11

Mongol Conquest
• Reading Assignment: Mongol Invasion and

Conquests at
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire
Genghis Khan born c. 1162 – August
18, 1227
• Difficult childhood; An important theme of
Mongol Empire is that merit rather than birth
the road to advancement:
• “As he smashed the feudal system of
aristocratic privilege and birth, he built a new
and unique system based on individual merit,
loyalty, and achievement” Genghis Khan and
the Making of the Modern World; Jack
Weatherford, p. xix
• https://upload.wikimedi
a.org/wikipedia/commo
ns/thumb/3/35/YuanE
mperorAlbumGenghisP
ortrait.jpg/375px-
YuanEmperorAlbumGen
ghisPortrait.jpg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/comm
ons/b/bc/Mongol_Empire_map_2.gif
• Ca. 1200 Clan warrior, Temujin, united Mongol
clans, in 1206 awarded title, Genghis Khan---
universal leader.
• Mongol culture—nomadic, horse, laminated bow,
harsh climate, family/clan based; sky god chief
deity.
• Raids on neighboring clans for revenge and
“booty”…booty shared by troops, not just clan
leaders
• Jurchen Jin Empire: 1215-1234
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Mongol_warrior_of_Gen
ghis_Khan.jpghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Mongol_warrior
_of_Genghis_Khan.jpg
ons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_Invasion_of_China.p
ng/1024px-Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png
Genghis: South and West to Persia
• Western Liao: 1218
• Khwarezmain Empire: 1221
• Western Xia: 1227
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Genghis_K
han_empire-en.svg/2000px-Genghis_Khan_empire-en.svg.png
Persia
• Battle of Bagdad—1258
Mongol warfare: mobile horse, local infantry;
winter warfare; adapt seize technologies along
way—esp. from Chinese; surrender or be
destroyed
Often left local government in place, tribute
and loyalty;
Empire split into four parts
• Following death of Genghis Khan, either his sons or
grandsons became rulers, however constant dispute
over supreme command.
• While conquests continued, empire divided into four
separate kingdoms:
• Golden Horde—north Asia and eastern Europe—1370’s
• Cagatai Khanate—central Asia 1600’s
• Ilkanate—Middle East--1335
• Great Yuan– China and S.E. Asia—1370’s—to Ming
Dynasty
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com
mons/8/82/MongolEmpireDivisions1300.png
ons/8/82/MongolEmpireDivisions1300.png
Mongol Legacy Empires
• Areas of northern India, Moghuls, descendant

of Mongols settle in region. Last until 1600’s.
• Tamerlane– from 1370 -1405, based out of
central Asia—Islamic re-conquest of much of
the Mongolian held regions, except for China.
• Ming Dynasty– 1370-1644: time of cultural
advancement and political stability.
• Ottoman Empire-
Tamerlane Control Area
ons/8/87/TimuridEmpire1400.png
Russia and Mongols
• Russian—As the evidence stands, the effects of the Mongol invasion were many,
spread across the political, social, and religious facets of Russia. While some of
those effects, such as the growth of the Orthodox Church generally had a relatively
positive effect on the lands of the Rus, other results, such as the loss of
the veche system and centralization of power assisted in halting the spread of
traditional democracy and self-government for the various principalities. From the
influences on the language and the form of government, the very impacts of the
Mongol invasion are still evident today. Perhaps given the chance to experience
the Renaissance, as did other western European cultures, the political, religious,
and social thought of Russia would greatly differ from that of the reality of today.
The Russians, through the control of the Mongols who had adopted many ideas of
government and economics from the Chinese, became perhaps a
more Asiatic nation in terms of government, while the deep Christian roots of the
Russians established and helped maintain a link with Europe. It was the Mongol
invasion which, perhaps more than any other historical event, helped to determine
the course of development that Russian culture, political geography, history, and
national identity would take.
•
Dustin Hosseini http://www.sras.org/the_effects_of_the_mongol_empire_on_russia
ons/thumb/d/d5/Golden_Horde_1389.svg/200
0px-Golden_Horde_1389.svg.png
Mongol’s Lasting Significance
1. Largest contiguous land empire in history
2. Insured safe travel on silk routes---Marco Polo
and Kublai Khan---Wealth of China and Europe
3. Religiously tolerant (within boundaries)
4. Exchange of technologies—east and west
5. Exchange of diseases---small pox and bubonic
plaque
6. Advancement based on merit
Lasting significance
• Help competing powers in Europe unite
against a common enemy—helping to
establish “national” identities.
• Empire ruled by common law—Yassa—est. by
Genghis Khan---rules for nomadic life, later
expanded to cover many areas of life.
• Empire courier system for dispatches
•
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thu
mb/9/9b/Great_Mongol_Empire_map.svg/3100px-
Great_Mongol_Empire_map.svg.png
Clash of religions
• Buddhism/Confucianism
• Christian internal conflicts
• Christianity/Islam/Judaism
Buddhism in Asia
• Reform of Hinduism—500 B.C.
• Teaching of Gautama, Buddha, enlightenment
to reach Nirvana.
• Silk Road and Spice Routes, spread through-
out Asia
Between 1000 and 1500, two primary forms,
Mahayana and Theravada
Theravada Buddhism
• Southern Asia: Thailand, Sri Lanka, Burma,
Myanmar, Laos
• More traditional form of Buddhism, with
emphasis on the person to seek
enlightenment.
Mahayana Buddhism
• Northern Buddhist predominantly in Tibet,
China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, parts
of Southeast Asia.
• Along with emphasis on person seeking
enlightenment, but much more embrace of
both historical and non-historical bodhisattva
• Bodhisattva are persons/beings who have
completed the path to Nirvana, yet remain
behind to help others.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Buddhism_Map.png
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com
mons/7/7c/Buddhism_Map.png
So major difference is goal of practice
• Southern, goal is for person to attain Nirvana
• Northern goal is not only for oneself, but to
help others reach as well.
• Internal conflict between groups for millennia

Buddhism and Confucianism
• Struggle between two religions for leadership
in Chinese culture and politics
• Confucianism often aristocracy, while
Buddhism practiced more by the non-royals.
• However Confucianism dominant leadership
religion----used through the 1930’s as
educational instruction and civil service
Christian Internal conflicts 1000-1500
• Great Schism: 1054 AD Roman Catholic (Pope
of Rome) and Eastern Orthodox (Patriarch of
Constantinople); Rome claimed highest
authority, theological disputes, liturgical
practices. Conflict between Eastern and
Western Christianity.
Christian Internal conflicts 1000-1500
• Great Schism: 1054 AD Roman Catholic (Pope
of Rome) and Eastern Orthodox (Patriarch of
Constantinople); Rome claimed highest
authority, theological disputes, liturgical
practices. Conflict between Eastern and
Western Christianity.
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Gr
eat_Schism_1054_with_former_borders-.png
Papal “Captivity”
• Reading Assignment:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon_Papacy
14th Cent struggle between Popes, Kings of
France, Italian city states, England, others over
the secular power of the Pope.
From 1309, Pope Clement V, French, moves
Pope’s enclave to Avignon (France)…stays in
France until 1376, then back to Rome.
From 1378-1403 “Antipopes” in Avignon,
followed by other antipopes until 1437.
Western Schism
In the period of the Schism, the power
struggle in the papacy became a battlefield of
the major powers, with France supporting the
Pope in Avignon and England supporting the
Pope in Rome. At the end of the century, still
in the state of schism, the papacy had lost
most of its direct political power, and
the nation states of France and England were
established as two of the main powers in
Europe.
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon_Papacy
Christianity and Islam
• Reconquista of Spain
• Crusades to Palestine
Spanish Reconquista
• “The Reconquista[a] (Spanish and Portuguese for
the "reconquest") is the period in the history of
the Iberian Peninsula of about 780 years between
the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and
the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada to the
expanding Christian kingdoms in 1492.
The Reconquista was completed just before the
Spanish discovery of the Americas—the "New
World"—which ushered in the era of the Spanish
and Portuguese colonial empires. “
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquista
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Progress_of_the_Reconquist
a_%28718%E2%80%931492%29_-_es.svg/2000px-
Progress_of_the_Reconquista_%28718%E2%80%931492%29_-_es.svg.png
Reconquista---results
• Spain as exclusively Catholic nation
(Inquisition) with Muslims and Jews expelled.
• Unifies various kingdoms into Spain and
Portugal
• Gave example of a Holy War- Crusade
• Holy Land Crusades seen as something of an
extension.
Reading ASSIGNMENT
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades
Crusades to Palestine
• Formally begin in 1095 after Byzantium loses
Battle of Manzekert in 1071, Emperor Alexios I
requests help of Pope Urban II for military
help to protect against the Seljuk Turkish
advances into Asia Minor.
• Pope Urban II responds with sermons/Church
Council calling for European armies to go to
war against Turks.
Other Factors for the Crusades
• Potential way for Urban II, papacy to assert
dominance over Eastern Church—Great
Schism
• Inter-kingdom warfare in Europe constant
conflict, knight class of mercenary warriors
ravaging poor. Need to have a unifying and
non-European enemy:
“For Pope Urban II, at the Council of Clermont in 1095, the subversion of
martial violence is effective in dealing with secular violence:
Oh race of the Franks, we learn that in some of your provinces no one

can venture on the road by day or by night without injury or attack by
highwaymen, and no one is secure even at home. Let us then re-enact
the law of our ancestors known as the Truce of God. And now that you
have promised to maintain the peace among yourselves you are
obligated to succour your brethren in the East, menaced by an accursed
race, utterly alienated from God. The Holy Sepulchre of our Lord is
polluted by the filthiness of an unclean nation. Recall the greatness of
Charlemagne. O most valiant soldiers, descendants of invincible
ancestors, be not degenerate. Let all hatred depart from among you, all
quarrels end, all wars cease. Start upon the road to the Holy Sepulchre
to wrest that land from the wicked race and subject it to yourselves.”[24]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_and_Truce_of_God
• Turks control Silk Roads; Genoa and Venice
wanted trade with East and bypass
Constantinople.
• Spiritual Anxiety over Millennium (Year 1000);
plagues; wars…..impending death or end of
the world. Seeking of salvation –Heaven– on
everyone’s mind. Church grant indulgences—
later began to sell them to help pay for
Crusades—to all crusaders.
Almost immediately Peter the Hermit led thousands of mostly poor
Christians out of Europe in what became known as the People's
Crusade.[30] He claimed he had a letter from heaven instructing
Christians to prepare for the imminent apocalypse by seizing
Jerusalem [31] The motivations of this Crusade included a "messianism of
the poor" inspired by an expected mass ascension into heaven at
Jerusalem.[32] Germany witnessed the first incidents of major violent
European antisemitism when these Crusaders massacred Jewish
communities in what become known as the Rhineland massacres.[33] In
Speyer, Worms, Mainz, and Cologne the range of anti-Jewish activity
was broad, extending from limited, spontaneous violence to full-scale
military attacks.[34] The Crusaders journeyed, despite advice from
Alexios' to wait for the nobles, to Nicaea. Only 3000 survived an ambush
by the Turks at the Civetot.[35] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades
“The enthusiastic response to Urban's preaching from all
classes in Western Europe established a precedent for other
Crusades. Volunteers became Crusaders by taking a public
vow and receiving plenary indulgences from the Church.
Some were hoping for a mass ascension into heaven at
Jerusalem or God's forgiveness for all their sins. Others
participated to satisfy feudal obligations, obtain glory and
honour or to seek economic and political gain.”
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades
Crusades cont.
• Frankish Wars;—French (Normans in England)
• German some Italian and Spanish
• Four in all, 1095-1291…lasting results in Holy
Land minimal.
• Set Europe against all non-Christian religions,
primarily Muslim and Jewish
• 4th Crusade, one of economics, Italian Cities
against Byzantium, Constantinople
sacked…cemented division between Eastern and
Western Christian Churches.
• Culturally, Europe gains knowledge about ancient
Hindu, Persian, Greek and Roman worlds as well
as mathematics (e.g. algebra), warfare, science,
philosophy—scholarship of world preserved in
Islamic and Byzantine schools and academies.
Paves way for Thomas Aquinas (scholasticism)
and later Renaissance in Europe.
• Religiously, increases people’s trust in holy sites,
relics, and in Church’s power of granting
salvation, esp. indulgences.
Christianity and Islam?
Conflict of Crusades seems major part of
Christianity's story, less so for Islam.
Geographically limited; Turkish conquest—Turks
often at war with other Muslims in Egypt or
Syria—not unified Muslim ethos. Mongol
invasion soon to follow more overwhelming, after
that the Ottoman Empire
For Christians, justification of violence as a means
to advance faith; “God wills it!” Religious
intolerance European conquests…
Mongol Empire - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire (Mongolian: Mongolyn
Ezent Güren listen ; Mongolian Cyrillic:
Mongol Empire
Монголын эзэнт гүрэн; Mongolian
pronunciation: [mɔŋɡ(ɔ)ɮˈiːŋ ɛt͡sˈɛnt ˈɡurəŋ]; also
Орда, 'the Horde' in Russian chronicles)
existed during the 13th and 14th centuries and
was the largest contiguous land empire in '
history.[2] Originating from Mongolia, the
1206–1368
Mongol Empire eventually stretched from
Eastern Europe and parts of Central Europe to
the Sea of Japan, extending northwards into
Siberia, eastwards and southwards into the
Indian subcontinent, Indochina and the Flag
Iranian Plateau; and westwards as far as the

