UNIT-2

Short answered type question

Q1 (a) Discuss the geometric parallax technique of distance measurement. (UNIT-2)
Parallax is a displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed along two
different lines of sight, and is measured by the angle or semi-angle of inclination between those
two lines.
Q1 (b) What are Lagrange’s points? (UNIT-2)
In celestial mechanics, the Lagrangian points also Lagrange points, L-points,
or libration points) are positions in an orbital configuration of two large bodies where a small
object affected only by gravity can maintain a stable position relative to the two large bodies.
The Lagrange points mark positions where the combined gravitational pull of the two large
masses provides precisely the centripetal force required to orbit with them.
Q1(c) What is Giant Meter Wave Radio Telescope? (UNIT-2)
Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT), located near Pune in India, is an array of radio
telescopes at metre wavelengths. It is operated by theNational Centre for Radio Astrophysics, a
part of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai. At the time it was built, it was the
world's largest interferometric array.
Q1(d) What do you mean by Trojan satellites? (UNIT-2)
In astronomy, a Trojan satellites (co-orbital configuration) is a configuration of two or more astronomical
objects (such as asteroids, moons, or planets) orbiting at the same, or very similar, distance from their
primary, i.e. they are in a 1:1 mean-motion resonance.
There are several classes of co-orbital objects, depending on their point of libration. The most
common and best-known class is the trojan, which librate around one of the two
stable Lagrangian points (Trojan points), L4 and L5, 60° ahead of and behind the larger body
respectively. Another class is the horseshoe orbit, in which objects librate around 180° from the
larger body. Objects librating around 0° are called quasi-satellites.
Q1 (e) What do you mean by space colonization.
Space colonization (also called space settlement, or extraterrestrial colonization) is permanent
human habitation off planet Earth. Many arguments have been made for space colonization. The
two most common are survival of human civilization and the biosphere in case of a planetary-
scale disaster (natural or man-made), and the vast resources in space for expansion of human
society.

Long Answer Type

(2) Apparent and Absolute Magnitudes

Ans: Apparent Magnitude

Apparent magnitude m of a star is a number that tells how bright that star appears at its great
distance from Earth. The scale is "backwards" and logarithmic. Larger magnitudes correspond to
fainter stars. Note that brightness is another way to say the flux of light, in Watts per square
meter, coming towards us.

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On this magnitude scale, a brightness ratio of 100 is set to correspond exactly to a magnitude
difference of 5. As magnitude is a logarithmic scale, one can always transform a brightness ratio
B2/B1 into the equivalent magnitude difference m2-m1 by the formula:

m2-m1 = -2.50 log(B2/B1)

You can check that for brightness ratio B2/B1=100, we have log(B2/B1) =log(100)= log(102) = 2,
and then m2-m1 = -5, the basic definition of this scale (brighter is more negative m). One then has
the following magnitudes and their corresponding relative brightnesses:

magnitude m | 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
----------------------------------------------------------------
relative | 1 2.5 6.3 16 40 100 250 630 1600 4000 10,000
brightness |
ratios |

(Note that the lower row of numbers is just (2.512)m.

Absolute Magnitude

Absolute magnitude Mv is the apparent magnitude the star would have if it were placed at a
distance of 10 parsecs from the Earth. Doing this to a star (it is a little difficult), will either make
it appear brighter or fainter. From the inverse square law for light, the ratio of its brightness at 10
pc to its brightness at its known distance d (in parsecs) is

B10/Bd=(d/10)2

Then, like the formula above, we say that its absolute magnitude is

Mv = m - 2.5 log[(d/10)2]

Stars farther than 10 pc have Mv more negative than m, that is why there is a minus sign in the
formula. If you use this formula, make sure you put the star's distance d in parsecs (1 pc = 3.26
ly = 206265 AU).

