Lecture 18: Introduction to Central Forces and Universal Gravity 1

Central Force
Introduction to Central Force
The term Central Force does not describe a new kind of force. Rather it simply
describes how a force operates. In particular, the description Central Force ap-
plies to a wide array of important forces: gravity, electric, atomic and molecular.
In mechanics, the most important manifestation of the Central Force aspect is
in describing planetary motion about this Sun. This leads to Kepler’s Three
Laws of planetary motion. We also will introduce the concept of reduced mass,
and see how potential energies are related to the Central Force idea.

Definition of Central Force

The definition of Central Force is simple. A Central Force is one which acts on a
particle such that the direction of the force is always directed toward (attractive)
or away from (repulsive) single point which is called the center or origin of the
force. Another way of imagining a Central Force is to draw a line from the force
center to the particle position. The force will always be directed along that
line, either pointing to the force center (attractive) or pointing away from the
force center (repulsive). The force direction can be either pointing towards the
force center, or pointing exactly in the opposite direction is also possible for a
repulsive Central Force.
Mathematically, the above description can be made very concise
Central Force =⇒ F~ (~r) = F (~r) r̂
In the above equation, one is multiplying a possibly anisotropic (theta and/or
azimuthally dependent) function F (~r) by a unit vector r̂.

Isotropic Central Force

A special case of the general Central Force is to have an isotropic Central Force.
Isotropic means that the direction of the vector ~r does not matter. All that
matters is the magnitude of the vector ~r. Mathematically we have
~r
Isotropic Central Force =⇒ F~ (~r) = F (r) r̂ = F (r)
r
In the above equation, one is multiplying an anisotropic (theta and azimuthally
independent) function by the unit vector r̂. Isotropic Central Forces can be
proved to be conservative, meaning that they have a potential energy function.
Lecture 18: Introduction to Central Forces and Universal Gravity 2

Isotropic Central Forces

Examples of Isotropic Central Forces
Examples of isotropic central forces are the universal gravity force and the
Coulomb or electrostatic force:
M1 M2
FG = G 2 r̂
r12
Q1 Q2
FC = k 2 r̂
r12
We will see by means of the reduced mass method, that the above inverse square
expression for F (r) can be cast into an obvious Central Force description.
Other examples of an isotropic central force are the inter-molecular long ranged
van der Waals force written as
K1 K2
F (r) = 13 − 2
r r
where K1 , and K2 are constants, and r is the distance between the molecules.
According to the certain older theories nuclear forces (Yukawa) were central
forces of short range (≈ 1 fm), which are written as
K1 K2 −K3 r
FN (r) = ( − 2 )e
r r
where K1 , K2 , and K3 are constants. Actually, nuclear forces are not central
forces completely, but the largest component of the nuclear force can be re-
garded as a central force in first approximation. More modern theories regard
the nuclear force as deriving from the basic strong force between the constituent
quarks of a proton or a neutron.

The potential energy function for isotropic central forces

All isotropic central forces, which are vectors, can be derived from scaler po-
tential functions. According to the vector analysis which we have learned in
Chapter 4, the necessary and sufficient condition to have a conservative force is
that the curl of the force is zero
∇ × F~ = 0 =⇒ Conservative force, potential energy function
Conservative force, potential energy function =⇒ ∇ × F~ = 0
Next we show a proof that isotropic central forces are conservative, as an exercise
in vector calculus.
Lecture 18: Introduction to Central Forces and Universal Gravity 3