Levant and the Carpathian Mountains.
The Mongol Empire emerged from the

unification of several nomadic tribes in the
Mongol homeland under the leadership of
Genghis Khan, whom a council proclaimed
ruler of all the Mongols in 1206. The empire
grew rapidly under his rule and that of his
descendants, who sent invasions in every
direction.[3][4] The vast transcontinental Expansion of the Mongol Empire 1206–1294
empire connected the East with the West with superimposed on a modern political map of Eurasia
an enforced Pax Mongolica, allowing the Status Nomadic empire
dissemination and exchange of trade, Capital 1206–1235: Avarga
technologies, commodities and ideologies
1235–1260: Karakorum[a]
across Eurasia.[5][6]
1260–1368: Khanbaliq (Dadu)[b]
The empire began to split due to wars over Common languages Mongolian · Turkic · Chinese ·
succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Persian and other languages
Khan disputed whether the royal line should
Religion
follow from his son and initial heir Ögedei or Initially
from one of his other sons, such as Tolui, Tengrism · Shamanism
Chagatai, or Jochi. The Toluids prevailed after
Later
Islam · Buddhism ·
a bloody purge of Ögedeid and Chagataid Nestorianism
factions, but disputes continued among the
descendants of Tolui. A key reason for the split Government Elective monarchy
was the dispute over whether the Mongol Later also hereditary
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Empire would become a sedentary, Great Khan

cosmopolitan empire, or would stay true to • 1206–1227 Genghis Khan
their nomadic and steppe lifestyle. After • 1229–1241 Ögedei Khan
Möngke Khan died (1259), rival kurultai • 1246–1248 Güyük Khan
councils simultaneously elected different • 1251–1259 Möngke Khan
successors, the brothers Ariq Böke and Kublai • 1260–1294 Kublai Khan (nominal)
• 1333–1368 Toghan Temür, Khan (nominal)
Khan, who fought each other in the Toluid Civil
War (1260–1264) and also dealt with Legislature Kurultai
challenges from the descendants of other sons History
of Genghis.[7][8] Kublai successfully took
• Genghis Khan proclaims 1206
power, but civil war ensued as he sought the Mongol Empire
unsuccessfully to regain control of the • Death of Genghis Khan 1227
Chagatayid and Ögedeid families. • Pax Mongolica 1250–1350
• Empire fragments 1260–1294
During the reigns of Genghis and Ögedei, the • Fall of Yuan dynasty 1368
Mongols suffered the occasional defeat when a • Collapse of the 1687
less skilled general was given a command. The Chagatai Khanate
Siberian Tumads defeated the Mongol forces Area
under Borokhula around 1215–1217; Jalal al- 1206 (unification of 4,000,000 km2
Din defeated Shigi-Qutugu at the Battle of Mongolia)[1] (1,500,000 sq mi)
Parwan; and the Jin generals Heda and Pu'a 1227 (Genghis Khan's 13,500,000 km2
defeated Dolqolqu in 1230. In each case, the death)[1] (5,200,000 sq mi)
Mongols returned shortly after with a much 1294 (Kublai's death)[1] 23,500,000 km2
(9,100,000 sq mi)
larger army led by one of their best generals,
1309 (last formal 24,000,000 km2
and were invariably victorious. The Battle of reunification)[1] (9,300,000 sq mi)
Ain Jalut in Galilee in 1260 marked the first
Currency Various[c]
time that the Mongols would not return to
immediately avenge a defeat, due to a
Preceded by Succeeded by
combination of the death of Möngke Khan, the
Khamag Mongol Chagatai Khanate
Toluid Civil War between Arik Boke and
Khwarazmian Empire Golden Horde
Khubilai, and Berke of the Golden Horde
Qara Khitai Ilkhanate
attacking Hulegu in Persia. Although the Jīn dynasty Yuan dynasty
Mongols launched many more invasions of the Song dynasty Northern Yuan dynasty
Levant, briefly occupying it and raiding as far Western Xia Timurid Empire
as Gaza after a decisive victory at the Battle of Abbasid Caliphate Anatolian Beyliks
Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299, they withdrew due Nizari Ismaili state Mamluk Sultanate
to various geopolitical factors. Kievan Rus' Kingdom of Poland
Volga Bulgaria Grand Duchy of Lithuania
By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Cumania Ming dynasty
Mongol Empire had fractured into four Alania Joseon
separate khanates or empires, each pursuing Kingdom of Dali
its own separate interests and objectives: Kimek Khanate
Goryeo
The Golden Horde khanate in the
northwest.
The Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia. a. Karakorum was founded in 1220 and served as capital
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The Ilkhanate in the southwest. from 1235 to 1260.

The Yuan dynasty in the east based in
modern-day Beijing.[9]
b. Following the death of Möngke Khan in 1259, no one city
served as capital. Khanbaliq (Dadu), modern-day Beijing,
In 1304, the three western khanates briefly was the Yuan capital between 1271 and 1368.
accepted the nominal suzerainty of the Yuan c. Including coins such as dirhams and paper currencies
dynasty,[10][11] but in 1368 the Han Chinese based on silver (sukhe) or silk, or the later small amounts
Ming dynasty took over the Mongol capital. of Chinese coins and paper Chao currency of the Yuan
The Genghisid rulers of the Yuan retreated to dynasty.
the Mongolian homeland and continued to rule
there as the Northern Yuan dynasty. The Ilkhanate disintegrated in the period 1335–1353. The Golden Horde had
broken into competing khanates by the end of the 15th century whilst the Chagatai Khanate lasted in one form or
another until 1687.
Contents
Name
History
Pre-empire context
Rise of Genghis Khan
Early organization
Push into Central Asia
Religious policies
Death of Genghis Khan and expansion under Ögedei (1227–1241)
Invasions of Kievan Rus' and central China
Push into central Europe
Post-Ögedei power struggles (1241–1251)
Death of Güyük (1248)
Rule of Möngke Khan (1251–1259)
Administrative reforms
New invasions of the Middle East and Southern China
Death of Möngke Khan (1259)
Disunity
Dispute over succession
Mongolian Civil War
Campaigns of Kublai Khan (1264–1294)
Disintegration into competing entities
Development of the khanates
Relict states of the Mongol Empire
Military organization
Society
Law and governance
Religions
Arts and literature
Mail system
Silk Road
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Legacy
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
Name
What is referred to in English as the Mongol Empire was called the Ikh Mongol Uls (ikh: "great", uls: "state"; Great
Mongolian State).[12] In the 1240s, one of Genghis's descendants, Güyük Khan, wrote a letter to Pope Innocent IV
which used the preamble "Dalai (great/oceanic) Khagan of the great Mongolian state (ulus)".[13]
After the succession war between Kublai Khan and his brother Ariq Böke, Ariq limited Kublai's power to the eastern
part of the empire. Kublai officially issued an imperial edict on 18 December 1271 to name the country Great Yuan (Dai
Yuan, or Dai Ön Ulus) to establish the Yuan dynasty. Some sources state that the full Mongolian name was Dai Ön
Yehe Monggul Ulus.[14]
History
Pre-empire context
The area around Mongolia, Manchuria, and parts of North China had
been controlled by the Liao dynasty since the 10th century. In 1125,
the Jin dynasty founded by the Jurchens overthrew the Liao dynasty
and attempted to gain control over former Liao territory in Mongolia.
In the 1130s the Jin dynasty rulers, known as the Golden Kings,
successfully resisted the Khamag Mongol confederation, ruled at the
time by Khabul Khan, great-grandfather of Genghis Khan.[15]
The Mongolian plateau was occupied mainly by five powerful tribal Mongolian tribes during the Khitan Liao
confederations (khanlig): Keraites, Khamag Mongol, Naiman, Mergid, dynasty (907–1125)
and Tatar. The Jin emperors, following a policy of divide and rule,
encouraged disputes among the tribes, especially between the Tatars
and the Mongols, in order to keep the nomadic tribes distracted by their own battles and thereby away from the Jin.
Khabul's successor was Ambaghai Khan, who was betrayed by the Tatars, handed over to the Jurchen, and executed.
The Mongols retaliated by raiding the frontier, resulting in a failed Jurchen counter-attack in 1143.[15]
In 1147, the Jin somewhat changed their policy, signing a peace treaty with the Mongols and withdrawing from a score
of forts. The Mongols then resumed attacks on the Tatars to avenge the death of their late khan, opening a long period
of active hostilities. The Jin and Tatar armies defeated the Mongols in 1161.[15]
During the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the usually cold, parched steppes of Central Asia enjoyed
their mildest, wettest conditions in more than a millennium. It is thought that this resulted in a rapid increase in the
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number of war horses and other livestock which significantly

enhanced Mongol military strength.[16]
Rise of Genghis Khan

Known during his childhood as Temujin, Genghis Khan was a son of a
Mongol chieftain. As a young man he rose very rapidly by working
with Toghrul Khan of the Kerait. The most powerful Mongol leader at
Eurasia on the eve of the Mongol
the time was Kurtait; he was given the Chinese title "Wang", which
invasions, c. 1200
means King.[17] Temujin went to war with Wang Khan. After Temujin
defeated Wang Khan he gave himself the name Genghis Khan. He then
enlarged his Mongol state under himself and his kin. The term Mongol
came to be used to refer to all Mongolic speaking tribes under the control of
Genghis Khan. His most powerful allies were his father's friend, Khereid
chieftain Wang Khan Toghoril, and Temujin's childhood anda (blood
brother) Jamukha of the Jadran clan. With their help, Temujin defeated the
Merkit tribe, rescued his wife Börte, and went on to defeat the Naimans and
the Tatars.[18]
Temujin forbade looting of his enemies without permission, and he

implemented a policy of sharing spoils with his warriors and their families
instead of giving it all to the aristocrats.[19] These policies brought him into
conflict with his uncles, who were also legitimate heirs to the throne; they
regarded Temujin not as a leader but as an insolent usurper. This
dissatisfaction spread to his generals and other associates, and some
Mongols who had previously been allies broke their allegiance.[18] War Genghis Khan, National Palace
ensued, and Temujin and the forces still loyal to him prevailed, defeating Museum in Taipei, Taiwan
the remaining rival tribes between 1203 and 1205 and bringing them under
his sway. In 1206, Temujin was crowned as the khagan of the Yekhe
Mongol Ulus (Great Mongol State) at a kurultai (general assembly/council). It was there that he assumed the title of
Genghis Khan (universal leader) instead of one of the old tribal titles such as Gur Khan or Tayang Khan, marking the
start of the Mongol Empire.[18]
Early organization
Genghis Khan introduced many innovative ways of organizing his army: for example dividing it into decimal
subsections of arbans (10 soldiers), zuuns (100), Mingghans (1000), and tumens (10,000). The Kheshig, the imperial
guard, was founded and divided into day (khorchin torghuds) and night (khevtuul) guards.[20] Genghis rewarded those
who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions, as heads of army units and households, even though
many of them came from very low-ranking clans.[21]
Compared to the units he gave to his loyal companions, those assigned to his own family members were relatively few.
He proclaimed a new code of law of the empire, Ikh Zasag or Yassa; later he expanded it to cover much of the everyday
life and political affairs of the nomads. He forbade the selling of women, theft, fighting among the Mongols, and the
hunting of animals during the breeding season.[21]
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He appointed his adopted brother Shigi-Khuthugh as supreme judge

(jarughachi), ordering him to keep records of the empire. In addition to
laws regarding family, food, and the army, Genghis also decreed religious
freedom and supported domestic and international trade. He exempted the
poor and the clergy from taxation.[22] He also encouraged literacy, adopting
the Uyghur script, which would form the Uyghur-Mongolian script of the
empire, and he ordered the Uyghur Tatatunga, who had previously served
the khan of Naimans, to instruct his sons.[23]
Push into Central Asia

