private sectors. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(6), 1251–1257.
Akman, I., & Mishra, A. (2010). Predictive effect of gender and sector differences on
internet usage among employees. Inzinerine Ekonomika-Engineering Economics,
21(3), 295–305.
Albanesius, C. (2011). How much electricity does Google consume each year?
PCMag.com. <http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2392654,00.asp> 11.09.11.
Alderson, S. (1993). Reframing management competence: focusing on the top
management team. Personnel Review, 22, 53–62.
Al-Gahtani, S. S., & King, M. (1999). Attitudes, Satisfaction, and usage: Factors
contributing to each in the acceptance of information technology. Behavior &
Information Technology, 18(4), 277–297.
Asia-Pacific Telecommunity [APT] (2011). APT report on introduction to green ICT
activities. <http://www.apt.int/sites/default/files/Upload-files/ASTAP/Rept-1-
Introduction%20to%20Green%20ICT%20Activities.pdfS>.
Benamati, J., & Rajkumar, T. M. (2002). The application development outsourcing
decision: An application of the technology acceptance model. Journal of
Computer Information Systems, 42(4), 35–43.
Bingham, L. B., Nabatchi, T., & O’Leary, R. (2005). The new governance: practices and
processes for stakeholder and citizen participation in the work of government.
Public Administration Review, 65(5), 547–558.
 I. Akman, A. Mishra / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 477–486
Bose, R., & Luo, X. (2011). Integrative framework for assessing firms’ potential to
undertake Green IT initiatives via virtualization – a theoretical perspective. The
Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 20(1), 38–54.
Brown, J. D. (2002). The Cronbach alpha reliability estimate. Shiken: JALT Testing &
Evaluation SIG Newsletter, 6(1), 17–19.
Butler, T. (2011). Compliance with institutional imperatives on environmental
sustainability: Building theory on the role of Green IS. Journal of Strategic
Information Systems, 20(1), 6–26.
Calhoun, K. J., Teng, J. T. C., & Cheon, M. J. (2002). Impact of national culture on
information technology usage behavior: An exploratory study of decision
making in Korea and the US. Behavior and Information Technology, 21(4),
293–302.
Carmen, M. D., Luzon, A., Angel, J. M., Martinez, G., Salguero, A. C., & Salinas, J. M.
(2012). Comparative study between the theory of planned behavior and the
value–belief–norm model regarding the environment, on spanish housewives’
recycling behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42(11), 2797–2833.
Cassim, K. M. & Obono, S. D. E. (2011). On the factors affecting the adoption of ICT
for the teaching of word problems. In Proceedings of the World Congress on
Engineering and Computer Science 2011, WCECS 2011, Vol I, San Francisco, USA.
19–21.10.11.
Chau, P. Y. K., & Hu, P. J. (2002). Investigating healthcare professionals’ decisions to
accept telemedicine technology: An empirical test of competing theories.
Information and Management, 39(2002), 297–311.
Chen, A. J. W., Boudreau, M.-C., & Watson, R. T. (2008). Information systems and
ecological sustainability. Journal of Systems and Information Technology, 10(3),
186–201.
Chen, A. J., Watson, R. T., Boudreau, M. C., & Karahanna, E. (2010). An institutional
perspective on the adoption of IT for Green & IT. Australasian Journal of
Information Systems, 17(1), 23–44.
Chiemeke, S. C., & Evwiekpaefe, A. E. (2011). A conceptual framework of a modified
unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) Model with
Nigerian factors in E-commerce Adoption. Educational Research, 2(12),
1719–1726.
Chin, W. W., & Todd, P. A. (1995). On the use, usefulness, and ease of use of
structural equation modeling in MIS research: a note of caution. MIS Quarterly,
19(2), 237–246.
Chirkov, V., Ryan, R. M., & Kim, Y. (2003). Differentiating autonomy from
individualism and independence: A self-determination theory perspective on
internalization of cultural orientations and well-being. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 84(1), 97–110.
Choon, T. G., Sulaiman, A., & Mallasi, H. (2014). Intention to Use Green IT among
Students. International Journal of Research in Business and Technology, 4(2),
439–445.