Distance Determination

The above relation can also be used to determine the distance to a star if you know both its
apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude. This would be the case, for example, when one uses
Cepheid or other variable stars for distance determination. Turning the formula inside out:

d = (10 pc) x 10(m-Mv)/5

For example, for a Cepheid variable with Mv = -4, and m = 18, the distance is

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 d = (10 pc) x 10[18-(-4)]/5 = 2.51 x 105 pc

(3) Eye related problems in space (UNIT-2)

Over the last decade, a number of astronauts, including Nasa's Scott Kelly, have suffered from
blurred vision on their return to Earth. Now researchers say they have finally discovered the
cause of strange eye problems - and it could pave the way for much longer deep space missions.
A new study has pinpointed volume changes in the clear fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal
cord as the cause.The syndrome, known as 'visual impairment intracranial pressure' or VIIP, was
reported in nearly two-thirds of astronauts after long-duration missions aboard the International
Space Station (ISS).
'People initially didn't know what to make of it, and by 2010 there was growing concern as it
became apparent that some of the astronauts had severe structural changes that were not fully
reversible upon return to Earth,' said study lead author Noam Alperin, Ph.D., professor of
radiology and biomedical engineering at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine in
Miami.
Experts previously thought that the source of the problem was a shift in the vascular fluid,
including blood, towards the upper body that occurs in astronauts when they spend time in
microgravity. However, recent experiments have concentrated on another possible source -
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).This is the clear fluid that cushions the brain and spical cord while also
circulating nutrients and removing waste materials.
The fluid is designed to cope with changes in pressure that occur in everyday life, such as when a
person rises from lying down to a standing position.However, the microgravity of space presents
a new, and unexpected challenge.
'On Earth, the CSF system is built to accommodate these pressure changes, but in space the
system is confused by the lack of the posture-related pressure changes. Nasa astronaut Scott
Kelly, suffered from vision problems during his 1999 mission and resorted to wearing reading
glasses during his 2007 mission, reports Air & Space.
He also reported vision problems during his 2010-2011, though this corrected itself within three
months back on Earth. To find out more about what causes these vision problems, the
researchers carried out MRI brain scans before and shortly after space flights for seven long-
duration missions for seven long-duration mission ISS astronauts.
Results were compared with those from nine short-duration mission astronauts who flew on the
Nasa's retired space shuttle. The team used advanced imaging algorithms to pinpoint any
correlation between changes in fluid volumes and eye structure.
They found that astronauts on long-duration missions had significantly increased flattening of
their eyeballs and increased optic nerve swelling on their return to Earth, compared to those who
flew on shorter missions. The long-duration astronauts also had greater increases in the amount
of fluid around the optic nerves near the eye as. They also had more fluid in the cavities of the
brain where the fluid (CSF) is produced.
'The research provides, for the first time, quantitative evidence obtained from short- and long-
duration astronauts pointing to the primary and direct role of the CSF in the globe deformations
seen in astronauts with visual impairment syndrome,' Dr. Alperin said. The study didn't find any
changes in grey matter or white matter volume in either group of astronauts.
The research is vital in preventing any long-term damage to astronauts' eyes, which could result
in them becoming far-sighted.
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In future, even longer-duration missions will need to be undertaken for humans to reach Mars so
it's vital that experts are able to understand what happens to the body when in microgravity for
long periods of time. The new research is being presented today at the annual meeting of the
Radiological Society of North America (RSNA).
(4) How do astronomers measure distances to stars and galaxies? Limitations of Distance
Measurement using Stellar Parallax. Define early measures, Cosmic distance ladder,
Shooting for accuracy and 3D Imaging. (UNIT-2)

Astronomers have developed several techniques to indirectly measure the vast distances between
Earth and the stars and galaxies. In many cases, these methods are mathematically complex and
involve extensive computer modeling.
Parallax is the visual effect produced when, as an observer moves, nearby objects appear to shift
position relative to more-distant objects. This common event is easily reproduced; hold your
finger out at arm’s length, and look at your fingertip first with one eye closed, then the other. The
"motion" of your fingertip as seen against background objects is caused by the change in your
viewing position -- about three inches from one eye to the other.

Parallax and Distance Measurement

Astronomers use an effect called parallax to measure distances to nearby stars. Parallax is the
apparent displacement of an object because of a change in the observer's point of view. In the
diagram below, as the observer moves between the two positions, he would see the same tree,
but it would appear to move against the background.
Another way to see how this effect works is to hold your hand out in front of you and look at it
with your left eye closed, then your right eye closed. Your hand will appear to move against the
background.
This effect can be used to measure the distances to nearby stars. As the Earth orbits the sun, a
nearby star will appear to move against the more distant background stars, in the same way the
tree apears to move against the more distant mountains in the diagram above. Astronomers can
measure a star's position once, and then again 6 months later and calculate the apparent change in
position. The star's apparent motion is called stellar parallax.