Genghis quickly came into conflict with the Jin dynasty of the Jurchens and
the Western Xia of the Tanguts in northern China. He also had to deal with
Genghis Khan ascended the throne
two other powers, Tibet and Qara Khitai.[24] Towards the west he moved in the Yeke Quriltay region in the
into Central Asia, devastating Transoxiana and eastern Persia, then raiding Onan river, from the Jami' al-
into Kievan Rus' (a predecessor state of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine) and tawarikh.
the Caucasus.[18]
Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and
immediate family, making the Mongol Empire the joint property of the
entire imperial family who, along with the Mongol aristocracy, constituted
the ruling class.[25]
Religious policies
Prior to the three western khanates' adoption of Islam, Genghis Khan and a
Mongol Empire circa 1207
number of his Yuan successors placed restrictions on religious practices
they saw as alien. Muslims, including Hui, and Jews, were collectively
referred to as Huihui. Muslims were forbidden from Halal or Zabiha butchering, while Jews were similarly forbidden
from Kashrut or Shehita butchering.[26] Referring to the conquered subjects as "our slaves," Genghis Khan demanded
they no longer be able to refuse food or drink, and imposed restrictions on slaughter. Muslims had to slaughter sheep
in secret.[27]
Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say "we do not eat Mongol food". [Cinggis Qa’an
replied:] "By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or
drink. How can this be right?" He thereupon made them eat. "If you slaughter sheep, you will be
considered guilty of a crime." He issued a regulation to that effect ... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the
Muslims say: “if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat". Because the poor people are upset
by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the
animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.[28]
Genghis Khan arranged for the Chinese Taoist master Qiu Chuji to visit him in Afghanistan, and also gave his subjects
the right to religious freedom, despite his own shamanistic beliefs.
Death of Genghis Khan and expansion under Ögedei (1227–1241)
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Genghis Khan died on 18 August 1227, by which time the Mongol Empire
ruled from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea – an empire twice the size
of the Roman Empire or the Muslim Caliphate at their height. Genghis named his third son, the charismatic Ögedei, as
his heir. According to Mongol tradition, Genghis Khan was buried in a secret location. The regency was originally held
by Ögedei's younger brother Tolui until Ögedei's formal election at the kurultai in 1229.[29]
Among his first actions Ögedei sent troops to subjugate the Bashkirs, Bulgars, and other nations in the Kipchak-
controlled steppes.[30] In the east, Ögedei's armies re-established Mongol authority in Manchuria, crushing the
Eastern Xia regime and the Water Tatars. In 1230, the great khan personally led his army in the campaign against the
Jin dynasty of China. Ögedei's general Subutai captured the capital of Emperor Wanyan Shouxu in the siege of Kaifeng
in 1232.[31] The Jin dynasty collapsed in 1234 when the Mongols captured Caizhou, the town to which Wanyan Shouxu
had fled. In 1234, three armies commanded by Ögedei's sons Kochu and Koten and the Tangut general Chagan invaded
southern China. With the assistance of the Song dynasty the Mongols finished off the Jin in 1234.[32][33]
Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze,
Liu Heima (劉黑⾺, Liu Ni),[34] and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol
army.[35] Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan.[36] Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western
Xia for the Mongols.[37] There were four Han Tumens and three Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of
10,000 troops. The Yuan dynasty created a Han army 漢軍 from Jin defectors, and another of ex-Song troops called the
Newly Submitted Army 新附軍.[38]
In the West Ögedei's general Chormaqan destroyed Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, the last shah of the Khwarizmian Empire.
The small kingdoms in southern Persia voluntarily accepted Mongol supremacy.[39][40] In East Asia, there were a
number of Mongolian campaigns into Goryeo Korea, but Ögedei's attempt to annex the Korean Peninsula met with
little success. Gojong, the king of Goryeo, surrendered but later revolted and massacred Mongol darughachis
(overseers); he then moved his imperial court from Gaeseong to Ganghwa Island.[41]
As the empire grew, Ögedei established a Mongol capital at Karakorum in northwestern Mongolia.[42]
Invasions of Kievan Rus' and central China

Meanwhile, in an offensive action against the Song dynasty, Mongol armies captured Siyang-yang, the Yangtze and
Sichuan, but did not secure their control over the conquered areas. The Song generals were able to recapture Siyang-
yang from the Mongols in 1239. After the sudden death of Ögedei's son Kochu in Chinese territory the Mongols
withdrew from southern China, although Kochu's brother Prince Koten invaded Tibet immediately after their
withdrawal.[18]
Batu Khan, another grandson of Genghis Khan, overran the territories of the Bulgars, the Alans, the Kypchaks,
Bashkirs, Mordvins, Chuvash, and other nations of the southern Russian steppe. By 1237 the Mongols were
encroaching upon Ryazan, the first Kievan Rus' principality they were to attack. After a three-day siege involving fierce
fighting, the Mongols captured the city and massacred its inhabitants. They then proceeded to destroy the army of the
Grand Principality of Vladimir at the Battle of the Sit River.[43]
The Mongols captured the Alania capital Maghas in 1238. By 1240, all Kievan Rus' had fallen to the Asian invaders
except for a few northern cities. Mongol troops under Chormaqan in Persia connecting his invasion of Transcaucasia
with the invasion of Batu and Subutai, forced the Georgian and Armenian nobles to surrender as well.[43]
Giovanni de Plano Carpini, the pope's envoy to the Mongol great khan, travelled through Kiev in February 1246 and
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wrote:
They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great

havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men;
and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they
had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the
inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that
land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men
lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and
thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost
to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two
hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in
complete slavery.[44]
Despite the military successes, strife continued within the Mongol ranks. The sack of Suzdal by Batu Khan in
Batu's relations with Güyük, Ögedei's eldest son, and Büri, the beloved
grandson of Chagatai Khan, remained tense and worsened during Batu's 1238, miniature from a 16th-century
chronicle
victory banquet in southern Kievan Rus'. Nevertheless, Güyük and Buri
could not do anything to harm Batu's position as long as his uncle Ögedei
was still alive. Ögedei continued with offensives into the Indian subcontinent, temporarily investing Uchch, Lahore,
and Multan of the Delhi Sultanate and stationing a Mongol overseer in Kashmir,[45] though the invasions into India
eventually failed and were forced to retreat. In northeastern Asia, Ögedei agreed to end the conflict with Goryeo by
making it a client state and sent Mongolian princesses to wed Goryeo princes. He then reinforced his kheshig with the
Koreans through both diplomacy and military force.[46][47][48]
Push into central Europe

The advance into Europe continued with Mongol invasions of Poland and
Hungary. When the western flank of the Mongols plundered Polish cities, a
European alliance among the Poles, the Moravians, and the Christian
military orders of the Hospitallers, Teutonic Knights and the Templars
assembled sufficient forces to halt, although briefly, the Mongol advance at
Legnica. The Hungarian army, their Croatian allies and the Templar
Knights were beaten by Mongols at the banks of the Sajo River on 11 April
1241. Before Batu's forces could continue on to Vienna and northern The battle of Liegnitz, 1241. From a
Albania, news of Ögedei's death in December 1241 brought a halt to the medieval manuscript of the Hedwig
invasion.[49][50] As was customary in Mongol military tradition, all princes legend.
of Genghis's line had to attend the kurultai to elect a successor. Batu and
his western Mongol army withdrew from Central Europe the next year.[51]
Post-Ögedei power struggles (1241–1251)

Following the Great Khan Ögedei's death in 1241, and before the next kurultai, Ögedei's widow Töregene took over the
empire. She persecuted her husband's Khitan and Muslim officials and gave high positions to her own allies. She built
palaces, cathedrals, and social structures on an imperial scale, supporting religion and education.[52] She was able to
8 of 30 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
win over most Mongol aristocrats to support Ögedei's son Güyük. But Batu, ruler of the Golden Horde, refused to come
to the kurultai, claiming that he was ill and that the Mongolian climate was too harsh for him. The resulting stalemate
lasted more than four years and further destabilized the unity of the empire.[52]
When Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge threatened to seize the

throne, Güyük came to Karakorum to try to secure his position.[53] Batu
eventually agreed to send his brothers and generals to the kurultai
convened by Töregene in 1246. Güyük by this time was ill and alcoholic, but
his campaigns in Manchuria and Europe gave him the kind of stature
necessary for a great khan. He was duly elected at a ceremony attended by
Mongols and foreign dignitaries from both within and without the empire –
leaders of vassal nations, representatives from Rome, and other entities
who came to the kurultai to show their respects and conduct diplomacy.
Batu Khan consolidates the Golden [54][55]
Horde
Güyük took steps to reduce corruption, announcing that he would continue
the policies of his father Ögedei, not those of Töregene. He punished
Töregene's supporters, except for governor Arghun the Elder. He also replaced young Qara Hülëgü, the khan of the
Chagatai Khanate, with his favorite cousin Yesü Möngke, to assert his newly conferred powers.[56] He restored his
father's officials to their former positions and was surrounded by Uyghur, Naiman and Central Asian officials, favoring
Han Chinese commanders who had helped his father conquer Northern China. He continued military operations in
Korea, advanced into Song China in the south, and into Iraq in the west, and ordered an empire-wide census. Güyük
also divided the Sultanate of Rum between Izz-ad-Din Kaykawus and Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan, though Kaykawus
disagreed with this decision.[56]
Not all parts of the empire respected Güyük's election. The Hashshashins, former Mongol allies whose Grand Master
Hasan Jalalud-Din had offered his submission to Genghis Khan in 1221, angered Güyük by refusing to submit. Instead
he murdered the Mongol generals in Persia. Güyük appointed his best friend's father Eljigidei as chief commander of
the troops in Persia and gave them the task of both reducing the strongholds of the Assassins Muslim movement and
conquering the Abbasids at the center of the Islamic world, Iran and Iraq.[56][57][58]
Death of Güyük (1248)

In 1248, Güyük raised more troops and suddenly marched westwards from the Mongol capital of Karakorum. The
reasoning was unclear. Some sources wrote that he sought to recuperate at his personal estate, Emyl; others suggested
that he might have been moving to join Eljigidei to conduct a full-scale conquest of the Middle East, or possibly to
make a surprise attack on his rival cousin Batu Khan in Russia.[59]
Suspicious of Güyük's motives, Sorghaghtani Beki, the widow of Genghis's son Tolui, secretly warned her nephew Batu
of Güyük's approach. Batu had himself been traveling eastwards at the time, possibly to pay homage, or perhaps with
other plans in mind. Before the forces of Batu and Güyük met, Güyük, sick and worn out by travel, died en route at
Qum-Senggir (Hong-siang-yi-eulh) in Xinjiang, possibly a victim of poison.[59]
Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish stepped forward to take control of the empire, but she lacked the skills of her mother-
in-law Töregene, and her young sons Khoja and Naku and other princes challenged her authority. To decide on a new
great khan, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. As it was far from the Mongolian heartland, members of
the Ögedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu, but he rejected it,
9 of 30 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
claiming he had no interest in the position.[60] Batu

instead nominated Möngke, a grandson of Genghis
from his son Tolui's lineage. Möngke was leading a
Mongol army in Russia, the northern Caucasus and
Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction supported Batu's
choice, and Möngke was elected; though given the
kurultai's limited attendance and location, it was of
questionable validity.[60]
A Stone Turtle at the site of the Batu sent Möngke, under the protection of his
Mongol capital, Karakorum. brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq
to assemble a more formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in
the heartland. The supporters of Möngke repeatedly
invited Oghul Qaimish and the other major Ögedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the
kurultai, but they refused each time. The Ögedeid and Chagataid princes refused to accept a
descendant of Genghis's son Tolui as leader, demanding that only descendants of Genghis's son
Ögedei could be great khan.[60]
Rule of Möngke Khan (1251–1259)

When Möngke's mother Sorghaghtani and their cousin Berke organized a second kurultai on
1 July 1251, the assembled throng proclaimed Möngke great khan of the Mongol Empire. This
marked a major shift in the leadership of the empire, transferring power from the descendants
of Genghis's son Ögedei to the descendants of Genghis's son Tolui. The decision was
acknowledged by a few of the Ögedeid and Chagataid princes, such as Möngke's cousin Kadan
and the deposed khan Qara Hülëgü, but one of the other legitimate heirs, Ögedei's grandson
Shiremun, sought to topple Möngke.[61] Güyük Khan
demanding
Shiremun moved with his own forces towards the emperor's nomadic palace with a plan for an Pope Innocent
armed attack, but Möngke was alerted by his falconer of the plan. Möngke ordered an IV's submission.
The letter was
investigation of the plot, which led to a series of major trials all across the empire. Many
written in
members of the Mongol elite were found guilty and put to death, with estimates ranging from
Persian.
77–300, though princes of Genghis's royal line were often exiled rather than executed.[61]
Möngke confiscated the estates of the Ögedeid and the Chagatai families and shared the western
part of the empire with his ally Batu Khan. After the bloody purge, Möngke ordered a general amnesty for prisoners
and captives, but thereafter the power of the great khan's throne remained firmly with the descendants of Tolui.[61]
Administrative reforms
Möngke was a serious man who followed the laws of his ancestors and avoided alcoholism. He was tolerant of outside
religions and artistic styles, leading to the building of foreign merchants' quarters, Buddhist monasteries, mosques,
and Christian churches in the Mongol capital. As construction projects continued, Karakorum was adorned with
Chinese, European, and Persian architecture. One famous example was a large silver tree with cleverly designed pipes
that dispensed various drinks. The tree, topped by a triumphant angel, was crafted by Guillaume Boucher, a Parisian
goldsmith.[62]
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Although he had a strong Chinese contingent, Möngke relied heavily on

Muslim and Mongol administrators and launched a series of economic
reforms to make government expenses more predictable. His court limited government spending and prohibited
nobles and troops from abusing civilians or issuing edicts without authorization. He commuted the contribution
system to a fixed poll tax which was collected by imperial agents and forwarded to units in need.[63] His court also tried
to lighten the tax burden on commoners by reducing tax rates. He also centralized control of monetary affairs and
reinforced the guards at the postal relays. Möngke ordered an empire-wide census in 1252 that took several years to
complete and was not finished until Novgorod in the far northwest was counted in 1258.[63]
In another move to consolidate his power, Möngke assigned his brothers Hulagu and Kublai to rule Persia and
Mongol-held China respecively. In the southern part of the empire he continued his predecessors' struggle against the
Song dynasty. In order to outflank the Song from three directions, Möngke dispatched Mongol armies under his
brother Kublai to Yunnan, and under his uncle Iyeku to subdue Korea and pressure the Song from that direction as
well.[56]
Kublai conquered the Dali Kingdom in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols and helped them
conquer the rest of Yunnan. Möngke's general Qoridai stabilized his control over Tibet, inducing leading monasteries
to submit to Mongol rule. Subutai's son Uryankhadai reduced the neighboring peoples of Yunnan to submission and
defeated the Trần dynasty in northern Vietnam in 1257, but they had to draw back in 1258.[56] The Mongol Empire
tried to invade Vietnam again in 1284 and 1287 but were defeated both times.
New invasions of the Middle East and Southern China