Chow, S. W., & Chen, Y. (2009). Intended belief and actual behavior in green
computing in Hong Kong. Journal of Computer Information Systems, 50(2),
136–141.
Combs, A. (2002). The radiance of being: The grand integral vision; Living the integral
life. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House.
Corbett, J. Webster, Sayili, K., Zelenika, I., & Pearce, J. (2010). Developing and
justifying energy conservation measures: Green IT under construction. In
Americas conference on information systems (pp. 194). Lima, Peru: Association for
Information Systems.
Csutora, M. (2012). One more awareness gap? The behaviour-impact gap problem.
Journal of Consumer Policy, 35(1), 145–163.
Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance
of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319–339.
Dishaw, M. T., & Strong, D. M. (1999). Extending the technology acceptance model
with task-technology fit constructs. Information & Management, 36(1), 9–21.
Erek, K., Schmidt, N. -H., Zarnekow, R. & Kolbe, L. M. (2009). Sustainability in
information systems: assortment of current practices in IS organizations. In
Proceedings of The Americas Conference on Information Systems (AMCIS), San
Francisco, August 2009 (paper 123).
Esteve, M. & Ysa, T. (2011). Differences between the public and the private sectors?
Reviewing the myth. <http://www.esade.edu/public/modules.php?name=
news&idnew=676&idissue=57&newlang=english> Retrieved on 05.08.14.
Filimban, G., & Aljahdali, S. (2009). Adoption of Technology Acceptance Model
(TAM) to electronic commerce: A statistical meta-analysis approach. SEDE,
2009, 185–193.
Gartner Research [Gartner] (2008). Gartner’s top predictions for IT organizations
and users, 2008 and beyond: Going green and self-healing. <http://
www.gartner.com/id=578409S>.
Gefen, D., & Straub, D. W. (1997). Gender difference in the perception and use of E-
mail: An extension to the technology acceptance mode. MIS Quarterly, 21(4),
389–400.
Gholami, R., Sulaiman, A. B., Ramayah, T., & Molla, A. (2013). Senior managers’
perception on green information systems (IS) adoption and environmental
performance: Results from a field survey. Information & Management, 50(7),
431–438.
Goasduff, L., & Forsling, C. (2007). Gartner Says 50 Percent of Mid and Large Sized
Western European IT Organisations will Develop a Green Strategy by the End of
2008. Gartner, Egham, UK, 22 May.
Goulet, L. R., & Frank, M. L. (2002). Organizational commitment across three sectors:
Public, non-profit, and for-profit. Public Personnel Management, 31(2), 201–210.
Greaves, M., Zibarras, L. D., & Stride, C. (2013). Using the theory of planned behavior
to explore environmental behavioral intentions in the workplace. Journal of
Environmental Psychology, 34(2013), 109–120.
485
Gröschl, S. (2005). Persons with disabilities: A source of non-traditional labour for
Canada’s hotel industry. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly,
42(2), 258–275.
Gupta, P. B., Gould, S. J., & Pola, B. (2004). To pirate or not to pirate: A comparative
study of the ethical versus other influences on the consumer’s software
acquisition mode decision. Journal of Business Ethics, 55(3), 255–274.
Han, H., Hsu, L. T. Jane, & Sheu, C. (2010). Application of the theory of planned
behavior to green hotel choice: Testing the effect of environmental friendly
activities. Tourism Management, 31(3), 325–334.
Hilty, L. M., Arnfalk, P., Erdmann, L., Goodman, J., Lehmann, L., & Wäger, P. A. (2006).
The relevance of information and communication technologies for
environmental sustainability – a prospective simulation study. Environmental
Modelling and Software, 21(11), 1618–1629.
Hsu, C. L., & Lin, J. C. C. (2008). Acceptance of blog usage: The roles of technology
acceptance, social influence and knowledge sharing motivation. Information
Management, 45, 65–74.
Hsu, J. L., & Shiue, C. W. (2008). Consumer’s willingness to pay for non-pirated
software. Journal of Business Ethics, 81(4), 715–732.
