RWANDA

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

BET4108: EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

STUDENTS SYLLABUS

LECTURER: MPORANANAYO Noel

January 2019
 Content

- Techniques and methods of communication process

- Theories of mass communication

- Construction of instructional objectives for classroom use

- Choosing instructional media for classroom use

- Classification of media

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 1. TECHNIQUES AND METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
PROCESS

1.1. Introduction

Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity to another.

Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least two agents which
share a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules. Communication is commonly defined as "the
imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs".
Although there is such a thing as one-way communication, communication can be perceived
better as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of thoughts, feelings
or ideas (energy) towards a mutually accepted goal or direction (information).

Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is channeled and

imparted by a sender to a receiver via some medium. The receiver then decodes the message and
gives the sender a feedback. All forms of communication require a sender, a message, and a
receiver. Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality.
There are auditory means, such as speech, song, and tone of voice, and there are nonverbal
means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, and writing.

Communication using verbal and written language is the single human activity that is at the
centre of human activity. It is believed by many scholars as the most important and the only
human activity that differentiates human beings from other creatures. Though other creatures can
pass to each other different messages, this is at the most rudimental level and not as complicated
as it is among human beings when they use language.

Communication is also defined as the transmission of information, ideas, attitudes or emotions

from one person or group of people to another person or group of people. The key concepts in
this definition are information which refers to the exchange of knowledge and information. For
example if you write to someone a letter telling him/her that on a particular day you are going to
pay him/her a visit, you are communicating because you are making them aware of an event or
activity that they did not know before.

Idea in this definition refers to new concepts and thoughts. For example in an organisation you
may have a problem, therefore if you come up with a way of solving that particular problem
during a brain storming session, and then you have communicated.

Attitude and emotions go together and they refer to the feelings-either positive or negative
about a situation or a person that the individual has. For example if someone under your
supervision does not follow instructions in the execution of a task you have assigned him/her,
you are likely to reprimand such a person. When you do reprimand such a person, you have
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communicated but what has been transmitted is your feeling of dislike towards the person or task
that was executed.

The other key concept in the above definition is transmission. It is one thing to have ideas,
information and emotion, but what is crucial is the transfer of these from one point to the other.
This essentially means that for communication to take place there has to be two parties willing or
forced by circumstances to participate in the process. There has to be a sender-the one with
information and the receiver- one whom the information is meant for. There has to be need for
the sender to send and the receiver to receive. In this case communication is any process of
getting a message from the source to its intended recipient.

1.2. Communication process

Communication is a two-way process involving the following elements: a sender, encoding a

message, a channel, a receiver, decoding and feedback. However, it is not sufficient to have just
all these elements; there should be cooperation and understanding between the two parties
involved. It is important to have a common frame of reference or context for successful and
meaningful communication, e.g. a common language or common interpretation of a gesture.
Essentially communication involves the sender or the communicator and the receiver. Both
should necessarily share a mutually accepted code e.g. a common language. The context in
which the communication takes place is called the “communication environment”. The content
of the code is sent in a certain medium (oral, written or non-verbal) using channels (air, mikes,
body, pictures, text, etc.) in the form of encoded messages. The “code” is not restricted to only
language; it may also involve the use of costumes, gestures, colors among other things. This
process can be summarized with the following chart.

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 1.3. Effective communication methods

Different Effective Methods of Communication – Most of the times, when the word
communication comes to the mind of the people, they think about exchanging ideas and
information by means of words but such type of verbal communication is just a small component
of communication. In the 21st century, businesses have access to a number of methods of
communication which can be used with internal and also with external audiences. The main
methods of communication which the businesses can use include the traditional business
meetings as well as print to the videoconferencing and social media of the new age. Several tools
can be utilized by the businesses for addressing audiences who are in locations which are both
near and far. While a lot of attention is received by the methods of effective communication that
are new, the value along with the relevance of the traditional methods of communication still
exists. Thus, several different methods of communication exists and the determination of the
method that is right for the organisation is a vital decision that needs to be taken.

1.3.1. Verbal Communication

Verbal communication involves the usage of words while the delivery of the intended message is
being made. It can be one-on-one, over the phone or in group settings, etc. it is a methods of
effective communication that is personal and has to be used more than only phone calls and
emails whenever possible. The medium of the message in case of verbal communication is oral.
Simple speaking is verbal communication. Seeing the person with whom face-to-face
communication is taking place helps in gauging the response of that person by understanding
their body language and also assists in active participation of the dialogue. Thus, written as well
as oral communication are the two main types of verbal communication.