After stabilizing the empire's finances, Möngke once again sought to
expand its borders. At kurultais in Karakorum in 1253 and 1258 he
approved new invasions of the Middle East and south China. Möngke put
Hulagu in overall charge of military and civil affairs in Persia, and
appointed Chagataids and Jochids to join Hulagu's army.[64]
The Muslims from Qazvin denounced the menace of the Nizari Ismailis, a
well-known sect of Shiites. The Mongol Naiman commander Kitbuqa began Mongol invasion of Baghdad
to assault several Ismaili fortresses in 1253, before Hulagu advanced in
1256. Ismaili Grand Master Rukn al-Din Khurshah surrendered in 1257 and
was executed. All of the Ismaili strongholds in Persia were destroyed by Hulagu's army in 1257, except for Girdkuh
which held out until 1271.[64]
The center of the Islamic Empire at the time was Baghdad, which had held
power for 500 years but was suffering internal divisions. When its caliph al-
Mustasim refused to submit to the Mongols, Baghdad was besieged and
captured by the Mongols in 1258 and subjected to a merciless sack, an
event considered as one of the most catastrophic events in the history of
Islam, and sometimes compared to the rupture of the Kaaba. With the
destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Hulagu had an open route to Syria
and moved against the other Muslim powers in the region.[65]
Fall of Baghdad, 1258
His army advanced towards Ayyubid-ruled Syria, capturing small local
states en route. The sultan Al-Nasir Yusuf of the Ayyubids refused to show
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himself before Hulagu; however, he had accepted Mongol supremacy two decades earlier. When Hulagu headed
further west, the Armenians from Cilicia, the Seljuks from Rum and the Christian realms of Antioch and Tripoli
submitted to Mongol authority, joining them in their assault against the Muslims. While some cities surrendered
without resisting, others, such as Mayafarriqin fought back; their populations were massacred and the cities were
sacked.[65]
Death of Möngke Khan (1259)

Meanwhile, in the northwestern portion of the empire, Batu's successor and
younger brother Berke sent punitive expeditions to Ukraine, Belarus,
Lithuania and Poland. Dissension began brewing between the northwestern
and southwestern sections of the Mongol Empire as Batu suspected that
Hulagu's invasion of Western Asia would result in the elimination of Batu's
own dominance there.[66]
In the southern part of the empire, Möngke Khan himself led his army to
complete the conquest of China. Military operations were generally
successful, but prolonged, so the forces did not withdraw to the north as
was customary when the weather turned hot. Disease ravaged the Mongol
forces with bloody epidemics, and Möngke died there on 11 August 1259. The extent of the Mongol Empire
This event began a new chapter in the history of the Mongols, as again a after the death of Möngke Khan
decision needed to be made on a new great khan. Mongol armies across the (reigned 1251–1259).
empire withdrew from their campaigns to convene a new kurultai.[67]
Disunity
Dispute over succession

Möngke's brother Hulagu broke off his successful military advance into
Syria, withdrawing the bulk of his forces to Mughan and leaving only a
small contingent under his general Kitbuqa. The opposing forces in the
region, the Christian Crusaders and Muslim Mamluks, both recognizing
that the Mongols were the greater threat, took advantage of the weakened
state of the Mongol army and engaged in an unusual passive truce with
each other.[68]
In 1260, the Mamluks advanced from Egypt, being allowed to camp and The Mongols at war
resupply near the Christian stronghold of Acre, and engaged Kitbuqa's
forces just north of Galilee at the Battle of Ain Jalut. The Mongols were
defeated, and Kitbuqa executed. This pivotal battle marked the western limit for Mongol expansion in the Middle East,
and the Mongols were never again able to make serious military advances farther than Syria.[68]
In a separate part of the empire, Kublai Khan, another brother of Hulagu and Möngke, heard of the great khan's death
at the Huai River in China. Rather than returning to the capital, he continued his advance into the Wuchang area of
China, near the Yangtze River. Their younger brother Ariqboke took advantage of the absence of Hulagu and Kublai,
and used his position at the capital to win the title of great khan for himself, with representatives of all the family
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branches proclaiming him as the leader at the kurultai in Karakorum. When Kublai learned of this, he summoned his
own kurultai at Kaiping, and nearly all the senior princes and great noyans in North China and Manchuria supported
his own candidacy over that of Ariqboke.[51]
Mongolian Civil War

Battles ensued between the armies of Kublai and those of his brother
Ariqboke, which included forces still loyal to Möngke's previous
administration. Kublai's army easily eliminated Ariqboke's supporters and
seized control of the civil administration in southern Mongolia. Further
challenges took place from their cousins, the Chagataids.[69][70][71] Kublai
sent Abishka, a Chagataid prince loyal to him, to take charge of Chagatai's
realm. But Ariqboke captured and then executed Abishka, having his own
man Alghu crowned there instead. Kublai's new administration blockaded
Ariqboke in Mongolia to cut off food supplies, causing a famine. Karakorum
fell quickly to Kublai, but Ariqboke rallied and re-took the capital in
1261.[69][70][71]
In southwestern Ilkhanate, Hulagu was loyal to his brother Kublai, but

Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan's clashes with their cousin Berke, the ruler of the Golden Horde, began in
grandson and founder of the Yuan 1262. The suspicious deaths of Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, unequal
dynasty distribution of war booty, and Hulagu's massacres of Muslims increased the
anger of Berke, who considered supporting a rebellion of the Georgian
Kingdom against Hulagu's rule in 1259–1260.[72] Berke also forged an
alliance with the Egyptian Mamluks against Hulagu and supported Kublai's rival claimant, Ariqboke.[73]
Hulagu died on 8 February 1264. Berke sought to take advantage and invade Hulagu's realm, but he died along the
way, and a few months later Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate died as well. Kublai named Hulagu's son Abaqa as
new Ilkhan, and nominated Batu's grandson Möngke Temür to lead the Golden Horde. Abaqa sought foreign alliances,
such as attempting to form a Franco-Mongol alliance against the Egyptian Mamluks.[74] Ariqboqe surrendered to
Kublai at Shangdu on 21 August 1264.[75]
Campaigns of Kublai Khan (1264–1294)

In the south, after the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, the Mongols sought the
final conquest of the Song dynasty in South China. In 1271, Kublai renamed
the new Mongol regime in China as the Yuan dynasty and sought to sinicize
his image as Emperor of China to win the control of the Chinese people.
Kublai moved his headquarters to Dadu, the genesis for what later became
the modern city of Beijing. His establishment of a capital there was a The samurai Suenaga facing
controversial move to many Mongols who accused him of being too closely Mongol's bomb and Goryeo's
tied to Chinese culture.[76][77] arrows. Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba (蒙古
襲来絵詞), circa 1293.
The Mongols were eventually successful in their campaigns against (Song)
China, and the Chinese Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in
1276, making the Mongols the first non-Chinese people to conquer all of China. Kublai used his base to build a
13 of 30 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
powerful empire, creating an academy, offices, trade ports and canals, and sponsoring arts and science. Mongol
records list 20,166 public schools created during his reign.[78]
After achieving actual or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia and

successfully conquering China, Kublai pursued further expansion. His
invasions of Burma and Sakhalin were costly, and his attempted invasions
of Annam and Champa ended in devastating defeat, but secured vassal
statuses of those countries. The Mongol armies were repeatedly beaten in
Annam and were crushed at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288).
Mongol warrior on horseback, Nogai and Konchi, the khan of the White Horde, established friendly
preparing a mounted archery shot. relations with the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate. Political disagreement
among contending branches of the family over the office of great khan
continued, but the economic and commercial success of the Mongol Empire
continued despite the squabbling.[79][80][81]
Disintegration into competing entities

Major changes occurred in the Mongol Empire in the late 1200s. Kublai
Khan, after having conquered all of China and established the Yuan
dynasty, died in 1294. He was succeeded by his grandson Temür Khan, who
continued Kublai's policies. At the same time the Toluid Civil War, along
with the Berke–Hulagu war and the subsequent Kaidu–Kublai war, greatly
weakened the authority of the great khan over the entirety of the Mongol
Empire and the empire fractured into autonomous khanates, the Yuan
dynasty and the three western khanates: the Golden Horde, the Chagatai
Khanate and the Ilkhanate. Only the Ilkhanate remained loyal to the Yuan
court but endured its own power struggle, in part because of a dispute with
the growing Islamic factions within the southwestern part of the empire.[82]
The funeral of Chagatai Khan.
After the death of Kaidu, the Chatagai ruler Duwa initiated a peace proposal
and persuaded the Ögedeids to submit to Temür Khan.[83][84] In 1304, all
of the khanates approved a peace treaty and accepted Yuan emperor Temür's supremacy.[85][86][87][88] This
established the nominal supremacy of the Yuan dynasty over the western khanates, which was to last for several
decades. This supremacy was based on weaker foundations than that of the earlier Khagans and each of the four
khanates continued to develop separately and function as independent states.
Nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability, the Pax Mongolica, and international
trade and cultural exchanges flourished between Asia and Europe. Communication between the Yuan dynasty in China
and the Ilkhanate in Persia further encouraged trade and commerce between east and west. Patterns of Yuan royal
textiles could be found on the opposite side of the empire adorning Armenian decorations; trees and vegetables were
transplanted across the empire; and technological innovations spread from Mongol dominions towards the West.[89]
Pope John XXII was presented a memorandum from the eastern church describing the Pax Mongolica: "... Khagan is
one of the greatest monarchs and all lords of the state, e.g., the king of Almaligh (Chagatai Khanate), emperor Abu Said
and Uzbek Khan, are his subjects, saluting his holiness to pay their respects."[90] However, while the four khanates
continued to interact with one another well into the 14th century, they did so as sovereign states and never again
14 of 30 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
pooled their resources in a cooperative military endeavor.[91]
Development of the khanates

In spite of his conflicts with Kaidu and Duwa, Yuan emperor Temür
established a tributary relationship with the war-like Shan people after his
series of military operations against Thailand from 1297 to 1303. This was
to mark the end of the southern expansion of the Mongols.
When Ghazan took the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1295, he formally

accepted Islam as his own religion, marking a turning point in Mongol
history after which Mongol Persia became more and more Islamic. Despite A European depiction of the four
this, Ghazan continued to strengthen ties with Temür Khan and the Yuan khans, Temür (Yuan), Chapar
dynasty in the east. It was politically useful to advertise the great khan's (House of Ögedei), Toqta (Golden
authority in the Ilkhanate, because the Golden Horde in Russia had long Horde), and Öljaitü (Ilkhanate), in
made claims on nearby Georgia.[82] Within four years, Ghazan began the Fleur des histoires d'orient.[92]
sending tribute to the Yuan court and appealing to other khans to accept
Temür Khan as their overlord. He oversaw an extensive program of cultural and scientific interaction between the
Ilkhanate and the Yuan dynasty in the following decades.[93]
Ghazan's faith may have been Islamic, but he continued his ancestors' war with the Egyptian Mamluks, and consulted
with his old Mongolian advisers in his native tongue. He defeated the Mamluk army at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar
in 1299, but he was only briefly able to occupy Syria, due to distracting raids from the Chagatai Khanate under its de
facto ruler Kaidu, who was at war with both the Ilkhans and the Yuan dynasty.
Struggling for influence within the Golden Horde, Kaidu sponsored his own candidate Kobeleg against Bayan (r.
1299–1304), the khan of the White Horde. Bayan, after receiving military support from the Mongols in Russia,
requested assistance from both Temür Khan and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack against Kaidu's forces.
Temür was amenable and attacked Kaidu a year later. After a bloody battle with Temür's armies near the Zawkhan
River in 1301, Kaidu died and was succeeded by Duwa.[94][95]
Duwa was challenged by Kaidu's son Chapar, but with the assistance of
Temür, Duwa defeated the Ögedeids. Tokhta of the Golden Horde, also
seeking a general peace, sent 20,000 men to buttress the Yuan frontier.[96]
Tokhta died in 1312, though, and was succeeded by Ozbeg (r. 1313–41), who
seized the throne of the Golden Horde and persecuted non-Muslim
Mongols. The Yuan's influence on the Horde was largely reversed and
border clashes between Mongol states resumed. Ayurbarwada Buyantu
Khan's envoys backed Tokhta's son against Ozbeg.
Hungarian King Béla IV in flight from
In the Chagatai Khanate, Esen Buqa I (r. 1309–1318) was enthroned as the Mongols under general Kadan of
khan after suppressing a sudden rebellion by Ögedei's descendants and the Golden Horde.
driving Chapar into exile. The Yuan and Ilkhanid armies eventually
attacked the Chagatai Khanate. Recognising the potential economic
benefits and the Genghisid legacy, Ozbeg reopened friendly relations with the Yuan in 1326. He strengthened ties with
the Muslim world as well, building mosques and other elaborate structures such as baths. By the second decade of the
14th century, Mongol invasions had further decreased. In 1323, Abu Said Khan (r. 1316–35) of the Ilkhanate signed a
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peace treaty with Egypt. At his request, the Yuan court awarded his custodian Chupan the title of commander-in-chief
of all Mongol khanates, but Chupan died in late 1327.[97]
Civil war erupted in the Yuan dynasty in 1328–29. After the death of Yesün Temür in 1328, Tugh Temür became the
new leader in Dadu, while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu, leading to the civil war
known as the War of the Two Capitals. Tugh Temür defeated Ragibagh, but the Chagatai khan Eljigidey (r. 1326–29)
supported Kusala, elder brother of Tugh Temür, as great khan. He invaded with a commanding force, and Tugh Temür
abdicated. Kusala was elected khan on 30 August 1329. Kusala was then poisoned by a Kypchak commander under
Tugh Temür, who returned to power.
Tugh Temür (1304–32) was knowledgeable about Chinese language and history and was also a creditable poet,
calligrapher, and painter. In order to be accepted by other khanates as the sovereign of the Mongol world, he sent
Genghisid princes and descendants notable Mongol generals to the Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhan Abu Said, and Ozbeg. In
response to the emissaries, they all agreed to send tribute each year.[98] Furthermore, Tugh Temür gave lavish presents
and an imperial seal to Eljigidey to mollify his anger.
Relict states of the Mongol Empire

