UNIT-2

CAREER PLANNING
The Career Planning Process encompasses the stages involved in discovering a career path,
including self-assessment, research, decision making, job searching, and accepting a job offer.

The Steps in the Career Planning Process

Step 1: Self-Assessment. Careful evaluation of your individual strengths, lifestyle preferences,

passions, work style, and financial needs is a vital and often overlooked step in planning your
various potential career paths.

In order to evaluate the suitability of work options, it is important to know both who you are as a
person and who you desire to become as a professional. This involves taking a careful inventory
of your current career values, interests, skills, and personal qualities.

A career counselor can help you with this process through individualized counseling, exercises,
and interest/personality inventories. This sort of counseling is typically provided by high school
guidance counselors, university career centers, and community WorkSource or job training
programs.

Step 2: Research. Once you have articulated a sense of the satisfaction(s) you would like to
derive from your work and the skills you have to offer employers, you can begin your research.
This stage involves brainstorming possible job options and investigating them thoroughly.
During your career research, you will learn about the descriptions and qualifications for various
positions, typical entry points and advancement opportunities, satisfactions, frustrations, and
other important facts in order to determine if a particular career would be a good fit for you.

Online resources are available to help you with your preliminary information gathering. The next
step will be to speak with as many people as possible that are involved in work that is of interest
to you. By interviewing these individuals for information and advice about their work, you will
be getting an insider’s perspective about the realities of the field and the recommended
preparation for it, including continuing education requirements or graduate study.

Internships and part-time jobs are an excellent way to sample a field of interest. They provide the
opportunity to perform some of the job functions, observe others work, and evaluate the “real
world” workplace environment.

Some individuals observe professionals in various fields for a shorter period of time than an
internship. These “job shadowing” experiences, or externships, can last from one morning to
several weeks and are an excellent way to get a feel for what your responsibilities would be in a
given work role.
Step 3: Decision-Making. This stage involves an evaluation of the pros and cons for the career
options you have been researching. It also involves prioritizing and, for some people, risk-taking.
During this stage in the career planning process, you’ll have to make decisions regarding issues
like relocation (are you willing to move in order to land your dream job?) and cost analysis (can
you afford to do a poorly-compensated job you love, or will it be necessary to find personally
unfulfilling work that provides a great salary and healthcare benefits?).

Since the landscape of the world-of-work is constantly changing, it may be unrealistic to aim for
decisions based on absolute certainty.

Adaptability, the ability to manage several options at once, and the ability to maintain a positive
attitude when faced with uncertainty may be easy for some; others may find these traits a stretch.
Self-awareness, occupational awareness, and intuition can all play a part in your decision-making
process.

Step 4: Job Search. Once you have identified a work objective, you can begin your job search.
Most people engaged in an active job search will be involved with activities such as professional
networking, identifying prospective employers, writing cover letters and resumes, and
interviewing.

Step 5: Acceptance. Finally, after this lengthy process of self-evaluation, research, application,
and interviewing, you will be offered a job and accept employment. Ideally, this will mark the
beginning, or at least a milestone, in your exciting and varied career.

Keep in mind, during your first months of employment, that your first job will probably *not* be
your last one. If you are like most Americans, you will change jobs from 8 -12 times during your
working life. During these transitions, you should repeat this process of self-assessment,
research, and decision-making in order to make effective and fulfilling career changes.
IMPORTANCES
 Plan forward. Put on paper where you see yourself going in your career, and plot each step
that you will need to reach, in order to get there.
Self-assessment. Routinely assess your skills, your potential, your strengths and weaknesses
and your ability to fulfil your aims.
Self-development. Once you have assessed yourself, always ensure that you pay attention to
any loopholes that you may have identified in your self-assessment, and ensure you come up
with an action to correct and fill these loopholes.
Work on getting the right experience. Try to gain as much experience as possible in your
job, take on additional projects and work if possible, in order to be able to gain new experience.
 Make yourself indispensable. Remember that in the work place that all moves and
promotions are based on high levels of competencies and job performances. You need to be the
best you can possibly be, to ensure that you are not overlooked for promotions and future roles.
Networking is critical. Really work on your networking skills and ensure that the networks
that you create are relevant to your job choices and career aspirations. Networking is not just
about making contacts, it’s about making the right contacts and getting to known and earning the
respect of those that may be able to assist in your career aspirations.
Find a mentor. If possible and your company offers this facility, find a mentor. A mentor can
help you in obtaining essential knowledge and information that will enable you to quickly learn
what is required in your job, and help you succeed. A mentorship program forms important
relationships with those that can help in your career progression.
Training. Keeping up to date with training is essential particularly in the highly competitive
and every changing mining industry. Take advantage of any opportunities for training that come
your way.
Succession Planning. Succession planning is a process where employees are recruited,
trained and developed to fill each key position within a company. Actively pursuing succession
planning opportunities will ensure you are constantly developing and progressing in your career.