1. Storytelling

Storytelling is a form of verbal communication that is effective. A vital organisational function is

served by it as it helps in the construction of common meanings for the individuals in the
organisation. Stories assist in clarifying key values and also help in demonstrating the way thing
are done in an organisation. The tone, strength and frequency of the story have a relation with
higher organisational commitment. The quality of stories that are told by the entrepreneurs is
related to the capability of securing capital for their organisations. Stories can help in serving to
reinforce as well as perpetuate the culture of an organisation.

2. Crucial Conversations

Even though the process is similar, more skill, reflection and planning is needed for high-stakes
communications in comparison to daily interactions at work. Examples of communication that
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 involves high-stakes consist of presenting the venture capitalist a business plan and asking for a
raise. Apart from these, at several times in our professional lives, we have conversations that are
crucial – discussions in which stakes are high, emotions run strong and opinions may differ.

3. Written Communication

Written communication cannot be avoided in the workplace. It is present everywhere and

consists of traditional paper and pen documents and letters, text chats, emails, typed electronic
documents, reports, SMS and anything else that might be conveyed by the use of written
symbols like language which includes any documents that are a part of the day to day business
life. Such methods of communication are indispensable for any formal business communication
and also for the issue of legal instructions.

The methods of communication that mainly make use of written communication consist of
formal business proposals, press releases, memos, contracts, brochures, handbooks and the like.
How effective the written communication is will depend on the style of writing, vocabulary,
grammar along with clarity. Written communication is most suitable in cases that require
detailed instructions, when something has to be documented or in situations where the person is
too far away to speak in person or over the phone. Some of the written methods of
communication include –

1. Social Media

Tools of the social media such as Facebook can be used in an effective way in the
organisationsfor the purpose of communicating between locations, divisions, departments and
employees. Certain tools such as Yammer are specifically designed for creating social media
networks in the confines of a particular domain of business.

2. Email

The email communication in organisations has become very common and is a highly essential
tool for sharing of information with one, hundreds as well as thousands of employees. It is
usually a significant component of the communication plan and even though it may not be a
replacement for face-to-face or other methods of communication, it is easily accessible and
inexpensive.

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 1.3.2. Nonverbal methods of Communication

Communication by sending as well as receiving wordless messages is a part of nonverbal

communication. Such messages are a vital part of any communication and generally provide
reinforcement to verbal communication. However, they can also convey their own feelings and
thoughts.

1. Physical Nonverbal Communication

A major role is played by the nonverbal communication in the way you communicate with other
people. It cannot be relied as a sole means of communication except in cases where the person
makes use of sign language. Physical Nonverbal Communication or the body language consists
of body posture, facial expressions, eye contact, gestures like a pointed finger, wave and the like,
touch, tone of voice, overall movements of the body and others.

The most common among all the nonverbal communication are the facial expressions. For
example, a frown or a smile conveys emotions that are distinct and are difficult to express by
means of verbal communication. Research has shown that nonverbal cues or body language
along with facial expressions, tone of voice and body stance account for almost 55% of all the
communication that takes place. As per the research, only 7% of the message’s comprehension
by the receiver is based on the actual words of the sender, 38% is on the basis of para language
(the volume, tone and pace of speech) while 55% is on the basis of nonverbal cues (body
language).

2. Paralanguage

A significant component of nonverbal communication is the way something is said, instead of

what is said actually. This consists of style of speaking, tone, emotion, stress, pitch, intonation
and voice quality. It helps in the communication of interest, approval or the absence of it.
According to research, 38% of all communications are accounted for by the tone of the voice.

The other nonverbal communication forms generally communicate the personality of a person.
These consist of –

 Aesthetic communication or creative expressions like painting, dancing, etc.

 Appearance or the style of grooming and dressing that communicates the personality of a
person.
 Space language like landscapes and paintings communicate taste as well as social status.
 Symbols like ego-building, status and religious symbols.

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 1.4. Effective communication techniques

Effective communication is about more than just exchanging information. It's about
understanding the emotion and intentions behind the information. As well as being able to
clearly convey a message, you need to also listen in a way that gains the full meaning of what’s
being said, builds trust, and makes the other person feel heard and understood.