Proof that Isotropic Central Forces are Conservative

We can prove that isotropic central forces are conservative by showing that for
such forces ∇ × F~ = 0. As usual, it is simpler to work in Cartesian coordinates
where one does not have to worry about position dependent unit vectors. In the
Cartesian system we can write an isotropic central force as
~r F (r)
F~ (~r) = F (r) = (xı̂ + y ĵ + z k̂) = Fx ı̂ + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂
r r
x y z
Fx ≡ F (r); Fy ≡ F (r); Fz ≡ F (r)
r r r
Next we can write the curl of F~ as
∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx ∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx
∇ × F~ ≡ ( − )ı̂ + ( − ) ĵ + ( − ) k̂ = 0
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
In order for the above equation to be always 0, it must be that each term in
parenthesis is 0. So we have for the x component of the curl
∂Fz ∂Fy
(∇ × F~ )x = − =0
∂y ∂z
Now we evaluate the first term above using the chain rule
∂Fz ∂ z ∂ F (r) ∂r ∂r ∂ F (r)
= ( F (r)) = z ( ) =z ( )
∂y ∂y r ∂r r ∂y ∂y ∂r r
Now the same thing for the second term
∂Fy ∂ y ∂ F (r) ∂r ∂r ∂ F (r)
= ( F (r)) = y ( ) =y ( )
∂z ∂z r ∂r r ∂z ∂z ∂r r
So we get for the x component of ∇ × F
∂r ∂r ∂ F (r)
(∇ × F~ )x = (z −y ) ( )
∂y ∂z ∂r r
Finally for the proof we will show that the above terms in parenthesis cancel
out. We have the magnitude r as
q ∂r y ∂r z
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 =⇒ = and =
∂y r ∂z r
So we get
∂r ∂r ∂ F (r) zy yz ∂ F (r)
(∇ × F~ )x = (z −y ) ( )=( − ) ( )=0
∂y ∂z ∂r r r r ∂r r
The same steps can be done for (∇ × F~ )y and (∇ × F~ )z , which completes the
proof that ∇ × F is 0 for an isotropic, central force.
Lecture 18: Introduction to Central Forces and Universal Gravity 4

Isotropic Central Forces are Conservative

Potential Function for Isotropic Central Forces
Since we have proved that for isotropic central forces we have ∇ × F~ = 0, then
it must be that F~ is derivable from a scaler potential energy function

F~ (r) = −∇V (r)

In spherical coordinates, we have this definition of ∇

∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇ ≡ r̂ + θ̂ + φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

Because F~ (r) is isotropic, so to must V (r). So we can write

∂V ∂V
F~ (r) = − r̂ =⇒ F = −
∂r ∂r
We can invert the above equation to get the potential energy function from the
force function Z r
V (r) = − F (r0 )dr0
rs
there rs is the reference or standard radius such that we define V (rs ) = 0.

Central Force Motion as a One-Body Problem

Degrees of freedom for motion in three dimensions
In mechanics we use the phrase degrees of freedom to describe the coordinates
that one or more particles can have. For example is there is one particle, then
there is a set of three coordinates, say Cartesian (x, y, z), which describe where
the one particle is located. The one particle is said to have 3 degrees of free-
dom. If there are two particle then we have (x1 , y1 , z1 ) for the first particle and
(x2 , y2 , z2 ) for the second particle, making it 6 degrees of freedom for the motion.
There is nothing special about using Cartesian coordinates; we could equal well
use cylindrical or spherical coordinate variables.
Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2 , which are at positions ~r1 and ~r2 .
We have 6 degrees of freedom at the start. We will show that if the force between
the masses is a central force, then we can change the problem into two separated
problems of three degrees of freedom each.
Lecture 18: Introduction to Central Forces and Universal Gravity 5

Central Force Motion as a One-Body Problem

Newton’s Equations for Two Interacting Particles
For two particles interacting by an isotropic central force we have these two
Newton’s Second Law equations, and a relative coordinate definition

m1~r¨1 = F (r) r̂

m2~r¨2 = −F (r) r̂
~r ≡ ~r1 − ~r2
The fact that one force is the negative of the other is just Newton’s Third Law.
The above three equations can be reduced to two equations, each involving only
one position vector. Effectively, we will have separated the solution of the motion
into two one-body problems. Instead of using the coordinate ~r1 , ~r2 , and ~r, we
use instead the center-of-mass coordinate R, ~ and the relative coordinated ~r.