Huang, A. H. (2008). A model for environmentally sustainable information systems
development. Paper presented at the Pacific Asia Conference on Information
Systems (PACIS), Suzhou, China.
Humaidi, N., & Balakrishnan, V. (2012). The influence of security awareness and
security technology on users’ behavior towards the implementation of health
information system: A conceptual framework. 2nd International Conference on
Management and Artificial Intelligence IPEDR, Vol. 35, IACSIT Press, Singapore.
Hurley, A. E., Scandura, T. A., Schriesheim, C. A., Brannick, M. T., Seers, A.,
Vandenberg, R. J., et al. (1997). Exploratory and confirmatory factor
analysis:guidelines, issues, and alternatives. Journal of Organizational Behavior,
18(1997), 667–683.
Info-Tech (2008). North-America Underperforms in Green IT Attitudes and Actions.
Info-Tech Research Group, January, 1–15.
International Telecommunication Union [ITU] (2009). ICT and climate change:
Conclusions of ITU-T Focus Group. <http://www.itu.int/ dms_pub/itu-t/oth/0B/
11/T0B110000083301PDFE.pdfS>.
Jenkin, T. A., McShane, L., & Webster, J. (2011a). Green information technologies and
systems: Employees’ perceptions of organizational practices. Business & Society,
50(2), 266–314.
Jenkin, T. A., Webster, J., & McShane, L. (2011b). An agenda for ‘Green’ information
technology and systems research. Information and Organization, 21(1), 17–40.
Jiang, J. J., Hsu, M., & Klein, G. (2000). E-commerce user behavior model: An
empirical study. Human Systems Management, 19(4), 265–276.
Jin, K. G., Drozdenko, R., & Bassett, R. (2007). Information technology professionals’
perceived organizational values and managerial ethics: an empirical study.
Journal of Business Ethics, 71(2), 149–159.
Jones, A. B., & Hubona, G. S. (2006). The mediation of external variables in the
technology acceptance model. Information & Management, 43(6), 706–717.
Karahanna, E., & Limayem, M. (2000). E-mail and V-mail usage: Generalizing across
technologies. Journal of Organizational Computing and Electronic Commerce,
10(1), 49–66.
Karahanna, E., Straub, D. W., & Chervany, N. L. (1999). Information technology
adoption across time: A cross-sectional comparison of pre-adoption and post-
adoption belief. MIS Quarterly, 23(2), 183–214.
Kowalski, S. & Goldstein, M. (2006). Consumers’ awareness of, attitudes towards
and adoption of mobile phone security. Int. Symp. on Human Factors in
Telecommunication (HFT), 20–23 March, 2006 Sophia-Antipolis, France.
Koyuncu, C., & Lien, D. (2003). E-commerce and consumer’s purchasing behavior.
Applied Economics, 35(6), 721–726.
Lai, I. K., W., Hsu, C. C. F., & Chung, W. W. C. (2010). Preliminary study of green
manufacturing technology acceptance in China. Proceedings of 8th International
Conference on Supply Chain Management and Information Systems (SCMIS), 6–9
Oct. 2010, Hong Kong, 1–7.
Lau, E. K. W. (2003). An empirical study of software piracy. Business Ethics: An
European Review, 12(3), 233–245.
Lederer, A. L., Maupin, D. J., Sena, M. P., & Zhuang, Y. (2000). The technology
acceptance model and the World Wide Web. Decision Support Systems, 29(3),
269–282.
Lee, K., Yan, A., & Joshi, K. (2011). Understanding the dynamics of users’ belief in
software application adoption. International Journal of Information Management,
31(2), 160–170.
Legris, P., Ingham, J., & Collerette, P. (2003). Why do people use information
technology? A critical review of the technology acceptance model. Information
& Management, 40(3), 191–204.
Lewis, W., Agarwal, R., & Sambamurthy, W. (2003). Sources of influence on beliefs
about information technology use: An empirical study of knowledge workers.
MIS Quarterly, 27(4), 657–678.