Transfers and lateral moves. Should you feel you are stagnating in your current role, and
that there is little chance for progression, ask for a transfer, even if it is lateral move, if it means
you will gain wider and broader experience
…
What is Negotiation?

Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process by which compromise

or agreement is reached while avoiding argument and dispute.

In any disagreement, individuals understandably aim to achieve the best possible outcome for
their position (or perhaps an organisation they represent). However, the principles of fairness,
seeking mutual benefit and maintaining a relationship are the keys to a successful outcome.

Specific forms of negotiation are used in many situations: international affairs, the legal system,
government, industrial disputes or domestic relationships as examples. However, general
negotiation skills can be learned and applied in a wide range of activities. Negotiation skills can
be of great benefit in resolving any differences that arise between you and others.

Stages of Negotiation
In order to achieve a desirable outcome, it may be useful to follow a structured approach to
negotiation. For example, in a work situation a meeting may need to be arranged in which all
parties involved can come together.

The process of negotiation includes the following stages:

1. Preparation
2. Discussion
 3. Clarification of goals
4. Negotiate towards a Win-Win outcome
5. Agreement
6. Implementation of a course of action

1. Preparation

Before any negotiation takes place, a decision needs to be taken as to when and where a meeting
will take place to discuss the problem and who will attend. Setting a limited time-scale can also
be helpful to prevent the disagreement continuing.

This stage involves ensuring all the pertinent facts of the situation are known in order to clarify
your own position. In the work example above, this would include knowing the ‘rules’ of your
organisation, to whom help is given, when help is not felt appropriate and the grounds for such
refusals. Your organisation may well have policies to which you can refer in preparation for the
negotiation.

Undertaking preparation before discussing the disagreement will help to avoid further conflict
and unnecessarily wasting time during the meeting.

2. Discussion

During this stage, individuals or members of each side put forward the case as they see it, i.e.
their understanding of the situation.

Key skills during this stage include questioning, listening and clarifying.

Sometimes it is helpful to take notes during the discussion stage to record all points put forward
in case there is need for further clarification. It is extremely important to listen, as when
disagreement takes place it is easy to make the mistake of saying too much and listening too
little. Each side should have an equal opportunity to present their case.

3. Clarifying Goals

From the discussion, the goals, interests and viewpoints of both sides of the disagreement need to
be clarified.

It is helpful to list these factors in order of priority. Through this clarification it is often possible
to identify or establish some common ground. Clarification is an essential part of the negotiation
process, without it misunderstandings are likely to occur which may cause problems and barriers
to reaching a beneficial outcome.
4. Negotiate Towards a Win-Win Outcome

This stage focuses on what is termed a 'win-win' outcome where both sides feel they have gained
something positive through the process of negotiation and both sides feel their point of view has
been taken into consideration.

A win-win outcome is usually the best result. Although this may not always be possible, through
negotiation, it should be the ultimate goal.

Suggestions of alternative strategies and compromises need to be considered at this point.

Compromises are often positive alternatives which can often achieve greater benefit for all
concerned compared to holding to the original positions.

5. Agreement

Agreement can be achieved once understanding of both sides’ viewpoints and interests have
been considered.

It is essential to for everybody involved to keep an open mind in order to achieve an acceptable
solution. Any agreement needs to be made perfectly clear so that both sides know what has been
decided.

6. Implementing a Course of Action

From the agreement, a course of action has to be implemented to carry through the decision.

Characteristics of Negotiation

There are certain characteristics of the negotiation process. These are:

(i) There are a minimum of two parties present in any

negotiation.
(ii) Both the parties have pre-determined goals which
they wish to achieve.
(iii) There is a clash of pre-determined goals, that is,
some of the pre-determined goals are not shared by
both the parties.
 (iv) There is an expectation of outcome by both the
parties in any negotiation.
(v) Both the parties believe the outcome of the
negotiation to be satisfactory.
(vi) Both parties are willing to compromise, that is,
modify their position.