Center-of-mass coordinate and reduced mass motion

~ is defined in terms of ~r1 and ~r2 by
The center-of-mass coordinate R
~ = m1~r1 + m2~r2
(m1 + m2 )R
~ represents the center-of-mass, and the center-of-mass for an isolated
Because R
¨~
system has no acceleration, then we know that R = 0.
Next we take each of the Newton’s Second Law equations, divide each by their
respective mass, and then subtract the result. These steps give the following
equation
1 1 m2 + m1
~r¨1 − ~r¨2 = ( + )F (r) r̂ = ( )F (r) r̂
m1 m2 m1 m2
We then bring the mass term over to the left hand side to get
m1 m2
( )(~r¨1 − ~r¨2 ) = F (r) r̂
m1 + m2
µ~¨r = F (r) r̂
m1 m2
Reduced Mass µ ≡
m1 + m2
So we have transformed the solution for two position coordinates ~r1 and ~r2 into
~ and ~r.
a simpler solution for R
Lecture 18: Introduction to Central Forces and Universal Gravity 6

Central Force Motion as a One-Body Problem

Use of the reduced mass
We started with two Newton’s second law equations, and one relative coordinate
definition
m1~r¨1 = F (r) r̂
m2~r¨2 = −F (r) r̂
~r ≡ ~r1 − ~r2
and we can solve these Newton’s second law equations by solving two simpler
one-body equations involving the center-of-mass coordinate R ~ and the reduced
mass µ:
¨~
R =0
m1 m2
( )(~r¨1 − ~r¨2 ) = F (r) r̂
m1 + m2
µ~¨r = F (r) r̂
m1 m2
Reduced Mass µ ≡
m1 + m2
~
Once we determine R(t) and ~r(t), we can obtain ~r1 (t) and ~r2 (t) by the following
algebra
~ + m2
~r1 (t) = R(t) ~r(t)
m1 + m2
~ − m1
~r2 (t) = R(t) ~r(t)
m1 + m2
The solution to the R equation of motion is trivial
~
R(t) =R ~ 0 + vcm t
Since we can always choose a coordinate system in which R ~ 0 = 0 and which is
moving at constant speed vcm meaning that the center-of-mass is not moving,
~
then we have simply R(t) = 0. This leaves the two position coordinates as
m2
~r1 (t) = + ~r(t)
m1 + m2
m1
~r2 (t) = − ~r(t)
m1 + m2
Finally it may happen that say m1 >> m2 . In that case, the force center is
effectively the position of m1 . To a good approximation this situation applies to
the motion of the planets about the Sun for which the Sun looks to be the force
center, and µ ≈ m2 .
Lecture 18: Introduction to Central Forces and Universal Gravity 7

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Descriptive and Mathematical Statements
Newton’s law of universal gravitation was first published in 1687, but it was
actually worked out twenty years before in 1665–1666. The law states that for
two masses m1 and m2 , at positions ~r1 and ~r2 in some non-accelerating coordinate
system, then there will be a force of attraction between the two masses which
proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
Mathematically we have
m1 m2 r~12
!
F~12 = G 2
r12 r12
The left side is the vector force exerted on particle 1 by particle 2. The vector
~r12 is the directed line segment running from particle 1 to particle 2, and which
has magnitude r12 . The last term in the parenthesis is a means of getting a unit
vector which points in the direction of F~12 .
The proportionality constant G makes the units and the size come out correctly.
In the MKS system the constant G = (6.67259 ± 0.00085) × 10−11 N–m2 /kg2 .