Li, L. (2008). A Critical Review of Technology Acceptance Literature. Referred Research
Paper, Department of Accounting, Economics and Information Systems, College
of Business, Grambling State University.
Lim, K. S., Lim, J. S., & Heinrichs, J. H. (2008). Testing an integrated model of e-
shopping web site usage. Journal of Internet Commerce, 7(3), 291–312.
Ma, Q., & Liu, L. (2004). The technology acceptance model: A meta-analysis of
empirical findings. Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 16(1),
59–74.
Marandu, E. E., Moeti, N., & Joseph, H. (2010). Predicting residential water
conservation using the theory of reasoned action. Journal of Communication,
1(2), 87–100.
486 I. Akman, A. Mishra / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 477–486
Mathieson, K. (1991). Predicting user intentions: Comparing the technology
acceptance model with the theory of planned behavior. Information Systems
Research, 2(3), 173–191.
Meister, D. B., Compeau, D. R. (2002). Infusion of innovation adoption: an individual
perspective. Annual Conference of the Administrative Sciences Association of
Canada (ASAC), Winnipeg, May, 25–28.
Melville, N. P. (2010). Information systems innovation for environmental
sustainability. MIS Quarterly, 34(1), 1–21.
Mines, C. (2009). The dawn of GREEN IT services. Forrester.
Molla, A. (2008). GITAM: A Model for the Adoption of Green IT. 19th Australasian
Conference on Information Systems (pp. 658–668), 3–5 Dec, Christchurch,
Australia.
Molla, A., & Abrashie, A. (2011). Green IT Adoption: A Motivational Perspective.
Pacific Asian Conference on Information Systems (PACIS), July 7–12, Brisbane,
Australia.
Molla, A., & Cooper, V. (2010). Green IT readiness: A framework and preliminary
proof of concept. Australasian Joournal of Information Systems, 16(2), 5–23.
Molla, A., Cooper, A.V., & Pittayachawan, S. (2009). IT and Eco sustainability:
Developing and Validating a Green IT Readiness Model. International Conference
on Information Systems.
Morris, M. G., & Dillon, A. (1997). How user perceptions influence software use. IEEE
Software, 14(4), 58–65.
Nchise, A. (2012). An empirical analysis of the theory of planned behavior, a review
of its application on e-democracy adoption using the partial least squares
algorithm. JeDEM, 4(2), 171–182.
Nel, P. S., Gerber, P. D., Van Dyk, P. S., Haasbroek, G. D., Schultz, H. B., Sono, T., et al.
(2001). Human resources management (5th ed.). Cape Town: Oxford University
Press.
Nikkheslat, M., Zohoori, M., Bekheirnia, N., & Mehrafshar, M. (2012). The important
theories in term of applying green technologies and green processes in
organizations: A study of Malaysian Universities. Interdisciplinary Journal of
Contemporary Research in Business, 4(7), 88–102.
Agarwal, R., Prabuddha, D., Sinha, A., & Tanniru, M. (2000). On the usability of OO
representations. Communications of ACM, 42(10), 83–89.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] (2009). Towards
green ICTstrategies: Assessing policies and programmes on ICT and the
environment. <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/47/12/42825130.pdfS>.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] (2010). Greener
and smarter:ICTs, the environment and climate change. <http://www.oecd.
org/dataoecd/27/12/45983022.pdfS>.
Olson, E. G. (2008). Creating an enterprise-level green strategy. The Journal of
Business Strategy, 29(2), 22–30.
Park, S. Y. (2007). An analysis of the technology acceptance model in understanding
university students’ behavioral intention to use e-Learning. Educational
Technology and Society, 12(3), 150–162.
Park, N., Lee, K. M., & Cheong, P. H. (2007). University instructors’ acceptance of
electronic courseware: An application of the technology acceptance model.
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), 163–186.
Rahim, M. M., Shanks, G., & Jagielska, I. (2010). The Role of Organizational
Motivations in Information Systems Implementation. PACIS 2010 Proceedings,
(pp. 192).
Rashid, S., & Rashid, U. (2012). Work motivation differences between public and
private sector. American International Journal of Social Science, 1(2), 24–33.