(vii) The incompatibility of goals may make the

modification of positions difficult.
(viii) The parties understand the purpose of negotiation

Types of negotiation
Distributive Negotiation or Win-Lose Approach
This is also called competitive, zero sum, or claiming value approach. This approach is based on
the premise that one person can win only at the expense of the other. It has the following
characteristics:

(i) One side ‘wins’ and one side ‘loses’.

(ii) There are fixed resources to be divided so that the more one gets, the less the other gets.
(iii) One person’s interests oppose the other’s.
(iv) The dominant concern in this type of bargaining is usually to maximize one’s own interests.
(v) The dominant strategies in this mode include manipulation, forcing and withholding
information.

Strategy to be used: In this mode, one seeks to gain advantage through concealing information,
misleading or using manipulative actions.

Of course, these methods have serious potential for negative consequences. Yet even in this type
of negotiation, both sides must feel that at the end the outcome was the best that they could
achieve and that it is worth accepting and supporting.

The basic techniques open to the negotiator in this kind of approach are the following:

 Influence the other person’s belief in what is possible.

 Learn as much as possible about the other person’s position especially with regard to resistance
points.
 Try to convince the other to change his/her mind about their ability to achieve their own goals.
  Promote your own objectives as desirable, necessary, ethical, or even inevitable.

Lose-Lose Approach
This negotiation approach is adopted when one negotiating partner feels that his own interests
are threatened and he does all he can to ensure that the outcome of the negotiation is not suitable
to the interests of the other party as well. In the bargain, both the parties end up being the loser.
This type of situation arises when the negotiating partners ignore one another’s needs and the
need to hurt each other outweighs the need to find some kind of an acceptable solution. This is
the most undesirable type of outcome and hence this negotiation approach is best avoided.

Compromise Approach
This approach provides an outcome which is some improvement over the lose-lose strategy
outcome. To avoid a lose-lose situation, both parties give up a part of what they had originally
sought and settle for something less than that. A compromise is the best way out when it is
impossible for both parties to convince each other or when the disputed resources are limited.

Integrative Negotiation or Win-Win Approach

This negotiation approach is also called as collaborative or creating value approach. It is superior
to all negotiation approaches. It results in both the parties feeling that they are achieving what
they wanted. It results in satisfaction to both the parties. It has the following characteristics.

(i) There are a sufficient amount of resources to be divided and both sides can ‘win’

(ii) The dominant concern here is to maximize joint outcomes.

(iii) The dominant strategies include cooperation, sharing information, and mutual problem-
solving. This type is also called ‘creating value’ since the goal here is to have both sides leave
the negotiating feeling they had greater value than before.

Since the integrative approach is most desirable, some of the guidelines to integrative bargaining
are listed below:

 Orient yourself towards a win-win approach. Your attitude while going into negotiation plays a
huge role in the outcome.
 Plan and have a concrete strategy. Be clear on what is important to you and why it is important.
 Know your Best Alternative to a Negotiated Alternative (BATNA).

FOUR PRINCIPLES:
 An attitude that prompts the negotiator to work for solutions that will benefit all or most
of the participating parties;
  An orientation that views the other person as a potential partner rather than an
adversary;
 A climate that stimulates both parties to realize that they are more likely to attain their
objectives if they work together than if they battle one another;
 A set of strategies that facilitate the process of securing mutual advantages.

How to apply these principles

Roger Fisher and William Ury, authors of the book “Getting to Yes”, describe 4 essential
parameters for what they describe as principled negotiation:

1. Separate the people from the problem – in other words, be kind to people, tough on
issues;
2. Focus on interests, not positions;
3. Generate a variety of possibilities before making a decision and;
4. Define objective standards as the criteria for making the decision.

By using these behavioural fundamentals as the basis for any negotiation, the probability of
conflict-free outcomes significantly increases – stress is reduced, respect and trust are modelled
and moreover, interests are met.

Win-Win Negotiation

[win-win]
A win-win negotiation settlement is an integrative negotiated agreement. In theory this means the
negotiating parties have reached an agreement after fully taking into account each others’
interests, such that the agreement cannot be improved upon further by any other agreement. By
definition, there are no resources or ‘gold’ left on the table and all creative options have been
thoroughly exploited. “Win-Win” has its roots in Economics Game Theory.