More than just the words you use, effective communication combines a set of 4 skills:

1. Engaged listening

2. Nonverbal communication

3. Managing stress in the moment

4. Asserting yourself in a respectful way

While these are learned skills, communication is more effective when it’s spontaneous rather
than formulaic. A speech that is read, for example, rarely has the same impact as a speech that’s
delivered (or appears to be delivered) spontaneously. Of course, it takes time and effort to
develop these skills and become an effective communicator. The more effort and practice you
put in, the more instinctive and spontaneous your communication skills will become.

People often focus on what they should say, but effective communication is less about talking
and more about listening. Listening well means not just understanding the words or the
information being communicated, but also understanding the emotions the speaker is trying to
communicate.

There’s a big difference between engaged listening and simply hearing. When you really listen—
when you’re engaged with what’s being said—you’ll hear the subtle intonations in someone’s
voice that tell you how that person is feeling and the emotions they’re trying to communicate.
When you’re an engaged listener, not only will you better understand the other person, you’ll
also make that person feel heard and understood, which can help build a stronger, deeper
connection between you.

By communicating in this way, you’ll also experience a process that lowers stress and supports
physical and emotional well-being. If the person you’re talking to is calm, for example, listening

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in an engaged way will help to calm you, too. Similarly, if the person is agitated, you can help
calm them by listening in an attentive way and making the person feel understood.

If your goal is to fully understand and connect with the other person, listening in an engaged way
will often come naturally. If it doesn’t, try the following tips. The more you practice them, the
more satisfying and rewarding your interactions with others will become.

2. THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION

Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of various means by which
individuals and entities relay information to large segments of the population all at once through
mass media. It is defined as ‘any mechanical device that multiples messages and takes it to a
large number of people simultaneously’. When we are thinking, it is intra-personal
communication, when there is face-to-face conversation between two people it is interpersonal
communication, college lecture or speech would be an example of group communication, but
there is another level of communication when we read newspapers, magazines, listen to Radio or
watch TV. This would be called ‘Mass communication’ as the message is reached to the masses
through different media.

Both mass communication and mass media are generally considered synonymous for the sake of
convenience. The media through which messages are being transmitted include radio, TV,
newspapers, magazines, films, records, tape recorders, video cassette recorders, internet, etc. and
require large organizations and electronic devices to put across the message. Mass
communication is a special kind of communication in which the nature of the audience and the
feedback is different from that of interpersonal communication.

Mass communication can also be defined as ‘a process whereby mass produced messages are
transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogeneous masses of receivers’. By ‘mass
produced’ we mean putting the content or message of mass communication in a form suitable to
be distributed to large masses of people. ‘Heterogeneous’ means that the individual members of
the mass are from a wide variety of classes of the society. ‘Anonymous’ means the individuals
in the mass do not know each other. The source or sender of message in mass communication
does not know the individual members of the mass. Also the receivers in mass communication

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are physically separated from each other and share no physical proximity. Finally, the individual
members forming a mass are not united. They have no social organization and no customs and
traditions, no established sets of rules, no structure or status role and no established leadership.

Mass communication theory is best understood as a branch of social theory. Indeed, the attempt
to theorize “society” and “communication” arise in the same moment. A theorist is, one who
argues, gives reasons and makes connections to larger problems. Theory is not only something
that people do in their armchairs; it is an art that every scholar, if not citizen and human, should
cultivate.

2.1. Authoritarian Theory

The Authoritarian theory of the press can be traced to the very beginning of printing. At that
time, truth was thought to reside in those who held power-that is, the governing agency. Thus
there was strict control of the press through the licensing of printers by the throne. Censorship
was practiced if the ruler thought that information should be withheld from the masses.
Therefore, although the government did not necessarily own the press, it was looked on as being
an advocate of the state. Today many nations will not admit that their countries are governed
according to authoritarian principles, they publicly espouse libertarian concepts, but behind the
scenes authoritarian practices are carried out.

This term was first used by Siebert refers to an arrangement in which the press is subordinated to
state power and the interests of a ruling class. The theory justifies advance censorship and
punishment for deviation from externally set guidelines. Unacceptable attack on authority,
deviation from official policy, or offences against moral codes should be criminal offences.
Under certain circumstances, media are subjected to authoritarian tendencies in democratic
regimes as well, especially in times of war and during internal and external emergencies. Other
media like film, video, etc are subjected to censorship. Even the press, which is free, lost its
independence and freedom during the emergency 1975 -77. The authorities can and do use the
provisions of official secrets act to deny free access to information, thereby hampering the
freedom of press.