With the death of Ilkhan Abu Said Bahatur in 1335, Mongol rule faltered and Persia fell into political anarchy. A year
later his successor was killed by an Oirat governor, and the Ilkhanate was divided between the Suldus, the Jalayir,
Qasarid Togha Temür (d. 1353), and Persian warlords. Taking advantage of the chaos, the Georgians pushed the
Mongols out of their territory, and the Uyghur commander Eretna established an independent state (Ertenids) in
Anatolia in 1336. Following the downfall of their Mongol masters, the loyal vassal, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia,
received escalating threats from the Mamluks and were eventually overrun.[99]
Along with the dissolution of the Ilkhanate in Persia, Mongol rulers in China and the Chagatai Khanate were also in
turmoil. The plague known as the Black Death, which started in the Mongol dominions and spread to Europe, added to
the confusion. Disease devastated all the khanates, cutting off commercial ties and killing millions.[100] Plague may
have taken 50 million lives in Europe alone in the 14th century.[101]
As the power of the Mongols declined, chaos erupted throughout the empire as non-Mongol leaders expanded their
own influence. The Golden Horde lost all of its western dominions (including modern Belarus and Ukraine) to Poland
and Lithuania between 1342 and 1369. Muslim and non-Muslim princes in the Chagatai Khanate warred with each
other from 1331 to 1343, and the Chagatai Khanate disintegrated when non-Genghisid warlords set up their own
puppet khans in Transoxiana and Moghulistan. Janibeg Khan (r. 1342–1357) briefly reasserted Jochid dominance over
the Chaghataids. Demanding submission from an offshoot of the Ilkhanate in Azerbaijan, he boasted that "today three
uluses are under my control".[102]
However, rival families of the Jochids began fighting for the throne of the Golden Horde after the assassination of his
successor Berdibek Khan in 1359. The last Yuan ruler Toghan Temür (r. 1333–70) was powerless to regulate those
troubles, a sign that the empire had nearly reached its end. His court's unbacked currency had entered a
hyperinflationary spiral and the Han-Chinese people revolted due to the Yuan's harsh impositions. In the 1350s,
Gongmin of Goryeo successfully pushed Mongolian garrisons back and exterminated the family of Toghan Temür
Khan's empress while Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen managed to eliminate the Mongol influence in Tibet.[102]
Increasingly isolated from their subjects, the Mongols quickly lost most of China to the rebellious Ming forces and in
1368 fled to their heartland in Mongolia. After the overthrow of the Yuan dynasty the Golden Horde lost touch with
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Mongolia and China, while the two main parts of the Chagatai Khanate were defeated by
Timur (Tamerlane) (1336–1405), who founded the Timurid Empire. However, remnants of
the Chagatai Khanate survived; the last Chagataid state to survive was the Yarkent Khanate,
until its defeat by the Oirat Dzungar Khanate in the Dzungar conquest of Altishahr in 1680.
The Golden Horde broke into smaller Turkic-hordes that declined steadily in power over four
centuries. Among them, the khanate's shadow, the Great Horde, survived until 1502, when
one of its successors, the Crimean Khanate, sacked Sarai.[103] The Crimean Khanate lasted
until 1783, whereas khanates such as the Khanate of Bukhara and the Kazakh Khanate lasted
even longer.
Crimean Tatar
khan, Mengli
Military organization
Giray. The number of troops mustered by the Mongols is
the subject of some scholarly debate,[104] but was
at least 105,000 in 1206.[105] The Mongol military
organization was simple but effective, based on the decimal system. The
army was built up from squads of ten men each, arbans (10 people), zuuns
(100), Mingghans (1000), and tumens (10,000).[106]
The Mongols were most famous for their horse archers, but troops armed
with lances were equally skilled, and the Mongols recruited other military Reconstruction of a Mongol warrior
talents from the lands they conquered. With experienced Chinese engineers
and a bombardier corps which was expert at building trebuchets, catapults
and other machines, the Mongols could lay siege to fortified positions, sometimes building machinery on the spot
using available local resources.[106]
Forces under the command of the Mongol Empire were trained, organized,
and equipped for mobility and speed. Mongol soldiers were more lightly
armored than many of the armies they faced but were able to make up for it
with maneuverability. Each Mongol warrior would usually travel with
multiple horses, allowing him to quickly switch to a fresh mount as needed.
In addition, soldiers of the Mongol army functioned independently of
supply lines, considerably speeding up army movement.[107] Skillful use of
couriers enabled the leaders of these armies to maintain contact with each
other.
Discipline was inculcated during a nerge (traditional hunt), as reported by

Juvayni. These hunts were distinctive from hunts in other cultures, being
the equivalent to small unit actions. Mongol forces would spread out in a
line, surround an entire region, and then drive all of the game within that
area together. The goal was to let none of the animals escape and to
slaughter them all.[107]
Mongol general Subutai of the Another advantage of the Mongols was their ability to traverse large
Golden Horde distances, even in unusually cold winters; for instance, frozen rivers led
them like highways to large urban centers on their banks. The Mongols
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were adept at river-work, crossing the river Sajó in spring flood conditions with thirty thousand cavalry soldiers in a
single night during the Battle of Mohi (April 1241) to defeat the Hungarian king Béla IV. Similarly, in the attack against
the Muslim Khwarezmshah a flotilla of barges was used to prevent escape on the river.
Traditionally known for their prowess with ground forces, the Mongols rarely used naval power. In the 1260s and
1270s they used seapower while conquering the Song dynasty of China, though their attempts to mount seaborne
campaigns against Japan were unsuccessful. Around the Eastern Mediterranean, their campaigns were almost
exclusively land-based, with the seas controlled by the Crusader and Mamluk forces.[108]
All military campaigns were preceded by careful planning, reconnaissance, and the gathering of sensitive information
relating to enemy territories and forces. The success, organization, and mobility of the Mongol armies permitted them
to fight on several fronts at once. All adult males up to the age of 60 were eligible for conscription into the army, a
source of honor in their tribal warrior tradition.[109]
Society
Law and governance

The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law devised by Genghis,
called Yassa, meaning "order" or "decree". A particular canon of this code
was that those of rank shared much the same hardship as the common
man. It also imposed severe penalties – e.g., the death penalty if one
mounted soldier following another did not pick up something dropped
from the mount in front. Penalties were also decreed for rape and to some
extent for murder. Any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive
collective punishment. Cities were destroyed and their inhabitants
The executed – the long and full
slaughtered if they defied Mongol orders. Under Yassa, chiefs and generals
beard probably means he is not a
were selected based on merit. The empire was governed by a non-
Mongol – has been thrown off a cliff.
democratic, parliamentary-style central assembly, called kurultai, in which
the Mongol chiefs met with the great khan to discuss domestic and foreign
policies. Kurultais were also convened for the selection of each new great khan.[110]
Genghis Khan also created a national seal, encouraged the use of a written alphabet in Mongolia, and exempted
teachers, lawyers, and artists from taxes.
The Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China and sent Han Chinese and Khitans
from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, thus using foreigners to
curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.[111] The Mongols were tolerant of other religions, and rarely
persecuted people on religious grounds. This was associated with their culture and progressive thought. Some
historians of the 20th century thought this was a good military strategy: when Genghis was at war with Sultan
Muhammad of Khwarezm, other Islamic leaders did not join the fight, as it was seen as a non-holy war between two
individuals.
Religions
At the time of Genghis Khan, virtually every religion had found Mongol converts, from Buddhism to Christianity, from
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Manichaeism to Islam. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution

that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a
shamanist. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt
from taxation and from public service.[112]
Initially there were few formal places of worship because of the nomadic
lifestyle. However, under Ögedei (1186–1241), several building projects
were undertaken in the Mongol capital. Along with palaces, Ögedei built
houses of worship for the Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and Taoist
followers. The dominant religions at that time were Shamanism, Tengrism,
and Buddhism, although Ögedei's wife was a Nestorian Christian.[113]
Eventually, each of the successor states adopted the dominant religion of

the local populations: the Chinese-Mongolian Yuan dynasty in the East
(originally the great khan's domain) embraced Buddhism and Shamanism,
while the three Western khanates adopted Islam.[114][115][116] Persian miniature depicting
Ghazan's conversion from
Buddhism to Islam.
Arts and literature
The oldest surviving literary work in the Mongolian language is The Secret
History of the Mongols, which was written for the royal family some time after Genghis Khan's death in 1227. It is the
most significant native account of Genghis's life and genealogy, covering his origins and childhood through to the
establishment of the Mongol Empire and the reign of his son, Ögedei.
Another classic from the empire is the Jami' al-tawarikh, or "Universal History". It was commissioned in the early
14th century by the Ilkhan Abaqa Khan as a way of documenting the entire world's history, to help establish the
Mongols' own cultural legacy.
Mongol scribes in the 14th century used a mixture of resin and vegetable pigments as a primitive form of correction
fluid;[117] this is arguably its first known usage.
The Mongols also appreciated the visual arts, though their taste in portraiture was strictly focused on portraits of their
horses, rather than of people.
Mail system
The Mongol Empire had an ingenious and efficient mail system for the time, often referred to by scholars as the Yam.
It had lavishly furnished and well-guarded relay posts known as örtöö set up throughout the Empire.[118] A messenger
would typically travel 25 miles (40 km) from one station to the next, either receiving a fresh, rested horse, or relaying
the mail to the next rider to ensure the speediest possible delivery. The Mongol riders regularly covered 125 miles
(200 km) per day, better than the fastest record set by the Pony Express some 600 years later. The relay stations had
attached households to service them. Anyone with a paiza was allowed to stop there for re-mounts and specified
rations, while those carrying military identities used the Yam even without a paiza. Many merchants, messengers, and
travelers from China, the Middle East, and Europe used the system. When the great khan died in Karakorum, news
reached the Mongol forces under Batu Khan in Central Europe within 4–6 weeks thanks to the Yam.[49]
Genghis and his successor Ögedei built a wide system of roads, one of which carved through the Altai mountains. After
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his enthronement, Ögedei further expanded the road system, ordering the
Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde to link up roads in western parts of
the Mongol Empire.[119]
Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty, built special relays for high
officials, as well as ordinary relays, that had hostels. During Kublai's reign,
the Yuan communication system consisted of some 1,400 postal stations,
which used 50,000 horses, 8,400 oxen, 6,700 mules, 4,000 carts, and
6,000 boats.
In Manchuria and southern Siberia, the Mongols still used dogsled relays A 1305 letter (on a scroll measuring
for the yam. In the Ilkhanate, Ghazan restored the declining relay system in
the Middle East on a restricted scale. He constructed some hostels and 302 by 50 centimetres (9.91 by
decreed that only imperial envoys could receive a stipend. The Jochids of 1.64 ft)) from the Ilkhan Mongol
the Golden Horde financed their relay system by a special yam tax. Öljaitü to King Philip IV of France.
Silk Road
The Mongols had a history of supporting merchants and trade. Genghis Khan had
encouraged foreign merchants early in his career, even before uniting the Mongols.
Merchants provided information about neighboring cultures, served as diplomats
and official traders for the Mongols, and were essential for many goods, since the
Mongols produced little of their own.
Mongols sometimes provided capital for merchants and sent them far afield, in an
ortoq (merchant partner) arrangement. As the empire grew, any merchants or
ambassadors with proper documentation and authorization received protection and
sanctuary as they traveled through Mongol realms. Well-traveled and relatively
well-maintained roads linked lands from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly
increasing overland trade and resulting in some dramatic stories of those who
travelled through what would become known as the Silk Road.
Tuda Mengu of the Golden
Western explorer Marco Polo traveled east along the Silk Road, and the Chinese
Horde.
Mongol monk Rabban Bar Sauma made a comparably epic journey along the route,
venturing from his home of Khanbaliq (Beijing) as far as Europe. European
missionaries, such as William of Rubruck, also traveled to the Mongol court to convert believers to their cause, or went
as papal envoys to correspond with Mongol rulers in an attempt to secure a Franco-Mongol alliance. It was rare,
however, for anyone to journey the full length of Silk Road. Instead, merchants moved products like a bucket brigade,
goods being traded from one middleman to another, moving from China all the way to the West; the goods moved over
such long distances fetched extravagant prices.
After Genghis, the merchant partner business continued to flourish under his successors Ögedei and Güyük.
Merchants brought clothing, food, information, and other provisions to the imperial palaces, and in return the great
khans gave the merchants tax exemptions and allowed them to use the official relay stations of the Mongol Empire.
Merchants also served as tax farmers in China, Russia and Iran. If the merchants were attacked by bandits, losses were
made up from the imperial treasury.
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Policies changed under the Great Khan Möngke. Because of money