Rouse, M. (2010). Green computing definition. <http://searchdatacenter.
techtarget.com/definition/green-computing> Retrieved on 20.02.15.
Sarkar, P., & Young, L. (2009). Managerial Attitudes towards Green IT: An
explorative study of policy drivers. Pacific Asia Conference on Information
Systems.
Sawang, S., & Kivits, R. A. (2014). Greener workplace: Understanding senior
management’s adoption decisions through the Theory of Planned Behaviour.
Australasian Journal of Environmental Management, 21(1), 22–36.
Sayeed, L. & Gill, S. (2009). Implementation of Green IT: Implications for a Dynamic
Resource. Proceedings of the Fifteenth America’s Conference on Information
Systems (AMCIS), Toronto, Canada., paper 381.
Schepers, J., & Wetzels, M. (2007). A meta-analysis of the technology acceptance
model: Investigating subjective norm and moderation effects. Information &
Management, 44(1), 90–103.
Siegler, K., & Gaughan, B. (2008). A practical approach to Green IT. Webinar. World
Wide Web <http://www.itmanagement.com/land/green-it-webinar/?tfso=
2058> Retrieved on 14.07.08.
Srivastava, S., & Srivastava, R. (2012). Adoption of Green Information Technology
(GIT) in India-a current scenerio. Journal of Information and Operation
Management, 3(1), 61–63.
Symantec (2009) Symantec Green IT Report – Global, May 2009.
Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International
Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53–55.
Thong, J. Y. L. (1999). An integrated model of information systems adoption in small
businesses. Journal of Management Information Systems, 15:4, 187–214.
Thong, J. Y. L., Hong, W., & Tam, K.-Y. (2002). Understanding user acceptance of
digital libraries: What are the roles of interface characteristics, organizational
context, and individual differences? International Journal of Human-Computer
Studies, 57(3), 215–242.
Tracy, A. J., Webster, J., & McShane, L. (2011). An agenda for ‘Green’ information
technology and systems research. Information and Organization, 21(1), 17–40.
Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. D. (2000). A theoretical extension of the technology
acceptance model. Management Science, 46(2), 186–204.
Wal, Z. van der, Graaf, G. D., & Lasthuizen, K. (2008). What’s valued most?
Similarities and differences between the organizational values of the public and
private sector. Public Administration, 86(2), 465–482.
Wati, Y., & Koo, C. (2010). The Green IT Practices of Nokia, Samsung, Sony, and Sony
Ericsson: Content Analysis Approach. 43rd Hawaii International Conference on
System Sciences (HICSS), (pp. 1–10).
Yaghmaei, F. (2010). Understanding computerised information systems usage in
community healthpages. Health Information Systems: Concepts, Methodologies,
Tools, and Applications, 1388–1399.
Yen, D. C., Chen, Houn-Gee, Lee, S., & Koh, S. (2003). Differences in perception of IS
knowledge and skills between academia and industry: Findings from Taiwan.
International Journal of Information Management, 23, 507–522.
Young, L. (2008). From Theory To Practice: Applying Theories of Communication
and Behavior Change to Environmental Communication Outreach. A Literature
Review, A Project of the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources and the University
of Utah Department of Communication, The University of Utah, <http://
owpweb.org/documents/UDWR-LitRevFinal.pdf> (Retrieved on 20.07.12).
Yunus, S., Jailani, S.F.AK., Hairuddin, H. & Kassim, E.S. (2013). Green IT adoption
towards environmental sustainability: The moderating role of top management
enforcement. Research and Innovation in Information Systems (ICRIIS), 2013
International Conference on. IEEE (pp. 241–244), 27–28.11.13.
Zhang, J., & Liang, X-J. (2012). Promoting green ICT in China: A framework based on
innovation system approaches. Telecommunications Policy, 36(10–11),
997–1013.
Zoysa, M. D., & Wijayanayake, J. (2013). The Influential Factors of Green IT Adoption
in Data Centres of Sri Lankan Banks. Journal of Emerging Trends in Computing and
Information Sciences, 4(12), 908–915.