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 2.2. Libertarian Theory

Today ‘the open market place of ideas’ and the ‘self-righting process’ define the boundaries of
the libertarian theory of the press. In the seventeenth century John Milton defended the concepts
of reason and the moral integrity of man in telling right from wrong, good from bad, and truth
from falsehood in a powerful argument for intellectual freedom. Other exponents of this
philosophy were John Stuart, Thomas Jefferson and other who believed in freedom of
expression, rationalism, and natural rights. They saw as the press’s function to inform, to sell, to
entertain, to uphold the truth, and to keep check on the government. Press ownership in countries
espousing the libertarian philosophy is likely to be private and should be free from defamation,
obscenity, and impropriety and wartime sedition.

Libertarian theory is also called as the ‘free press theory’ and is based on the fundamental right
of an individual to freedom of expression, which is regarded as the main legitimating principle
for print media in liberal democracies. In its simple form, it prescribes that an individual should
be free to publish what he or she likes, it is thus extension of other rights to hold opinions freely,
to express them, to assemble and organize with others. The free press theory needs no
elaboration as is evident from the first amendment to the American constitution, which states that
‘congress shall make no law…abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, it is thus simply
an absolute right of the citizen’.

But the application of press freedom has hardly been straightforward. Milton, Stuart Mill and
many others argued that if freedom is abused to the extent of threatening good morals and the
authority of the state, it must be restrained. According to de Sola Pool 1973, ‘no nation will
indefinitely tolerate a freedom of the press that serves to divided the country and to open the
flood gates of criticism against the freely chosen government that leads its’. Moreover, much
difficulty has arisen because press freedom has become identified with property rights private
ownership and freedom from interference in the market. The free press theory or the libertarian
theory thus protects the owners of media but fails to give equal expression to the rights o editors
and journalists or of the audiences

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 2.3. Social Responsibility Theory

The social responsibility theory is an extension of the libertarian theory in that the press
recognizes that it has a responsibility to society to carry out its essential functions. The social
responsibility theory ascribes basically the same six functions to the press as the libertarian
theory:

1. Providing information, discussion, and debate on public affairs

2. Instructing and informing the public to make it capable of self government

3. Protecting the rights of the individual against the government through its watchdog
function

4. Maintaining the economic equilibrium of the system by bringing together buyer, seller,
and advertiser

5. Providing entertainment

6. Remaining independent of outside pressures by maintaining its own economic self-

sufficiency

2.4. Soviet Media Theory

This is also called as ‘the communist media theory’. Just as the social responsibility theory is an
outgrowth of the libertarian theory, soviet-communist theory is an outgrowth of the authoritarian
theory. However, whereas according to the authoritarian theory the press resides outside the
government, in the soviet media theory the press and the state are held to be one. The main
purpose of the soviet-media theory is to ensure the success and continuance of the soviet socialist
system and to promote the objectives of the soviet socialist party. This system is found mainly in
the Soviet Union and other communist countries.

Russian media was reorganized after the revolution of 1917. This theory is derived mainly from
basic tenets of Marx and Engels. It envisages media to be under the control of the working class
whose interest they are meant to serve. Private ownership of the press or other media is ruled out.
The media must serve positive functions in society relating to information, education,

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motivation, and mobilization. The media must project society in accordance with the Marxist-
Leninist principles. They must support progressive movements in the country and abroad.

3. CONSTRUCTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES FOR

CLASSROOM USE

When you think about the duties teachers, what is the first thing that comes to your mind? When
they attempt to answer this question, most people usually think about teachers in the classroom,
either delivering instruction to students or guiding students as they engage in various activities.
And, certainly, such activities are an important part of a teacher’s job. However, another part of a
teacher’s job is equally important, and that involves the planning of instruction, that is, planning
what the teacher and students will be doing in classroom (and sometimes outside the classroom).

3.1. Key principles underlying systematic instructional planning

How does a teacher go about planning for effective instruction? One way of doing so is by
employing the systematic approach to instructional planning. What constitutes a systematic
approach to instructional planning? What principles must be adhered to in order for us to agree
that instruction was planned systematically? Different individuals will provide you with different
answers to this question, but we believe that – at a minimum – in order to engage in systematic
instructional planning, teachers should adhere to four principles. Each of these principles is listed
below:

1. Begin the planning process by clearly identifying the general goals and specific
objectives students will be expected to attain;

2. Plan instructional activities that are intended to help students attain those objectives;

3. Develop assessment instruments that measure attainment of those objectives;

4. Revise instructions in light of student performance on each objective and student attitudes
towards your instructional activities.