laundering and overtaxing, he attempted to limit abuses and sent imperial
investigators to supervise the ortoq businesses. He decreed that all
merchants must pay commercial and property taxes, and he paid off all
drafts drawn by high-ranking Mongol elites from the merchants. This
policy continued under the Yuan dynasty.
Gold dinar of Genghis Khan, struck
at the Ghazna (Ghazni) mint, dated The fall of the Mongol Empire in the 14th century led to the collapse of the
1221/2 political, cultural, and economic unity along the Silk Road. Turkic tribes
seized the western end of the route from the Byzantine Empire, sowing the
seeds of a Turkic culture that would later crystallize into the Ottoman
Empire under the Sunni faith. In the East, the native Chinese overthrew the Yuan dynasty in 1368, launching their own
Ming dynasty and pursuing a policy of economic isolationism.[120]
Legacy
The Mongol Empire – at its height the largest contiguous empire in
history – had a lasting impact, unifying large regions. Some of these (such
as eastern and western Russia and the western parts of China) remain
unified today.[121] Mongols might have been assimilated into local
populations after the fall of the empire, and some of these descendants
adopted local religions – for example, the eastern khanate largely adopted
Buddhism, and the three western khanates adopted Islam, largely under
Sufi influence.[114]
Map showing the boundary of 13th
According to some interpretations, Genghis Khan's conquests caused
century Mongol Empire compared to
wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale in certain geographical today's Mongols in Mongolia,
regions, leading to changes in the demographics of Asia. Russia, the Central Asian States,
and China
Non-military achievements of the Mongol Empire included the
introduction of a writing system, a Mongol alphabet based on the
characters of the Uyghur language, that is still used today in Mongolia.[122]
Some of the other long-term consequences of the Mongol Empire include:
Moscow rose to prominence whilst under the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some time after Russian rulers were accorded
the status of tax collectors for the Mongols. The fact that the Russians collected tribute and taxes for the Mongols
meant that the Mongols themselves would rarely visit the lands that they owned. The Russians eventually gained
military power, and their ruler Ivan III overthrew the Mongols completely to form the Russian Tsardom. After the
Great stand on the Ugra river proved the Mongols vulnerable, the Grand Duchy of Moscow gained independence.
Europe's knowledge of the known world was immensely expanded by the information brought back by
ambassadors and merchants. When Columbus sailed in 1492, his mission was to reach Cathay, the land of the
Grand Khan in China, and give him a letter from the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile.
Some studies indicate that the Black Death that devastated Europe in the late 1340s may have traveled from
China to Europe along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire. In 1347, the Genoese possessor of Caffa, a great
trade emporium on the Crimean Peninsula, came under siege by an army of Mongol warriors under the command
of Janibeg. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from disease, they
decided to use the infected corpses as a biological weapon. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls,
infecting the inhabitants.[123] The Genoese traders fled, transferring the plague via their ships into the south of
Europe, from where it rapidly spread. The total number of deaths worldwide from the pandemic is estimated at
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75–200 million with up to 50 million deaths in Europe alone.[124]
Western researcher R. J. Rummel estimated that 30 million people

were killed under the rule of the Mongol Empire. Some estimates go as
high as 80 million killed, with 50 million deaths being the middle
ground. The population of China fell by half in fifty years of Mongol
rule. Before the Mongol invasion, the territories of the Chinese
dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after
the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported
roughly 60 million people. While it is tempting to attribute this major
decline solely to Mongol ferocity, scholars today have mixed opinions
regarding this subject. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that
the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record
rather than a de facto decrease, whilst others such as Timothy Brook
argue that the Mongols reduced much of the south Chinese population,
and very debatably the Han Chinese population, to an invisible status
through cancellation of the right to passports and denial of the right to
direct land ownership. This meant that the Chinese had to depend on
and be cared for chiefly by Mongols and Tartars, which also involved
recruitment into the Mongol army. Other historians such as William
McNeill and David Morgan argue that the bubonic plague was the main
factor behind the demographic decline during this period.
The Islamic world was subject to massive changes as a result of
Mongol invasions. The population of the Iranian plateau suffered from
widespread disease and famine, resulting in the deaths of up to three-
quarters of its population, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Historian
Steven Ward estimates that Iran's population did not reach its pre-
Mongol levels again until the mid-20th century.[125] Tokhtamysh and the armies of the
David Nicole states in The Mongol Warlords, "terror and mass Golden Horde initiate the Siege of
extermination of anyone opposing them was a well tested Mongol Moscow (1382).
tactic."[126] About half of the Russian population may have died during
the invasion.[127] However, Colin McEvedy in Atlas of World Population
History, 1978 estimates the population of Russia-in-Europe dropped from
7.5 million prior to the invasion to 7 million afterwards.[126] Historians estimate
that up to half of Hungary's two million population were victims of the Mongol
invasion.[128] Historian Andrea Peto says that Rogerius, an eyewitness, said
"the Mongols killed everybody regardless of gender or age" and that "the
Mongols especially 'found pleasure' in humiliating women."[129]
One of the more successful tactics employed by the Mongols was to wipe out
urban populations that refused to surrender. During the Mongol invasion of
Rus', almost all major cities were destroyed. If they chose to submit, the people
were generally spared, though this was not guaranteed. For example, the city
of Hamadan in modern-day Iran was destroyed and every man, woman, and
child executed by Mongol general Subadai, after surrendering to him but failing
to have enough provisions for his Mongol scouting force. Several days after the
initial razing of the city, Subadai sent a force back to the burning ruins and the
site of the massacre to kill any inhabitants of the city who had been away at the Dominican martyrs killed by
time of the initial slaughter and had returned in the meantime. Mongolian Mongols during the Mongol
armies made use of local peoples and their soldiers, often incorporating them
invasion of Poland in 1260.
into their armies. Prisoners of war sometimes were given the choice between
death and becoming part of the Mongol army to aid in future conquests. [130] In
addition to intimidation tactics, the rapid expansion of the empire was facilitated
by military hardiness (especially during bitterly cold winters), military skill, meritocracy, and discipline.
The Crimean Khanate and other descendants, such as the Mughal royal family of South Asia, are descended from
Genghis Khan: Babur's mother was a descendant, whereas his father was directly descended from Timur
(Tamerlane). The word "Mughol" is a Persian word for Mongol.
The Kalmyks were the last Mongol nomads to penetrate European territory, having migrated to Europe from
Central Asia at the turn of the 17th century. In the winter of 1770–1771, approximately 200,000 Kalmyks began the
journey from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga River to Dzungaria, through the territories of their Kazakh
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and Kyrgyz enemies. After several months of travel, only one-third of

the original group reached Dzungaria in northwest China.[131]
Some Turko-Mongol Khanates lasted into recent centuries: The
Crimean Khanate lasted until 1783; the Khanate of Bukhara until 1920;
the Kazakh Khanate until 1847; the Khanate of Kokand until 1876; and
the Khanate of Khiva survived as a Russian protectorate until 1917.
See also
Mughal-Mongol genealogy
Destruction under the Mongol Empire
Yelü Chucai
The first Mughal Emperor Babur and
his heir Humayun
References
Kalmyk migration from Russia to

China in 1770–1771
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/?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&pg=PA24). Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-7007-1026-3. Retrieved
2010-06-28.
28. Leslie, Donald Daniel (1998). "The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China
/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf) (PDF). The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in
Ethnology. p. 12. Archived from the original (http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China
/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf) (PDF) on 17 December 2010. Retrieved 30 November
2010.
29. Man. Genghis Khan. p. 288.
30. Saunders. p. 81.
31. Atwood. p. 277.
32. Rossabi. p. 221.
33. Atwood. p. 509.
34. Collectif 2002 (https://books.google.com/books?ei=oj8sVYfZEYb4yASM8oCADQ&id=1yMnAQAAIAAJ&
dq=liu+heima+mongols&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=liu+heima+), p. 147.
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35. May 2004 (https://books.google.com/books?id=NfzOAAAAMAAJ&

q=Ogodei+divided+them+into+three+tiimens+%28Chinese:+wan-hu%29+and+thirty-
six+minqat+commanded+by+the+Khitan+Hsiao+Cha-la+and+Hans+Liu+Ni+%28Heima%29+and+Shi-+T%27ien-
tse.+By+1234,+three+and+perhaps+more+lumen-it+noyad+were+posted.+The+three+...&
dq=Ogodei+divided+them+into+three+tiimens+%28Chinese:+wan-hu%29+and+thirty-
six+minqat+commanded+by+the+Khitan+Hsiao+Cha-la+and+Hans+Liu+Ni+%28Heima%29+and+Shi-+T%27ien-
tse.+By+1234,+three+and+perhaps+more+lumen-it+noyad+were+posted.+The+three+...&hl=en&sa=X&
ei=_z8sVYkri6rJBIT1gMgH&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA), p. 50.
36. Schram 1987 (https://books.google.com/books?id=F00qAQAAMAAJ&
q=%28Brief+history+of+the+Black+Tartars%29+which+lists+the+men+who+held+posts+under+Og
%C3%B6dei,+or+more+precisely,+from+the+last+two+families,+Shi+Tianze+and+Liu+Heima+%23%23%23%23
%23,+see+Meng-ta+peilu+und+Hei-ta+shih+liieh,+translated+by+E.+Haenisch+and+Yao+Ts%27ung-
wu,+edited+by+P.+Olbricht+and+E.+Pinks,+%E2%80%9CAsiatische+Forschungen%E2%80
%9D,+Bd.+56+%28Wiesbaden:+Otto+Harrassowitz,+1980%29,+pp.+202-206.+and+professional&
dq=%28Brief+history+of+the+Black+Tartars%29+which+lists+the+men+who+held+posts+under+Og
%9D,+Bd.+56+%28Wiesbaden:+Otto+Harrassowitz,+1980%29,+pp.+202-206.+and+professional&hl=en&sa=X&
ei=f0AsVd_hPM-KyASpzoHADg&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151017141939
/https://books.google.com/books?id=F00qAQAAMAAJ&
q=%28Brief+history+of+the+Black+Tartars%29+which+lists+the+men+who+held+posts+under+Og
%9D,+Bd.+56+%28Wiesbaden:+Otto+Harrassowitz,+1980%29,+pp.+202-206.+and+professional&
dq=%28Brief+history+of+the+Black+Tartars%29+which+lists+the+men+who+held+posts+under+Og
%9D,+Bd.+56+%28Wiesbaden:+Otto+Harrassowitz,+1980%29,+pp.+202-206.+and+professional&hl=en&sa=X&
ei=f0AsVd_hPM-KyASpzoHADg&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA) 17 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine, p. 130.
37. eds. Seaman, Marks 1991 (https://books.google.com/books?id=MztuAAAAMAAJ&q=liu+heima+mongols&
dq=liu+heima+mongols&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oj8sVYfZEYb4yASM8oCADQ&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg), p. 175.
38. Hucker 1985 (https://books.google.com/books?id=8hOgAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=han+tumen+khitan&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=Ij8sVefWHaXIsATnqID4AQ&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=han%20tumen%20khitan&f=false), p.
66.
39. May. Chormaqan. p. 29.
40. Amitai. The Mamluk-Ilkhanid war
41. Grousset. p. 259.
42. Burgan. p. 22.
43. Timothy May. Chormaqan. p. 32.
44. "The Destruction of Kiev" (https://wayback.archive-it.org/6473/20160819150506/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca
/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html). Tspace.library.utoronto.ca. Archived from the original
(https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html) on 19 August 2016. Retrieved
12 October 2013.
45. Jackson. Delhi Sultanate. p. 105.
46. Bor. p. 186.
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47. Atwood. p. 297.