There is a simple relationship between a star's distance and its parallax angle:
d = 1/p
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The distance d is measured in parsecs and the parallax angle p is measured in arcseconds.
This simple relationship is why many astronomers prefer to measure distances in parsecs.

Limitations of Distance Measurement Using Stellar Parallax

Parallax angles of less than 0.01 arcsec are very difficult to measure from Earth because of the
effects of the Earth's atmosphere. This limits Earth based telescopes to measuring the distances
to stars about 1/0.01 or 100 parsecs away. Space based telescopes can get accuracy to 0.001,
which has increased the number of stars whose distance could be measured with this method.
However, most stars even in our own galaxy are much further away than 1000 parsecs, since the
Milky Way is about 30,000 parsecs across. The next section describes how astronomers measure
distances to more distant objects.

Early measures
The first known astronomical measurement using parallax is thought to have occurred in 189
B.C., when a Greek astronomer, Hipparchus, used observations of a solar eclipse from two
different locations to measure the distance to the moon, Reid said.
Hipparchus noted that on March 14 of that year there was a total solar eclipse in Hellespont,
Turkey, while at the same time farther south in Alexandria, Egypt, the moon covered only four-
fifths of the sun. Knowing the baseline distance between Hellespont and Alexandria — 9 degrees
of latitude or about 600 miles (965 km), along with the angular displacement of the edge of the
moon against the sun (about one-tenth of a degree), he calculated the distance to the moon to be
about 350,000 miles (563,300 km), which was nearly 50 percent too far. His mistake was in
assuming that the moon was directly overhead, thus miscalculating the angle difference between
Hellespont and Alexandria.
In 1672, Italian astronomer Giovanni Cassini and a colleague, Jean Richer, made simultaneous
observations of Mars, with Cassini in Paris and Richer in French Guiana. Cassini computed the
parallax, determined Mars' distance from Earth. This allowed for the first estimation of the
dimensions of the solar system.
The first person to succeed at measuring the distance to a star using parallax was F.W. Bessel,
who in 1838 measured the parallax angle of 61 Cygni as 0.28 arcseconds, which gives a distance
of 3.57 pc. The nearest star, Proxima Centauri, has a parallax of 0.77 arcseconds, giving a
distance of 1.30 pc.

Cosmic distance ladder

Parallax is an important rung in the cosmic distance ladder. By measuring the distances to a
number of nearby stars, astronomers have been able to establish relationships between a star’s
color and its intrinsic brightness, i.e., the brightness it would appear to be if viewed from a
standard distance. These stars then become “standard candles.”
Then if a star is too far away to measure its parallax, astronomers can match its color and
spectrum to one of the standard candles and determine its intrinsic brightness, Reid said.
Comparing this to its apparent brightness, we can get a good measure of its distance by applying

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the 1/r2 rule. This rule states that the apparent brightness of a light source is proportional to the
square of its distance. If you project of a one-foot square image onto a screen, and then move the
projector twice as far away, the new image will be 2 feet by 2 feet, or 4 square feet. The light is
spread over an area four times larger, and it will be only one-fourth as bright as when the
projector was half as far away. If you move the projector three times farther away, the light will
cover 9 square feet and appear only one-ninth as bright.
If a star measured in this manner happens to be part of a distant cluster, we can assume that all of
those stars are the same distance, and we can add them to the library of standard candles.