TACTICS
1. Extreme demands followed up by small, slow concessions. Perhaps the most common
of all hard-bargaining tactics, this one protects dealmakers from making concessions too
quickly. However, it can keep parties from making a deal and unnecessarily drag out
business negotiations. To head off this tactic, have a clear sense of your own goals, best
alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA), and bottom line – and don’t be rattled
by an aggressive opponent.
2. Commitment tactics. Your opponent may say that his hands are tied or that he has only
limited discretion to negotiate with you. Do what you can to find out if these commitment
 tactics are genuine. You may find that you need to negotiate with someone who has
greater authority to do business with you.
3. Take-it-or-leave-it negotiation strategy. Offers should rarely be nonnegotiable. To
defuse this hard-bargaining tactic, try ignoring it and focus on the content of the offer
instead, then make a counter-offer that meets both parties’ needs.
4. Inviting unreciprocated offers. When you make an offer, you may find that your
counterpart asks you to make a concession before making a counteroffer herself. Don’t
bid against yourself by reducing your demands; instead, indicate that you are waiting for
a counteroffer.
5. Trying to make you flinch. Sometimes you may find that your opponent keeps making
greater and greater demands, waiting for you to reach your breaking point and concede.
Name the hard-bargaining tactic and clarify that you will only engage in a reciprocal
exchange of offers.
6. Personal insults and feather ruffling. Personal attacks can feed on your insecurities and
make you vulnerable. Take a break if you feel yourself getting flustered, and let the other
party know that you won’t tolerate insults and other cheap ploys.
7. Bluffing, puffing, and lying. Exaggerating and misrepresenting facts can throw you off
guard. Be skeptical about claims that seem too good to be true and investigate them
closely.
8. Threats and warnings. Want to know how to deal with threats? The first step is
recognizing threats and oblique warnings as the hard-bargaining tactics they are. Ignoring
a threat and naming a threat can be two effective strategies for defusing them.
9. Belittling your alternatives. The other party might try to make you cave in by belittling
your BATNA. Don’t let her shake your resolve.
10. Good cop, bad cop. When facing off with a two-negotiator team, you may find that one
person is reasonable and the other is tough. Realize that they are working together and
don’t be taken in by such hard-bargaining tactics.

FACTORS
structure: Contextual factors determine the form and curse negotiation can take. Structural elements
include:
Numbers of actors.- Usually the more actors involved the more complex the negotiation process
becomes.
Time.-Tactics and strategies vary depending on whether expected negotiation time is short or long.
Location.-The physical location where negotiations take place can influence negotiations
Decision.- Negotiations can be affected by the structure of the negotiating team and decision making -
processes.
Agenda.- The process of negotiations will be influenced by the structure of the agenda and the topics
included and not included.

UNIT-4

THE PROCESS OF NEGOTIATION INCLUDES THE

FOLLOWING STAGES:
1. Preparation
2. Discussion
3. Clarification of goals
4. Negotiate towards a Win-Win outcome
5. Agreement
6. Implementation of a course of action

1. Preparation

Before any negotiation takes place, a decision needs to be taken as to when and where a meeting
will take place to discuss the problem and who will attend. Setting a limited time-scale can also
be helpful to prevent the disagreement continuing.

This stage involves ensuring all the pertinent facts of the situation are known in order to clarify
your own position. In the work example above, this would include knowing the ‘rules’ of your
organisation, to whom help is given, when help is not felt appropriate and the grounds for such
refusals. Your organisation may well have policies to which you can refer in preparation for the
negotiation.

Undertaking preparation before discussing the disagreement will help to avoid further conflict
and unnecessarily wasting time during the meeting.
2. Discussion

During this stage, individuals or members of each side put forward the case as they see it, i.e.
their understanding of the situation.

Key skills during this stage include questioning, listening and clarifying.

Sometimes it is helpful to take notes during the discussion stage to record all points put forward
in case there is need for further clarification. It is extremely important to listen, as when
disagreement takes place it is easy to make the mistake of saying too much and listening too
little. Each side should have an equal opportunity to present their case.

3. Clarifying Goals

From the discussion, the goals, interests and viewpoints of both sides of the disagreement need to
be clarified.

It is helpful to list these factors in order of priority. Through this clarification it is often possible
to identify or establish some common ground. Clarification is an essential part of the negotiation
process, without it misunderstandings are likely to occur which may cause problems and barriers
to reaching a beneficial outcome.

4. Negotiate Towards a Win-Win Outcome

This stage focuses on what is termed a 'win-win' outcome where both sides feel they have gained
something positive through the process of negotiation and both sides feel their point of view has
been taken into consideration.

A win-win outcome is usually the best result. Although this may not always be possible, through
negotiation, it should be the ultimate goal.

Suggestions of alternative strategies and compromises need to be considered at this point.

Compromises are often positive alternatives which can often achieve greater benefit for all
concerned compared to holding to the original positions.