48. Henthorn, William E. (1963). Korea: the Mongol invasions (https://archive.org/details/koreamongolinvas00hent).
E.J. Brill. pp. 160, 183.
50. Matthew Paris. English History (trans. by J. A. Giles). p. 348.
53. The Academy of Russian science and the academy of Mongolian science Tataro-Mongols in Europe and Asia. p.
89.
55. Man. Kublai Khan. p. 28.
56. Atwood. p. 255.
57. D. Bayarsaikhan. Ezen khaaniig Ismailiinhan horooson uu (Did the Ismailis kill the great khan)
59. Atwood. p. 213.
62. Guzman, Gregory G. (Spring 2010). "European Captives and Craftsmen Among the Mongols, 1231–1255". The
Historian. 72 (1): 122–50. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2009.00259.x (https://doi.org
/10.1111%2Fj.1540-6563.2009.00259.x).
63. Allsen. Mongol Imperialism. p. 280.
67. Lane. p. 9.
69. Wassaf. p. 12.
71. Barthold. Turkestan. p. 488.
72. L. N.Gumilev, A. Kruchki. Black legend
73. Barthold. Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion. p. 446.
74. Prawdin. Mongol Empire and Its Legacy. p. 302.
77. Sh.Tseyen-Oidov – Ibid. p. 64.
80. Vernadsky. The Mongols and Russia. pp. 344–66.
81. Henryk Samsonowicz, Maria Bogucka. A Republic of Nobles. p. 179.
82. Prawdin.
83. d.Ohson. History of the Mongols. p. II. p. 355.
84. Sh.Tseyen-Oidov. Genghis bogdoos Ligden khutagt khurtel (khaad). p. 81.
85. Vernadsky – The Mongols and Russia. p. 74.
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86. Oljeitu's letter to Philipp the Fair

87. J. J. Saunders The History of the Mongol conquests
88. Howorth. p. 145.
90. Vernadsky. p. 93.
91. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, by Denis C. Twitchett, Herbert Franke, John King Fairbank, p413
92. Bibliothèque nationale de France. Département des Manuscrits. Division occidentale. Nouvelle acquisition
française 886, fol. 37v
93. Allsen. Culture and Conquest. pp. 32–35.
94. René Grousset. The Empire of the Steppes
95. Atwood. p. 445.
96. Atwood. p. 106.
97. Allsen. Culture and Conquest. p. 39.
98. Franke. pp. 541–50.
99. G., Ghazarian, Jacob (2000). The Armenian kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades : the integration of Cilician
Armenians with the Latins, 1080–1393. Richmond: Curzon. pp. 159–61. ISBN 978-0-7007-1418-6.
OCLC 45337730 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45337730).
101. Ole Jørgen Benedictow, The Black Death, 1346–1353: The Complete History (2004), p. 382.p. 382.
(https://books.google.com/books?id=KjLHAOE7irsC&lpg=PP1&
dq=black%20death%20numbers%20by%20country&pg=PA382#v=onepage&
q=black%20death%20numbers%20by%20country&f=false)
102. Prawdin. p. 379.
103. Halperin. p. 28.
104. Sverdrup. p. 109.
105. Sverdrup. p. 110.
107. Morgan. The Mongols. pp. 74–75
108. Morgan. Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean
109. Morgan. The Mongols. p. 75
110. San,T. "Dynastic China: An Elementary History" .pg 297
111. Buell, Paul D. (1979). "Sino-Khitan Administration in Mongol Bukhara". Journal of Asian History. 13 (2): 137–38.
JSTOR 41930343 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/41930343).
114. Foltz. pp. 105–06.
115. Ezzati. The Spread of Islam: The Contributing Factors. p. 274.
116. Bukharaev. Islam in Russia: The Four Seasons. p. 145.
117. Hull. The Mongol Empire. p. 60
118. Chambers, James. The Devil's Horsemen Atheneum, 1979, ISBN 0-689-10942-3
119. Secret History of the Mongols
120. Guoli Liu Chinese Foreign Policy in Transition. p. 364
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121. Timothy May (February 2008). "The Mongol Empire in World History"
(http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/5.2/may.html). World History Connected. 5 (2). Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20140210122729/http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/5.2/may.html) from
the original on 10 February 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
122. Hahn, Reinhard F. (1991). Spoken Uyghur. London and Seattle: University of Washington Press.
ISBN 978-0-295-98651-7.
123. Svat Soucek. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-65704-0. p. 116.
124. Benedictow, Ole Jørgen (2004). The Black Death, 1346–1353: the Complete History. Boydell Press. p. 382.
ISBN 978-1-84383-214-0.
125. R. Ward, Steven (2009). Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces (https://books.google.com
/books?id=8eUTLaaVOOQC&pg=PA39). Georgetown University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-58901-258-5.
126. "Mongol Conquests" (http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat0.htm#Mongol). Users.erols.com. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20041028051334/http://www.usna.edu/Users/history/kolp/HH345
/PRE1492.HTM#Mongol) from the original on 28 October 2004. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
127. "History of Russia, Early Slavs history, Kievan Rus, Mongol invasion" (https://web.archive.org
/web/20100121024544/http://www.parallelsixty.com/history-russia.shtml). Parallelsixty.com. Archived from the
original (http://www.parallelsixty.com/history-russia.shtml) on 21 January 2010. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
128. "The Mongol invasion: the last Arpad kings" (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-34789/Hungary). Britannica.com.
20 November 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080512114337/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
34789/Hungary) from the original on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
129. Andrea Peto in Richard Bessel; Dirk Schumann (2003). Life After Death: Approaches to a Cultural and Social
History of Europe During the 1940s and 1950s (https://books.google.com/books?id=NilW70Yol74C&pg=PA143).
Cambridge University Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-521-00922-5.
130. The Story of the Mongols Whom We Call the Tartars= Historia Mongalorum Quo s Nos Tartaros Appellamus: Friar
Giovanni Di Plano Carpini's Account of His Embassy to the Court of the Mongol Khan by Da Pian Del Carpine
Giovanni and Erik Hildinger (Branden BooksApril 1996 ISBN 978-0-8283-2017-7)
131. Michael Khodarkovsky (2002)."Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making Of A Colonial Empire, 1500–1800
(https://books.google.com/books?id=Ti51WfA68RYC&pg=&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false)". Indiana
University Press. p. 142. ISBN 0-253-21770-9
Sources
Allsen, Thomas T. (1987). Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the
Islamic Lands, 1251–1259. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05527-8.
Allsen, Thomas T. (2004). Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-60270-9.
Amitai-Preiss, Reuven (1995). Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281. Cambridge; New
York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46226-6.
Atwood, Christopher P. (2004). Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File, Inc.
ISBN 978-0-8160-4671-3.
Barfield, Thomas Jefferson (1992). The perilous frontier: nomadic empires and China. Blackwell.
ISBN 978-1-55786-324-9.
Burgan, Michael (2005). Empire of the Mongols. New York: Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0318-1.
Diamond, Jared (1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
ISBN 978-0-393-31755-8.
Finlay, Robert (2010). The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History. Berkeley, California: University of
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California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24468-9.

Foltz, Richard C. (1999). Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the
Fifteenth Century. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-23338-9.
Franke, Herbert (1994). Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John King, eds. Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368.
The Cambridge History of China. 6. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia (translated from French by Naomi
Walford). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Halperin, Charles J. (1985). Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History.
Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20445-5.
Howorth, Henry H. (1965) [London edition, 1876]. History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: Part I:
The Mongols Proper and the Kalmuks. New York: Burt Frankin.
Hull, Mary. (1997). The Mongol Empire (World History Series). Greenhaven Press. ISBN 978-1-56006-312-4.
Jackson, Peter (1978). "The dissolution of the Mongol Empire". Central Asiatic Journal. XXXII: 208–351.
Jackson, Peter (2003). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54329-3.
Jackson, Peter (2005). The Mongols and the West: 1221–1410. Harlow, UK; New York: Longman.
ISBN 978-0-582-36896-5.
Lane, George (2006). Daily life in the Mongol empire. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
ISBN 978-0-313-33226-5.
Man, John (2004). Genghis Khan: Life, death and resurrection. New York: Thomas Dunne Books.
ISBN 978-0-312-36624-7.
Man, John (2007). Kublai Khan: from Xanadu to superpower. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-81718-8.
Morgan, David (June 1989). Arbel, B.; et al., eds. "The Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean: Latins and
Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean after 1204". Mediterranean Historical Review. 4 (1): 204.
doi:10.1080/09518968908569567 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09518968908569567). ISSN 0951-8967
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0951-8967).
Morgan, David (2007). The Mongols (2nd ed.). Malden, MA; Oxford, UK; Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Blackwell
Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-3539-9.
Prawdin, Michael (pseudonym for Charol, Michael) (1961) [1940]. Mongol Empire. New Brunswick, New Jersey:
Collier-Macmillan Canada. ISBN 978-1-4128-0519-3.
Ratchnevsky, Paul (1993). Haining, Thomas Nivison (translator), ed. Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy. Wiley-
Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18949-7.
Rossabi, Morris (1983). China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries.
Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04383-1.
Sanders, Alan J.K. (2010). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press.
ISBN 978-0-8108-6191-6.
Saunders, John Joseph (2001). The history of the Mongol conquests. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1766-7.
Rybatzki, Volker (2009). The Early Mongols: Language, Culture and History. Indiana University.
ISBN 978-0-933070-57-8.
Sverdrup, Carl (November 2010). "Numbers in Mongol Warfare" (https://books.google.com/?id=4jHEwSc2gEMC&
pg=PA109). In Rogers, Clifford J.; DeVries, Kelly; France, John. Journal of Medieval Military History. 8.
Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-84383-596-7.
Vladimortsov, Boris (1969). The Life of Chingis Khan. B. Blom.
Weatherford, Jack (2004). Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York: Three Rivers Press.
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ISBN 978-0-609-80964-8.
Further reading
Brent, Peter. The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan: His Triumph and his Legacy. Book Club Associates, London.
1976.
Buell, Paul D. (2003). Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire. The Scarecrow Press, Inc.
ISBN 978-0-8108-4571-8.
Cleaves, Francis Woodman (1954). "A Medical Practice of the Mongols in the Thirteenth Century". Harvard
Journal of Asiatic Studies 17 (3/4). Harvard-Yenching Institute: 428–44. doi:10.2307/2718323 (https://doi.org
/10.2307%2F2718323) https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718323
Halperin, Charles J. (1983). “Russia in the Mongol Empire in Comparative Perspective”. Harvard Journal of Asiatic
Studies 43 (1). Harvard-Yenching Institute: 239–61. doi:10.2307/2719023 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2719023).
Findlay, Ronald, and Mats Lundahl. 2016. "The First Globalization Episode: The Creation of the Mongol Empire, or
the Economics of Chinggis Khan." in The Economics of the Frontier, pp. 173–221 (https://link.springer.com
/chapter/10.1057%2F978-1-137-60237-4_6)
May, Timothy. "The Mongol Art of War." Westholme Publishing, Yardley. 2007. ISBN 978-1-59416-046-2,
1-59416-046-5
May, Timothy. The Mongol Conquests in World History (Reaktion Books, distributed by University of Chicago
Press; 2012) 319 pages
Ostrowski, Donald (1998). "The "tamma" and the Dual-administrative Structure of the Mongol Empire". Bulletin of
the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 61 (2). Cambridge University Press: 262–77.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3107652.
Rossabi, Morris. The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0-19-984089-2
External links
Genghis Khan and the Mongols (http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h11mon.htm)
The Mongol Empire (https://web.archive.org/web/20090618031319/http://www.allempires.com/article
/index.php?q=The_Mongol_Empire)
Mongols (https://web.archive.org/web/20050509082004/http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/intro.html)
The Mongols in World History (http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/)
The Mongol Empire for students (http://elibrary.sd71.bc.ca/subject_resources/socials/mogolempire.htm)
Paradoxplace Insight Pages on the Mongol Emperors (https://web.archive.org/web/20070422025219/http:
//paradoxplace.com/Insights/Civilizations/Mongols/Mongols.htm)
William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols (http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/rubruck.html)
Mongol invasion of Rus (pictures) (https://web.archive.org/web/20071222203105/http://steppes.proboards23.com
/index.cgi?board=board18&action=print&thread=1167258099)
Worldwide Death Toll (http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Mongol)
Mongol Empire Google Earth (http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/download.php?Number=758258)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mongol_Empire&oldid=890233567"
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Avignon Papacy - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon_Papacy
Avignon Papacy
The Avignon Papacy was the
period from 1309 to 1376
State of the Church
during which seven successive Stato della Chiesa
popes resided in Avignon (then Status Ecclesiasticus
in the Kingdom of Arles, part of Avignon Papacy
the Holy Roman Empire, now 1309–1378/1437
in France) rather than in
Rome.[1] The situation arose
from the conflict between the
papacy and the French crown,
culminating in the death of
Pope Boniface VIII after his Coat of arms of the
arrest and maltreatment by Flag of the Papal States
Avignon Papacy
Map of the city of Rome, Philip IV of France. Following
showing an allegorical the further death of Pope
figure of Rome as a widow Benedict XI, Philip forced a
in black mourning the deadlocked conclave to elect the
Avignon Papacy French Clement V as Pope in
1305. Clement refused to move
to Rome, and in 1309, he moved his court to the papal enclave at
Avignon, where it remained for the next 67 years. This absence
from Rome is sometimes referred to as the "Babylonian Captivity Map of the Papal states with the ecclesial
enclave of Avignon in France.
of the Papacy".[2][3]
Status Papal enclave and
A total of seven popes reigned at Avignon, all French,[4][5] and all part of the Comtat
under the influence of the French Crown. In 1376, Gregory XI Venaissin within
France
abandoned Avignon and moved his court to Rome (arriving on
January 17, 1377). But after Gregory's death in 1378, deteriorating Capital Avignon
relations between his successor Urban VI and a faction of Common languages Latin, Provençal,
cardinals gave rise to the Western Schism. This started a second Occitan, French
line of Avignon popes, subsequently regarded as illegitimate. The
Religion Roman Catholic
last Avignon antipope, Benedict XIII, lost most of his support in
1398, including that of France; after five years besieged by the Government Theocratic absolute
elective monarchy
French, he fled to Perpignan in 1403. The schism ended in 1417 at
Pope
the Council of Constance, after two popes had reigned in
opposition to the papacy in Rome.[6]
• 1305–1314 Clement V (First)
• 1370–1378 Gregory XI (Last)
• 1430(?)–1437 Benedict XIV (Last
antipope)
Contents Historical era Middle Ages
1 of 9 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
• Curia moved to 1309