Verification of Newton’s Law of Gravity

Newton verified his law of gravity using information about the period of the
Moon’s orbit. That orbit takes 28 days. The Earth-Moon distance R was known
approximately. Therefore the circumference of the Moon’s orbit can be calcu-
lated, and from that the average speed of the Moon in its orbit. From the Second
Law, Newton could calculate the centripetal acceleration for this circular orbit
as ac = v 2 /R. Using his law of gravity, he could calculate the value of the
gravitation g(R) acceleration at the Moon’s position:
MEarth MMoon
F = Mmoon g(R) = G
R2
MEarth
=⇒ g(R) = G
R2
Using the know values of R and the mass of the Earth, Newton was able to show
that g(R) ≈ ac . The universal gravity force was providing the centripetal force
needed to keep the Moon traveling in a circle of radius R once every 28 days.
Lecture 18: Introduction to Central Forces and Universal Gravity 8

Gravity of an Extended Sphere

Problem Statement
As initially stated, the law of universal gravitation treats all masses as point
particles. However, real suns and planets are extended, approximately spherical
objects. Should one ignore the radius of these objects, and simply draw a line
between the centers of the objects in order to get a distance? Or does the gravity
attraction between two spheres also depend upon the size of each sphere?
Newton was able to prove, using his own invention of calculus, that a spherical
mass acts as if all of its mass were concentrated at the center, independent of
the radius size, for the purposes of computing the gravitational force. The proof
of this statement begins with studying the gravity effect of a spherical shell of
radius R, where we calculate the force of gravity at a distance r > R from its
center.

Spherical Shell Calculation

The proof begins with considering a ring of mass at an angle θ spanning a width
∆θ on the shell, as in Fig. 6.2.1 on page 224. If the density of the shell is ρ, then
the amount of mass in that ring is ∆M given by

∆M = ρ(2πR)(R sin θ)∆θ

The terms on the right in parentheses are calculating the surface area of the ring,
and this area then gets multiplied by the density which is in units of mass/area.
Because of symmetry, the only component of force for this ring mass which is
not canceled out is along the r direction. The amount of gravity force for this
component from this ∆M mass on another mass m is called ∆F and is given by
m∆M 2mρπR2 sin θ cos φ
∆F = G cos φ = G ∆θ
s2 s2
where s and φ are as shown in Fig. 6.2.1. The distance s is the same on all parts
of the ring, and is given by the law of cosines

s2 = r2 + R2 − 2rR cos θ =⇒ s ds = rR sin θ dθ

We also have
s2 + r 2 − R 2
cos φ =
2rs
Lecture 18: Introduction to Central Forces and Universal Gravity 9

Gravity of an Extended Sphere

Spherical Shell Calculation
We can integrate to get the total force from the ring element as
Z π sin θ cos φ
F = Gm2πρR2 dθ
0 s2
Substituting s for θ, and changing the integration limits appropriately, we get

2
Z r+R s2 + r 2 − R 2
F = Gm2πρR ds
r−R 2Rr2 s2
Since the total mass of the spherical shell is M = ρ4πR2 , we can get
GmM Z r+R r 2 − R2
F = (1 + )ds
4Rr2 r−R s2
GmM
F =
r2
In this last expression we see that the radius size parameter R has dropped out.
The force appears to be coming from the center of the shell which is a distance
r from the mass m.
Finally, a solid sphere can be considered to be composed of spherical shells of
increasing radius R. Since the size R never matters, the whole of a solid sphere
acts as if its mass were concentrated at its center

Gravity inside a spherical shell or a sphere

The above calculation was carried out for points r outside the shell radius R.
What happens if one calculates the force of gravity inside a spherical shell, or
inside a solid sphere, where the distance r < R?
The answer may surprise you. For a spherical shell, there is no gravity for r < R.
For a solid sphere, if r < R, then the mass outside r has no effect. The sphere
acts is if it had a radius of r and the force can be calculated as
4πr3 4π
F (r < R) = Gmρ 2 = Gmρ r
3r 3
The gravity force decreases linearly with r, and acts as if all the inside mass
were concentrated at the center.