5.

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 3.2. A systematic planning process

How does someone go about systematically planning instruction? There are many different
methods for doing so, most of which incorporate the four principles described above. Some of
these planning methods are quite complex, involving a great many steps. Others are much
simpler. The systematic planning process we recommend for teachers is a fairly simple one,
comprised of seven steps. These steps are portrayed in the following figure.

Identify Construction Plan Choose Develop

Instructional of Objectives Instructional Instructional Assessment
goals activities media tools

Implement
Revise instruction Instruction

3.3. Construction of Instructional Objectives

Instructional goals are general statements of desired instructional outcomes that can usually be
broken down into much more specific behaviours. Objectives describe those specific
behaviours. They are explicit descriptions of what students will be able to do as a result of the
instruction they receive. Why is specifying objectives an important part of the planning process?
How may you derive objectives from instructional goals? This is what we shall discuss.

Objectives are explicit descriptions of what students will be able to do as a result of the
instruction they receive (we emphasize at word “student” so that you won’t make the common
mistake of writing an objective in terms of what a teacher will do). Each objective describes a
specific observable behaviour is an action that we can actually see the learner perform and
oftentimes results in an observable product, such as an essay or a list of names.

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Why are well-written learning outcomes important?

 Student learning outcomes clarify faculty expectations for what students should know,
understand, be able to do, and value by the time they complete the program.

 They help shift discussions about the curriculum away from "coverage of topics" to
improvement of student learning.

 Student learning outcomes at the course level can act as a guide for class activities,
assignments, and exams.

 Assessment of student learning outcomes can provide information to students on their

strengths and weaknesses in relationship to learning outcomes.

 Assessment of student learning outcomes can provide information for the improvement
of educational programs and for demonstrating their effectiveness.

Characteristics of well-written learning outcomes:

 The specified action by the students must be observable.

 The specified action by the students must be measurable.

 The specified action must be done by the students.

 Use a variety of Bloom’s Taxonomy levels. (Using appropriate action verbs, state what
students will be able to do or what they should be able to demonstrate as a result of
completing your course. Do not list course content, pedagogies, or class activities.)

 Use language that is clear and direct. When possible, use language your students can
understand.

How are student learning outcomes written?

To describe what students will do, student learning outcomes use active verbs such as
demonstrate, apply, analyze and compare. Typically, student learning outcomes are constructed
using one of the following methods:

1. Formula:

Time Frame + Student focus +Action Verb + Product/process/outcome = Learning Outcome

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 2. ABCDs of writing objectives.

Method 1:

Learning Outcome = Time Frame + Student focus +Action Verb +Product/process/outcome

Example:

Learning Outcome:

“At the end of the library session the student should be able to identify a relevant database for
their term paper research.”

Formula: ƒ

Time frame: “At the end of the library session…”

Student focus: “…students should be able to…” ƒ

Action verb (Bloom’s taxonomy): “…identify…” ƒ

Product/process: “…a relevant database for their term paper research.”

Examples of Action verbs

Analyze demonstrate illustrate participate specify
apply describe interpret perform summarize
classify design judge predict support
communicate distinguish justify produce translate
construct evaluate modify recognize volunteer
create explain order review write
Define identify organize solve

Method 2: ABCDs of writing objectives.

• A-Audience: The who. "The student should be able to…”

• B-Behavior: What a student is expected to be able to do or the product or result of the
doing. The behavior or product should be observable.
• C-Condition: The important conditions under which the performance is to occur.
• D-Degree: The criterion of acceptable performance. How well the learner must perform
in order for the performance to be considered acceptable.

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What types of learning outcomes should be included?

Learning outcomes typically fall into three basic categories: knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
Several educators have developed more detailed frameworks that might be useful for identifying
learning outcomes. The most widely used framework is Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives (1956) which describes different levels of cognitive processing. Each level builds on
the previous level, which starts at knowledge, followed by comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation. The later three categories are sometimes referred to as "higher order
thinking skills," or the skills we might expect University studies to be able to demonstrate.

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. (Bloom, 1956)

This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as "the goals of the training process."
That is, after the training session, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or
attitudes. It was published in 1956 and revised in 2001.