5. Agreement

Agreement can be achieved once understanding of both sides’ viewpoints and interests have
been considered.
It is essential to for everybody involved to keep an open mind in order to achieve an acceptable
solution. Any agreement needs to be made perfectly clear so that both sides know what has been
decided.

6. Implementing a Course of Action

From the agreement, a course of action has to be implemented to carry through the decision.

Here are 9 steps to prepare for your next negotiation.

1. Know Your Strategy

If your negotiation strategy isn’t clear to you, how can you expect to enjoy results that benefit
your company the most? If Senior Management hasn’t made clear your strategy, which is sadly
too often the case, make sure you ask.

2. Negotiating Style
Will you ? Will you lose the battle to win the war? Will you compromise and meet in the middle
or compete to the bitter end? Make sure to choose a style that best fits the circumstances. (For
more on this See: ‘5 Negotiating Styles to Consider When Closing a Deal’)

3. Identify Goals
Do you want to maximize the short term value or work to establish a longer term collaboration
that will grow value over time? Is your goal to steal market share at the expense of profit? Make
sure to know what you want going in, instead of settling for what you end up with.

4. Prepare a SWOT Analysis

A simple but often overlooked tool. Think of the real external opportunities and threats as the
walk away positions on both sides. True power in any negotiation is having developed a good
walk away alternative. Understanding this may not get you the deal you want, but it will prevent
you from agreeing to a lousy deal.

5. Pre-Meeting Questions
I was once told while being trained by a mentor that once you understand someone’s motivation,
you are in control. In negotiations, information is power! If you hope to get creative and stack
the cards in your favor, you’re going to need to know everything you can about your
counterparty’s decision makers, underlying interests and walk away position.

6. Options / Deal design

This is your opportunity to get creative. Work with your team and put together a comprehensive
list of options to consider in designing your deal. If you’re not comfortable with numbers, make
sure someone on you team is. Make sure to leverage your SWOT’s ‘Opportunities’.

7. Trading Plan
Armed with information from your pre-meeting questions, you are ready to start prioritizing your
interests. What can you trade? What can you get in return? Start with your most important
interests or goals first. Our Trading Plan is too complex to explain in this article.

8. Set the Agenda

If you don’t set the negotiation agenda and take control early, your counterparty will. Email your
agenda before, and print a copy for your meeting.

9. Build a Team
Avoid negotiating alone. Anyone who has ever been ganged up on knows the feeling. Same goes
for preparation, co-opt a colleague or two. Ensure that your negotiation team are clear on your
negotiating strategy and roles. Without it, you run the risk of contradicting each other at the
negotiating table and losing the upper hand.
 Distributive Negotiation Strategy
 This strategy is also popular as ‘the fixed pie strategy’, since this involves allocating shares of a finite resource
among the negotiators. With limited resources for the taking, every negotiating party views every other party as an
adversary and this is well reflected in the debate over the allocation of shares. Every party tries to put its best foot
forward to grab a bigger chunk of the resources. Along with that, it’s important for the negotiating teams to have a
good idea of the competitive position of the other negotiators. This will help when the actual debate on who should
get how much begins. In essence, this negotiation strategy requires acting defensive and reserved.

 Integrative Negotiation Strategy

This is quite a contrast to the above strategy as this involves a joint initiative that will prove beneficial to all
the negotiating parties. The negotiators do not build up on how much they will receive; rather all efforts are directed
at increasing the total payoff through mutual cooperation. Since this negotiation strategy is based on common
interests and joint efforts of all the parties involved in the negotiation, each party perceives the others as friends and
collaborator.

 Distributive vs. Integrative Negotiation Strategies

The short notes above, on both the strategies, bring out the apparent difference between the two, to quite an extent.
Nonetheless, we have here a list of the major differences between distributive and integrative negotiation strategies.
1. Distributive negotiation ends up in a win-lose situation where some parties stand at an advantage and the others
lose out. On the other hand, integrative negotiation creates a win-win situation for all the parties.

2. Distributive negotiation is competitive in nature and requires that every party views every other party as a
competitor, while integrative negotiation is collaborative in nature and all the parties negotiate on friendly
terms, acting as allies to one another.
3. Integrative negotiation works as a conflict management tool, whereas distributive negotiation intensifies the
conflicts further.
4. In distributive negotiation every negotiator focuses on meeting his personal interests, regardless of the loss the
others may have to face. In contrast, integrative negotiation focuses on mutual interests of all the parties and
thus, comes up with constructive solutions that will be beneficial for all