Shooting for accuracy

In 1989, the European Space Agency (ESA) launched an orbiting telescope
called Hipparcos (named after Hipparchus). Its main purpose was to measure stellar distances
using parallax with an accuracy of 2–4 milliarcseconds (mas). According to their website,
“ESA’s Hipparcos satellite pinpointed more than 100,000 stars, 200 times more accurately than
ever before.” They were able to determine distances of stars out to 100 pc with an accuracy of
plus-or-minus 10 percent. Their results are available in an online searchable catalog.
The ESA’s successor mission to Hipparcos is Gaia, which was launched into Earth orbit in 2013.
ESA describes it as “an ambitious mission to chart a three-dimensional map of our galaxy, the
Milky Way, in the process revealing the composition, formation and evolution of the galaxy.”
Among its tasks will be to obtain distances of 1 billion stars, about 1 percent of all the stars in the
Milky Way, using parallax measurements with an accuracy of 24 microarcseconds (μas).
While parallax measurements at optical wavelengths have improved greatly over time, according
to Reid, we can obtain even more accurate results from radio astronomy with a technique called
very long baseline interferometry using the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA). He describes the
VLBA as a global network of radio telescopes, synchronized by atomic clocks that produce an
effective aperture of thousands of miles. This is compared to our largest optical telescopes,
which are only about 400 inches (10 m).
The theoretical maximum angular resolution of a telescope can be calculated as the wavelength
being observed divided by the size of the aperture, according to Reid. However, atmospheric
effects reduce this considerably. A ground-based optical telescope with an effective aperture of
26 feet (8 m) has a resolution of about 50 milliarcseconds (mas). This is matched by the much
smaller 2.4-meter Hubble Space Telescope because it operates above the atmosphere. The VLBA
generally observes wavelengths of a few centimeters, but because the effective aperture is
several thousand kilometers, and the longer wavelengths are little affected by the atmosphere, it
can resolve parallax motions of 10 μas allowing distance measurements of objects at up to
100,000 parsecs (100 kpc).
The objects that Reid and his team generally observe for these measurements include young
active stars that emit synchrotron radiation. This is caused by the star ejecting charged particles,
typically electrons, which tend to spiral around intense magnetic field lines. Because the particles
are being forced to move in a curved path, this causes them to emit photons at radio wavelengths.
Another source of radio emissions is gas clouds around even younger and more active stars that
act as natural masers.

3D Imaging
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Another application of parallax is the reproduction and display of 3D images. The key is to
capture 2D images of the subject from two slightly different angles, similar to the way human
eyes do, and present them in such a way that each eye sees only one of the two images.
For example, a stereopticon, or stereoscope, which was a popular device in the 19th century, uses
parallax to display photographs in 3D. Two pictures mounted next to each other are viewed
through a set of lenses. Each picture is taken from a slightly different viewpoint that corresponds
closely to the spacing of the eyes. The left picture represents what the left eye would see, and the
right picture shows what the right eye would see. Through a special viewer, the pair of 2D
pictures merge into a single 3D photograph. The modern View-Master toy uses the same
principle.
Another method for capturing and viewing 3D images, Anaglyph 3D, separates images by
photographing them through colored filters. The images are then viewed using special colored
glasses. One lens is usually red and the other cyan (blue-green). This effect works for movies and
printed images, but most or all of the color information from the original scene is lost.
Some movies achieve a 3D effect using polarized light. The two images are polarized in
orthogonal directions, or at right angles to each other, typically in an X pattern, and projected
together on the screen. The special 3D glasses worn by audience members block one of the two
overlaid images to each eye.
Some 3D televisions and computer monitors also use polarization to separate the images seen by
the left and right eye. However, most of today’s 3D televisions use an active-shutter scheme to
display images for each eye that alternate at 240 Hz. Special glasses are synchronized with the
TV so they alternately block the left and right images to each eye.
Other 3D display devices use “parallax blocking” whereby two vertically interlaced images are
viewed through a “picket fence” of opaque vertical lines. The lines block one of the images when
viewed by one eye and the other image when viewed by the other eye. The disadvantages of this
system are that it only works for a specific viewing angle, and it cuts the horizontal resolution
and the total light by half.
Virtual reality gaming headsets, such as the Oculus Rift and the HTC Vive, produce 3D virtual
environments by projecting an image from a different viewing angle to each eye to simulate a
parallax effect.
There are also many uses for 3D imaging in science and medicine. For example, CT scans —
which are actual 3D images of regions inside the body, not just a pair of 2D projections — can
be displayed so each eye sees the image from a slightly different angle to produce a parallax
effect. The image can then be rotated and tilted as it is being viewed. Scientists can also use 3D
images to visualize molecules, viruses, crystals, thin film surfaces, nanostructures, and other
objects that cannot be seen directly with optical microscopes because they are too small or are
imbedded in opaque materials.
(5) SPACE WEATHER MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES (UNIT-2)
Space weather is a branch of space physics and aeronomy concerned with the time varying
conditions within the Solar System, including the solar wind, emphasizing the space surrounding
the Earth, including conditions in the magnetosphere, ionosphereand thermosphere. Space