The following table is an abbreviated version of Bloom's Taxonomy which includes a short
definition, a list of active verbs, and a sample student learning outcome for each level of the
Taxonomy.

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 Bloom's Taxonomy -- Cognitive Domain

Cognitive Level Definition Action Verbs Example Outcome

1. Knowledge By the end of the chemistry
To know specific facts, recite, list, define, describe, program, students should be
terms, concepts, identify, name, outline, able to list all of the
principles or theories select, state elements on the periodic
table.

2. Comprehension translate, interpret, predict, By the end of the French

To understand, generalize, defend, program, students should be
interpret, compare & distinguish, explain, able to translate a paragraph
contrast, explain generalize, give examples, of text from English to
summarize French.

3. Application By the end of the program,

To apply knowledge to apply, demonstrate, modify,
student should be able to
new situations, to solve prepare, produce, show,
apply basic Web
problems solve, use
development skills.

4. Analysis To identify the

organizational structure analyze, diagnose, By the end of the special
of something; to investigate, differentiate, education program, students
identify parts, distinguish, illustrate, select, should be able to diagnose
relationships, and separate learning disabilities.
organizing principles

5. Synthesis To create something, to

By the end of the art
integrate ideas into a
create, categorize, devise, program, students should be
solution, to propose an
design, explain, organize, able to create at least 12
action plan, to
plan original works in their
formulate a new
medium.
classification scheme

6. Evaluation To judge the quality of By the end of the music

something based on its appraise, compare, contrast,
program, students should be
adequacy, value, logic, criticize, describe, explain,
able to judge student
or use justify, interpret, support
performances.

Morrison, G.R., Ross, S.M., & Kemp, J.E., (2001).

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 4. CHOOSING INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA FOR CLASSROOM USE

When preparing your lesson, you should describe each instructional activity in terms of your
role, your students’ role and the role that will be played by instructional media. In some cases, it
is quite likely that your instructional activities will be limited to the traditional media that,
employed by teachers, namely chalkboard, textbooks, workbooks, and other supplementary print
materials. However, there are likely instances when you will want to use other instructional
media as part of your instructional plan. How will you decide whether a particular medium is
appropriate?

When you hear or read the term Instructional media, what do you think of? Many people would
say that they think of such things as films, or filmstrips, or overhead projectors. Others,
particularly those who have recently been in school settings, are more likely to mention
computers. All of these things are examples of instructional media.

We would like to define instructional media as the physical means by which instruction is
delivered to the students. Thus, our definition includes all of the traditional means of delivering
instruction, as well as the new instructional media, such as computers, DVD, CD-ROM,
interactive video, and multimedia systems.

The instructional media we will be discussing are less traditional in the sense that teachers,
chalkboards, textbooks, and supplementary print materials are used more frequently as a means
of presenting instructional activities to students. Indeed, it is likely when you choose a means for
presenting an instructional activity; you will assume that you will present the activity yourself or
that you will use a textbook or a supplementary print material to do so. However, there are likely
to be instances when you may want to incorporate a different medium in your instructional plan.
Under such circumstances, we suggest you ask yourself these three questions.

1. Practical?

2. Appropriate in your students’ characteristics?

3. A good means of presenting a particular instructional activity?

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Practicability

The question of whether a medium is practical must be examined in terms of the mediated
materials (software) you want to use and the media equipment (hardware) that will be required. It
is important to distinguish between media hardware and media software. Media hardware refers
to equipment, such as computers, televisions and tape players. Media software, or mediated
materials, are instructional materials that are presented by means of a piece of media hardware.
Examples of mediated materials are computer disks, videocassettes, and audiotapes.

When it comes to software, do not be surprised if the school you work in does not have many of
the computer software packages, instructional videotapes, and other mediated materials of which
you may be aware. If they are not readily available, what will be the time and cost involved in
obtaining or producing them, and is the administrators at your school likely to approve the
expense?

Even if the desired mediated materials are easily obtainable, there are a number of practical
questions pertaining to media hardware that you could consider. These include the following:

 Is the necessary media (hardware) equipment readily available to you?

 If the hardware is available, can it be easily used in the instructional environment in

which you are working?

 If the necessary hardware is not available, what will be the time and cost involved in
obtaining it, and will the school administrators approve the expense?