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weather is distinct from the terrestrial weather of the Earth's atmosphere (troposphere and
stratosphere). The science of space weather is focused on fundamental research and practical
applications. The term space weather was first used in the 1950s and came into common usage
in the 1990s.
Phenomenon
Within the solar system, space weather is influenced by the solar wind and the interplanetary
magnetic field (IMF) carried by the solar wind plasma. A variety of physical phenomena are
associated with space weather, including geomagnetic storms and substorms, energization of
the Van Allen radiation belts, ionospheric disturbances and scintillation of satellite-to-ground
radio signals and long-range radar signals, aurora and geomagnetically induced currents at
Earth's surface. Coronal mass ejections and their associated shock waves are also important
drivers of space weather as they can compress the magnetosphere and trigger geomagnetic
storms. Solar energetic particles (SEP), accelerated by coronal mass ejections or solar flares, are
also an important driver of space weather as they can damage electronics onboard spacecraft
(e.g. Galaxy 15 failure), and threaten the lives of astronauts.
Various effects:
(i) On spacecraft electronics
Some spacecraft failures can be directly attributed to space weather; many more are thought to
have a space weather component. For example, 46 of the 70 failures reported in 2003 occurred
during the October 2003 geomagnetic storm. The two most common adverse space weather
effects on spacecraft are radiation damage and spacecraft charging.
Radiation (high energy particles) passes through the skin of the spacecraft and into the electronic
components. In most cases the radiation causes an erroneous signal or changes one bit in
memory of a spacecraft's electronics (single event upsets). In a few cases, the radiation destroys a
section of the electronics (single-event latchup).
Spacecraft charging is the accumulation of an electrostatic charge on a non-conducting material
on the spacecraft's surface by low energy particles. If enough charge is built-up, a discharge
(spark) occurs. This can cause an erroneous signal to be detected and acted on by the spacecraft
computer. A recent study indicates that spacecraft charging is the predominant space weather
effect on spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit.
(ii) Spacecraft orbit changes
The orbits of spacecraft in low Earth orbit (LEO) decay to lower and lower altitudes due to the
resistance from the friction between the spacecraft's surface and the outer layer of the Earth's
atmosphere (a.k.a. the thermosphere and exosphere). Eventually, a LEO spacecraft falls out of
orbit and towards the Earth's surface. Many spacecraft launched in the past couple of decades
have the ability to fire a small rocket to manage their orbits. The rocket can increase altitude to
extend lifetime, to direct the reentry towards a particular (marine) site, or route the satellite to
avoid collision with other spacecraft. Such maneuvers require precise information about the
orbit. A geomagnetic storm can cause an orbit change over a couple of days that otherwise would
occur over a year or more. The geomagnetic storm adds heat to the thermosphere, causing the
thermosphere to expand and rise, increasing the drag on spacecraft. The 2009 satellite
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collisionbetween the Iridium 33 and Cosmos 2251 demonstrated the importance of having
precise knowledge of all objects in orbit. Iridium 33 had the capability to maneuver out of the
path of Cosmos 2251 and could have evaded the crash, if a credible collision prediction had been
available.
(6) NON OPTICAL TELESCOPE

The name "telescope" covers a wide range of instruments. Optical telescope works in visible
region of light. Non Optical Telescopes detect electromagnetic radiation other than visible light,
but there are major differences in how astronomers must go about collecting light
(electromagnetic radiation) in different frequency bands.
Non Optical Telescopes may be classified by the wavelengths of light they detect:

 X-ray telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet light

 Ultraviolet telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than visible light
 Infrared telescopes, using longer wavelengths than visible light
 Submillimetre telescopes, using longer wavelengths than infrared light
 Fresnel Imager, an optical lens technology
 X-ray optics, optics for certain X-ray wavelengths
As wavelengths become longer, it becomes easier to use antenna technology to interact with
electromagnetic radiation (although it is possible to make very tiny antenna). The near-infrared
can be collected much like visible light, however in the far-infrared and submillimetre range,
telescopes can operate more like a radio telescope. For example, the James Clerk Maxwell
Telescope observes from wavelengths from 3 μm (0.003 mm) to 2000 μm (2 mm), but uses a
parabolic aluminum antenna. On the other hand, the Spitzer Space Telescope, observing from
about 3 μm (0.003 mm) to 180 μm (0.18 mm) uses a mirror (reflecting optics). Also using
reflecting optics, the Hubble Space Telescope with Wide Field Camera 3 can observe in the
frequency range from about 0.2 μm (0.0002 mm) to 1.7 μm (0.0017 mm) (from ultra-violet to
infrared light).
With photons of the shorter wavelengths, with the higher frequencies, glancing-incident optics,
rather than fully reflecting optics are used. Telescopes such as TRACE and SOHO use special
mirrors to reflect Extreme ultraviolet, producing higher resolution and brighter images than are
otherwise possible. A larger aperture does not just mean that more light is collected, it also
enables a finer angular resolution.
Telescopes may also be classified by location: ground telescope, space telescope, or flying
telescope. They may also be classified by whether they are operated by professional
astronomers or amateur astronomers. A vehicle or permanent campus containing one or more
telescopes or other instruments is called an observatory.
Beyond these basic optical types there are many sub-types of varying optical design classified by
the task they perform such as astrographs, comet seekers and solar telescopes.