Students’ characteristics

When you are thinking about using an instructional medium, it is important for also to consider
whether that medium is appropriate in light of the characteristics of your students. One factor
you should take into consideration is the attitudes your students have regarding a particular
medium. For example if you show them an instructional television program, will they be inclined
to think of the program as entertainment? If so, how will their perceptions affect their learning?

It is also important to consider your students knowledge and skills in a particular area. What do
your students already know about the content the instructional medium deals with? What content

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related skills do your students already possess? In light of the answers to these questions, do you
think that the instructional medium presents the content at a level that your students will be able
to understand?

Also think about the general abilities of your students. If you are working with below-average
learners, then it is likely that most of them will not be good readers. If that is the case, you
should consider using non-print media whenever appropriate. For example, if you were
attempting to teach below-average learners how an automobile engine operates, the description
of the process might best be presented by a medium that allows the learners to see and hear how
the process works, rather than a medium that requires them to read about the process.

Instructional Activities

The question of whether a particular instructional medium should be used should also be
examined in light of instructional activity it is intended to present. Media differ with respect to
their ability to present particular instructional activities. For example, some media are capable of
depicting motion and sound, and other media are not. So, if we are interested in describing, in
words, how a steam engine operates, almost any medium can do the job. If, however, we are
interested in accurately depicting how a steam engine works, our choice of media becomes much
more limited; film or television might be the medium of choice, since both can accurately depict
motion and present sounds.

In addition to differing in their ability to present information and provide examples, media
always differ in the ways in which they can present other instructional activities. Let’s look at
each type of instructional activity and see how various media might be used to support it.

a) Motivating students

As we indicated earlier, media are often used to help to present this instructional activity. Many
teachers have found that they can gain their students attention by presenting them with
interesting visual images ranging from simple black-and-white hand-drawn cartoons to lifelike
incorporating motion and colour. A variety of media, such as motion pictures, filmstrips,
television, computers, slides, charts, and transparencies can be used to present these images.

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You may also gain your students attention or arouse their curiosity by having them listen to
various sounds, ranging from the sound of a famous person giving a speech to the sound of the
wind during the hurricane. In order to present your learners with sounds such as these, a variety
of media may be employed, including audio recording (on tapes, disks, or recorders), television,
motion pictures, and slides synchronized with tapes.

b) Informing students of objectives

Teachers will often present their objectives to students orally and/or in writing via handouts, the
chalkboard, or overhead transparencies. However, other media may also be employed for this
purpose. For example, if most of the other instructional activities are to be delivered by a
particular medium (for example, the computer), then it may be convenient to use that same
medium to present your objectives.

c) Helping students recall prerequisites

When you are reminding students of the prerequisites they need to recall, an oral statement will
often suffice. However, a written reminder of the prerequisites may also be helpful. Such a
reminder might be presented via the chalkboard, or overhead transparency, or a written handout.

d) Presenting information and examples

The media you use in order to present information and examples to your students will depend, in
large part, on the nature of the learning outcome you want your students to attain. Let’s look at
each outcome separately.

If your outcome falls in the knowledge domain, then it is important that you present that
information to your students within a larger, more meaningful context. Media that can present
visual images will often help. For example, rather than merely describing the physical
characteristics of Abraham Lincoln to your students, it would be more effective to accompany
such a description with pictures of the man. And, inasmuch as sounds may also broaden the
context in which facts are presented, then media that presents sounds to your students may also
help them to recall certain facts.

In intellectual skills domain, a large number of outcomes require students to be able to identify
different objects based upon their physical characteristics. This is one type of concept learning.

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An example would be having a student classify various plants based upon each plant physical
features. In order to present students with the information and examples necessary to make such
classification, visual media, such as slides or motion pictures, are often required.

Another type of outcome in the intellectual skills domain requires students to be able to describe
the relationship among various things, events or people (such as the familial relationship between
an aunt and her niece). For outcomes of this sort, the use of charts, slides, or other media that can
depict the relationship between abstract concepts is particularly important.

Other major outcomes in the intellectual skills domain involve rule-using and problem-solving.
Often the printed word is the best way of communicating the information and explaining the
examples students need in order to be able to perform these sorts of skills. However, in some
courses, students are using computer-accessed databases both to define and solve problems.

In motor skills domain, the instructional activity called “information and examples” often
consists of a live explanation and demonstration. However, media, such as motion pictures and
television (videotape or videodisk) are particularly good media choices here in that both media
possess motion, slow-motion, and stop-action capabilities. Other visual media, such as filmstrips
and slides, can also be used for demonstration motor skills, but their value is diminished
somewhat by the fact that these media cannot depict motion.