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Radio telescopes
Radio telescopes are directional radio antennas used for radio astronomy. The dishes are
sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than
the wavelength being observed. Multi-element Radio telescopes are constructed from pairs or
larger groups of these dishes to synthesize large 'virtual' apertures that are similar in size to the
separation between the telescopes; this process is known as aperture synthesis. As of 2005, the
current record array size is many times the width of the Earth—utilizing space-based Very Long
Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) telescopes such as the Japanese HALCA (Highly Advanced
Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy) VSOP (VLBI Space Observatory Program)
satellite. Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to optical telescopes using optical
interferometers (arrays of optical telescopes) and aperture masking interferometry at single
reflecting telescopes. Radio telescopes are also used to collect microwave radiation, which is
used to collect radiation when any visible light is obstructed or faint, such as from quasars. Some
radio telescopes are used by programs such as SETI and the Arecibo Observatory to search for
extraterrestrial life.
X-ray telescopes
X-ray telescopes can use X-ray optics, such as a Wolter telescopes composed of ring-shaped
'glancing' mirrors made of heavy metals that are able to reflect the rays just a few degrees. The
mirrors are usually a section of a rotated parabola and a hyperbola, or ellipse. In 1952, Hans
Wolter outlined 3 ways a telescope could be built using only this kind of mirror. Examples of an
observatory using this type of telescope are the Einstein Observatory, ROSAT, and the Chandra
X-Ray Observatory. By 2010, Wolter focusing X-ray telescopes are possible up to 79 keV.
Gamma-ray telescopes
Higher energy X-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes refrain from focusing completely and use coded
aperture masks: the patterns of the shadow the mask creates can be reconstructed to form an
image.
X-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes are usually on Earth-orbiting satellites or high-flying balloons
since the Earth's atmosphere is opaque to this part of the electromagnetic spectrum. However,
high energy X-rays and gamma-rays do not form an image in the same way as telescopes at
visible wavelengths. An example of this type of telescope is the Fermi Gamma-ray Space
Telescope.
The detection of very high energy gamma rays, with shorter wavelength and higher frequency
than regular gamma rays, requires further specialization. An example of this type of observatory
is VERITAS. Very high energy gamma-rays are still photons, like visible light, whereas cosmic
rays includes particles like electrons, protons, and heavier nuclei.
A discovery in 2012 may allow focusing gamma-ray telescopes. At photon energies greater than
700 keV, the index of refraction starts to increase again.
High-energy particle telescopes
High-energy astronomy requires specialized telescopes to make observations since most of these
particles go through most metals and glasses.

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In other types of high energy particle telescopes there is no image-forming optical
system. Cosmic-ray telescopes usually consist of an array of different detector types spread out
over a large area. A Neutrino telescope consists of a large mass of water or ice, surrounded by an
array of sensitive light detectors known as photomultiplier tubes. Originating direction of the
neutrinos is determined by reconstructing the path of secondary particles scattered by neutrino
impacts, from their interaction with multiple detectors. Energetic neutral atom observatories
like Interstellar Boundary Explorer detect particles traveling at certain energies.
Other types of telescopes
Astronomy is not limited to using electromagnetic radiation. Additional information can be
obtained using other media. The detectors used to observe the Universe are analogous to
telescopes. These are:

 Gravitational-wave detector, the equivalent of a gravitational wave telescope, used

for gravitational-wave astronomy.
 Neutrino detector, the equivalent of a neutrino telescope, used for neutrino astronomy.
The Hubble Space Telescope (HST)
Ans: The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth
orbit in 1990 and remains in operation. Although not the first space telescope, Hubble is one of
the largest and most versatile, and is well known as both a vital research tool and a public
relations boon for astronomy. The HST is named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble, and is one
of NASA's Great Observatories, along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, the Chandra
X-ray Observatory, and the Spitzer Space Telescope.
With a 2.4-meter (7.9 ft) mirror, Hubble's four main instruments observe in the near
ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared spectra. Hubble's orbit outside the distortion of Earth's
atmosphere allows it to take extremely high-resolution images, with substantially
lower background light than ground-based telescopes. Hubble has recorded some of the most
detailed visible light images ever, allowing a deep view into space and time. Many Hubble
observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as accurately determining the rate
of expansion of the universe.
The HST was built by the United States space agency NASA, with contributions from
the European Space Agency. The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) selects Hubble's
targets and processes the resulting data, while the Goddard Space Flight Center controls the
spacecraft.
Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923. Hubble was funded in the 1970s, with a
proposed launch in 1983, but the project was beset by technical delays, budget problems, and
the Challenger disaster (1986). When finally launched in 1990, Hubble's main mirror was found
to have been ground incorrectly, compromising the telescope's capabilities. The optics were
corrected to their intended quality by a servicing mission in 1993.
Hubble is the only telescope designed to be serviced in space by astronauts. After launch
by Space Shuttle Discovery in 1990, five subsequent Space Shuttle missions repaired, upgraded,
and replaced systems on the telescope, including all five of the main instruments. The fifth
mission was initially canceled on safety grounds following the Columbia disaster (2003).
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However, after spirited public discussion, NASA administrator Mike Griffin approved the fifth
servicing mission, completed in 2009. The telescope is operating as of 2017, and could last until
2030–2040. Its scientific successor, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), is scheduled for
launch in 2019.

The history of the Hubble Space Telescope can be traced back as far as 1946, to
the astronomer Lyman Spitzer's paper "Astronomical advantages of an extraterrestrial
observatory". In it, he discussed the two main advantages that a space-based observatory would
have over ground-based telescopes. First, the angular resolution (the smallest separation at which
objects can be clearly distinguished) would be limited only by diffraction, rather than by the
turbulence in the atmosphere, which causes stars to twinkle, known to astronomers as seeing. At
that time ground-based telescopes were limited to resolutions of 0.5–1.0 arcseconds, compared to
a theoretical diffraction-limited resolution of about 0.05 arcsec for a telescope with
a mirror 2.5 m in diameter. Second, a space-based telescope could
observe infrared and ultraviolet light, which are strongly absorbed by the atmosphere.

Spitzer devoted much of his career to pushing for the development of a space telescope. In 1962,
a report by the US National Academy of Sciences recommended the development of a space
telescope as part of the space program, and in 1965 Spitzer was appointed as head of a
committee given the task of defining scientific objectives for a large space telescope.

Hubble Facts
NASA's Hubble Space Telescope was launched April 24, 1990, on the space shuttle Discovery
from Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

 Hubble has made more than 1.3 million observations since its mission began in 1990.
 Astronomers using Hubble data have published more than 15,000 scientific papers, making it
one of the most productive scientific instruments ever built.
 Hubble does not travel to stars, planets or galaxies. It takes pictures of them as it whirls around
Earth at about 17,000 mph.
 Hubble has traveled more than 4 billion miles along a circular low Earth orbit currently about
340 miles in altitude.
 Hubble has no thrusters. To change pointing angles, it uses Newton’s third law by spinning its
wheels in the opposite direction. It turns at about the speed of a minute hand on a clock, taking
15 minutes to turn 90 degrees.
 Hubble has the pointing accuracy of .007 arc seconds, which is like being able to shine a laser
beam focused on Franklin D. Roosevelt's head on a dime roughly 200 miles away.
 Outside the haze of our atmosphere, Hubble can see astronomical objects with an angular size
of 0.05 arc seconds, which is like seeing a pair of fireflies in Tokyo from your home in
Maryland.
 Hubble has peered back into the very distant past, to locations more than 13.4 billion light
years from Earth.
 The Hubble archive contains more than 140 terabytes, and Hubble science data processing
generates about 10 terabytes of new archive data per year.

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 Hubble weighed about 24,000 pounds at launch and currently weighs about 27,000 pounds
following the final servicing mission in 2009 – on the order of two full-grown African
elephants.
 Hubble's primary mirror is 2.4 meters (7 feet, 10.5 inches) across.
 Hubble is 13.3 meters (43.5 feet) long -- the length of a large school bus.

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