Finally, in the attitude domain, it is quite valuable to have a person your students admire
advocate a view or model a behaviour you would like to see your students adopt. In many
instances (particularly in the early grades) you, the teacher, will serve as the role model. On the
other occasions, respected individuals can be brought into classrooms, but more often than not,
you will have to use other means in order to present such individuals to your students. For
example, a videotape can be used to present a rock star speaking out against drug use.

In trying to convince students to adopt a particular point of view, messages presented via
television or motion pictures may be most effective, inasmuch as these media are usually more
capable than others in providing your students with a sense of reality, of being there. Certainly,
other media, such as audio recordings, or slides with tapes, can effectively be used to present
information or examples related to attitudes; however, since the former cannot present visual

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images and the latter cannot depict motion, they may not be as effective as television or motion
pictures.

e) Providing practice and feedback

The media you use to present your practice activities should be capable of providing the same
conditions as described in your objective. For example, if your objective calls for your students
to name various public officials when shown pictures of those officials, then the medium you use
during your practice activity should be capable of presenting pictures.

Although some objectives may require that students respond to some pictures or sounds, many
more objectives require that students that students respond to written questions. Therefore, many
practice exercises will be presented via worksheets, chalkboards, or computers.

The computer is a particularly good medium for providing practice, especially for intellectual
skills. The computer can easily provide an extensive variety of practice problems and, more
important, adjust the amount, sequence and difficulty of those problems in light of the student’s
performance.

Media differ with regard to their capability to provide feedback to students. Whereas some media
can “judge” a student’s response and provide response-specific feedback, other media usually
provide general feedback. This difference becomes particularly important when you are teaching
intellectual skills or motor skills. When your students are practicing these skills, it important they
receive response-specific feedback that not only indicates that the response was correct or
incorrect, but also provides information designed to help them correct any errors.

For intellectual skills outcomes, computers and interactive videodisks can serve as excellent
sources of response-specific feedback. The latter medium can be particularly effective in
depicting a real-life problem-solving situation (such as teaching a child how to deal with a bully),
asking the viewer to choose from one of several ways to respond to the situation, and then
presenting the probable consequences of responding in that fashion.

Most media (other than very expensive simulators) are not capable of providing learners with
feedback that appraises the quality of the performance of a motor skill. With such skills, having

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an instructor observe and critique a student’s motor skill performance is the best means of
providing response-specific feedback.

f) Summarizing the lesson

In some cases, it is a good idea simply to present a lesson summary via the same medium that
was used to present the bulk of a lesson. However, we believe that if you rely on other media to
present most of a lesson, then it is often a good idea for you to interact with your students during
the lesson summary. We make this recommendation because we know that in some cases,
students view “mediated” lessons as being less important, as simply being an opportunity to
relax. Getting the students to respond to some summary questions that you pose (these may be
presented to the students before, during, or after the lesson) is an excellent way of ensuring that
they will view the mediated lesson as a normal part of the instructional process, not a time-filler.

5. CLASSIFICATION OF MEDIA

T here is different ways to classify media.

1. Print media, non-print media, electronic media

· Print media. T hey include: books, journals, magazines, newspapers, workbook,

textbooks

· Non-print media: they include: projected and non-projected media

· Electronic media: they include: Audio media, Visual media and Audio-Visual

2. Projected media & non-projected media

· Projected media: they require light source for projection. E .g. film projector
slides etc.

· Non-projected media: they do not require light source. They include 3dimensional
objects, 2dimensional objects, prints, charts, models etc.

3. Audio media, Visual media & Audio-visual

· Audio media: this form of media carry sounds alone. E .g. audio tapes, record
player,
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 · Visual media: These are the ones that can be seen. E .g. T V, computer, white
board

· Audio-Visual: this term refers to those instructional materials which provide

students with audio and visual experiences by appearing to the hearing and seeing
senses at the sam e tim e. E .g. T V, video tapes, closed circuit television (C C T V ).

4. Hardware and software

· Hardware: this the classification of machines or equipment used in the

instructional process. It is upon these gadgets that the software is transmitted. E.g.
Television set, tape recorder etc.

· Software: this classification consists of all materials used with the machine. T
hey are the real carrier of know ledge or information. T hey include, film s, tapes
transparencies.

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