Avignon popes
Avignon
Background (Established)
Temporal role of the Roman Church • Return to Rome, 13 September
Centralization of Church administration the last Avignon 1378
A political Church pope
• The last Avignon 1437
Papacy in the 14th century
antipope
Curia
Cooperation Currency Roman scudo
Submission
Schism Preceded by Succeeded by
History County of Comtat

Venaissin Venaissin
Effects on the papacy
Kingdom of Kingdom of
See also France France
References
Further reading Today part of France
Avignon popes
Among the popes who resided in Avignon, subsequent Catholic historiography grants legitimacy to these:
Pope Clement V: 1305–1314 (curia moved to Avignon March 9, 1309)

Pope John XXII: 1316–1334
Pope Benedict XII: 1334–1342
Pope Clement VI: 1342–1352
Pope Innocent VI: 1352–1362
Pope Urban V: 1362–1370 (in Rome 1367-1370; returned to Avignon 1370)
Pope Gregory XI: 1370–1378 (left Avignon to return to Rome on September 13, 1376)
The two Avignon-based antipopes were:
Clement VII: 1378–1394

Benedict XIII: 1394–1423 (expelled from Avignon in 1403)
Benedict XIII was succeeded by three antipopes, who had
little or no public following, and were not resident at Avignon:
Clement VIII: 1423–1429 (recognized in the Crown of

Aragon; abdicated)
Benedict XIV (Bernard Garnier): 1424–1429 or 1430
Benedict XIV (Jean Carrier): 1430?–1437
The period from 1378 to 1417, when there were rival claimants The Papal palace in Avignon, France
to the title of pope, is referred to as the "Western Schism" or
"the great controversy of the antipopes" by some Roman
Catholic scholars and "the second great schism" by many secular and Protestant historians. Parties within the Roman
Church were divided in their allegiance among the various claimants to the office of pope. The Council of Constance
finally resolved the controversy in 1417 when the election of Pope Martin V was accepted by all.
Avignon and the small enclave to the east (Comtat Venaissin) remained part of the Papal States until 1791, when,
2 of 9 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
under pressure from French revolutionaries, they were absorbed by the short-lived revolutionary Kingdom of France
(1791–92), which, in turn, was abolished in favor of the French First Republic the following year.[7]
Background
Temporal role of the Roman Church

The papacy in the Late Middle Ages played a major temporal role in addition to its spiritual role. The conflict between
the pope and the Holy Roman Emperor was fundamentally a dispute over which of them was the leader of
Christendom in secular matters. In the early 14th century, the papacy was well past the prime of its secular rule – its
importance had peaked in the 12th and 13th centuries. The success of the early Crusades added greatly to the prestige
of the Popes as secular leaders of Christendom, with monarchs like those of England, France, and even the Holy
Roman Emperor merely acting as marshals for the popes and leading "their" armies. One exception was Frederick II,
Holy Roman Emperor, who was twice excommunicated by the Pope during a Crusade. Frederick II ignored this and
was moderately successful in the Holy Land.
This state of affairs culminated in the unbridled declaration of papal supremacy, Unam sanctam, in November 1302.
In that papal bull, Pope Boniface VIII decreed that "it is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to
the Roman pontiff." This was directed primarily to King Phillip IV of France who responded by saying, "Your venerable
conceitedness may know that we are nobody's vassal in temporal matters." In 1303 AD, Pope Boniface VIII followed up
with a bull that would excommunicate the king of France and put the interdict over France, and depose the entire
clergy of France. Before this was finalized, Italian allies of the King of France broke into the papal residence and beat
Pope Boniface VIII. He died shortly thereafter. Nicholas Boccasini was elected as his successor and took the name Pope
Benedict XI. He absolved King Phillip IV and his subjects of their actions against Pope Boniface VIII; though the
culprits who assaulted Boniface were excommunicated and ordered to appear before a pontifical tribunal. However,
Benedict XI died within eight months of being elected to the papacy. After eleven months, Bertrand de Got, a French
man and a personal friend of King Phillip IV, was elected as pope and took the name Pope Clement V.
Beginning with Clement V, elected 1305, all popes during the Avignon papacy were French. However, this makes
French influence seem greater than it was. Southern France at that time had a culture quite independent from
Northern France, where most of the advisers to the King of France were based. The Kingdom of Arles was still
independent at that time, formally a part of the Holy Roman Empire. The literature produced by the troubadours in
the Languedoc is unique and strongly distinct from that of Royal circles in the north. Even in terms of religion, the
South produced its own variety of Christianity, Catharism, which was ultimately declared heretical. The movement was
fueled in no small part by the strong sense of independence in the South even though the region had been severely
weakened during the Albigensian Crusade a hundred years before. By the time of the Avignon Papacy, the power of the
French King in this region was uncontested, although still not legally binding.
A stronger impact was made by the move of the Roman Curia from Rome to Poitiers in France in 1305, and then to
Avignon in 1309. Following the impasse during the previous conclave, and to escape from the infighting of the
powerful Roman families that had produced earlier Popes, such as the Colonna and Orsini families, the Roman Church
looked for a safer place and found it in Avignon, which was surrounded by the lands of the papal fief of Comtat
Venaissin. Formally it was part of Arles, but in reality it was under the influence of the French king. During its time in
Avignon, the papacy adopted many features of the Royal court: the life-style of its cardinals was more reminiscent of
princes than clerics; more and more French cardinals, often relatives of the ruling pope, took key positions; and the
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proximity of French troops was a constant reminder of where secular power lay, with the memory of Pope Boniface
VIII still fresh.
Centralization of Church administration

The temporal role of the Catholic Church increased the pressure upon the papal court to emulate the governmental
practices and procedures of secular courts. The Catholic Church successfully reorganised and centralized its
administration under Clement V and John XXII. The papacy now directly controlled the appointments of benefices,
abandoning the customary election process that traditionally allotted this considerable income. Many other forms of
payment brought riches to the Holy See and its cardinals: tithes, a ten-percent tax on church property; annates, the
income of the first year after filling a position such as a bishopric; special taxes for crusades that never took place; and
many forms of dispensation, from the entering of benefices without basic qualifications like literacy for newly
appointed priests to the request of a converted Jew to visit his unconverted parents. Popes such as John XXII, Benedict
XII, and Clement VI reportedly spent fortunes on expensive wardrobes, and silver and gold plates were used at
banquets.
Overall the public life of leading church members began to resemble the lives of princes rather than members of the
clergy. This splendor and corruption at the head of the Church found its way to the lower ranks: when a bishop had to
pay up to a year's income for gaining a benefice, he sought ways of raising this money from his new office. This was
taken to extremes by the pardoners who sold absolutions for all kinds of sins to the poor. While pardoners were hated
but needed to redeem one's soul, the friars who failed to follow the Church's moral commandments by failing their
vows of chastity and poverty were despised. This sentiment strengthened movements calling for a return to absolute
poverty, relinquishment of all personal and ecclesiastical belongings, and preaching as the Lord and his disciples had.
A political Church
For the Catholic Church, an institution embedded in the secular structure and its focus on property, this was a
dangerous development, and beginning in the early 14th century most of these movements were declared heretical.
These included the Fraticelli and Waldensian movements in Italy and the Hussites in Bohemia (inspired by John
Wycliffe in England). Furthermore, the display of wealth by the upper ranks of the church, which contrasted with the
common expectation of poverty and strict adherence to principles, was used by enemies of the papacy to raise charges
against the popes; King Philippe of France employed this strategy, as did Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor. In his
conflict with the latter, Pope John XXII excommunicated two leading philosophers, Marsilius of Padua and William of
Ockham, who were outspoken critics of the papacy, and who had found refuge with Louis IV in Munich. In response,
William charged the pope with seventy errors and seven heresies.
The proceedings against the Knights Templar in the Council of Vienne are representative of this time, reflecting the
various powers and their relationships. In 1314 the collegium at Vienne convened to make a ruling concerning the
Templars. The council, overall unconvinced about the guilt of the order as a whole, was unlikely to condemn the entire
order based on the scarce evidence brought forward. Exerting massive pressure in order to gain part of the substantial
funds of the Order, the King managed to get the ruling he wanted, and Pope Clement V ordered by decree the
suppression of the order. In the cathedral of Saint Maurice in Vienne, the King of France and his son, the King of
Navarre, were sitting next to him when he issued the decree. Under pain of excommunication, no one was allowed to
speak at that occasion except when asked by the Pope. The Templars who appeared in Vienne to defend their order
were not allowed to present their case — the cardinals of the collegium originally ruled that they should be allowed to
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raise a defense, but the arrival of the King of France in Vienne put pressure on the collegium, and that decision was
revoked.
Papacy in the 14th century
Curia
After the arrest of the Bishop of Pamiers by Philip IV of France in 1301, Pope Boniface VIII issued the bull Salvator
Mundi, retracting all privileges granted to the French king by previous popes, and a few weeks later Ausculta fili with
charges against the king, summoning him before a council to Rome. In a bold assertion of papal sovereignty, Boniface
declared that "God has placed us over the Kings and Kingdoms."
In response, Philippe wrote "Your venerable conceitedness may know, that we are nobody's vassal in temporal
matters," and called for a meeting of the Estates General, a council of the lords of France, who had supported his
position. The King of France issued charges of sodomy, simony, sorcery, and heresy against the pope and summoned
him before the council. The pope's response was the strongest affirmation to date of papal sovereignty. In Unam
Sanctam (November 18, 1302), he decreed that "it is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to the
Roman pontiff." He was preparing a bull that would excommunicate the King of France and put the interdict over
France, and to depose the entire clergy of France, when in September 1303, William Nogaret, the strongest critic of the
papacy in the French inner circle, led a delegation to Rome, with intentionally loose orders by the king to bring the
pope, if necessary by force, before a council to rule on the charges brought against him. Nogaret coordinated with the
cardinals of the Colonna family, long-standing rivals against whom the pope had even preached a crusade earlier in his
papacy. In 1303 French and Italian troops attacked the pope in Anagni, his home town, and arrested him. He was freed
three days later by the population of Anagni. However, Boniface VIII, then 68 years of age, was deeply shattered by this
attack on his own person and died a few weeks later.
Cooperation
The death of Pope Boniface VIII deprived the papacy of its most able politician who
could stand against the secular power of the king of France. After the conciliatory
papacy of Benedict XI (1303–04), Pope Clement V (1305–1314) became the next
pontiff. He was born in Gascony, in southern France, but was not directly
connected to the French court. He owed his election to the French clerics. He
decided against moving to Rome and established his court in Avignon. In this
situation of dependency on powerful neighbors in France, three principles
characterized the politics of Clement V: the suppression of heretic movements
(such as the Cathars in southern France); the reorganization of the internal
administration of the church; and the preservation of an untainted image of the Clement V in a later
church as the sole instrument of God's will on earth. The latter was directly engraving
challenged by Philippe IV when he demanded a posthumous trial of his former
adversary, the late Boniface VIII, for alleged heresy. Phillipe exerted strong
influence on the cardinals of the collegium, and compliance with his demand could mean a severe blow to the church's
authority. Much of Clement's politics was designed to avoid such a blow, which he finally did (persuading Phillipe to
leave the trial to the Council of Vienne, where it lapsed). However, the price was concessions on various fronts; despite
strong personal doubts, Clement supported Phillipe's proceedings against the Templars, and he personally ruled to
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suppress the order.
One important issue during the papacy of Pope John XXII (born Jacques Duèze in
Cahors, and previously archbishop in Avignon) was his conflict with Louis IV, Holy
Roman Emperor, who denied the sole authority of the Pope to crown the Emperor.
Louis followed the example of Philippe IV, and summoned the nobles of Germany to
back his position. Marsilius of Padua justified secular supremacy in the territory of the
Holy Roman Empire. This conflict with the Emperor, often fought out in expensive
wars, drove the papacy even more into the arms of the French king.
Pope Benedict XII (1334–1342), born Jaques Fournier in

Pamiers, was previously active in the inquisition against
the Cathar movement. In contrast to the rather bloody
John XXII
picture of the Inquisition in general, he was reported to
be very careful about the souls of the examined, taking a
lot of time in the proceedings. His interest in pacifying southern France was also
motivation for mediating between the King of France and the King of England, before the
outbreak of the Hundred Years' War.
Benedict XII
Submission
Under Pope Clement VI (1342–1352) the French interests started dominating the
papacy. Clement VI had been Archbishop of Rouen and adviser to Philippe IV before, so his links to the French court
were much stronger than those of his predecessors. At some point he even financed French war efforts out of his own
pockets. He reportedly loved luxurious wardrobe and under his rule the extravagant life style in Avignon reached new
heights.
Clement VI was also pope during the Black Death, the epidemic that swept through Europe between 1347–1350 and is
believed to have killed about one-third of Europe's population. Also during his reign, in 1348, the Avignon papacy
bought the city of Avignon from the Angevins.[8]
Pope Innocent VI (1352–1362), born Etienne Aubert, was less partisan than Clement VI.
He was keen on establishing peace between France and England, having worked to this
end in papal delegations in 1345 and 1348. His gaunt appearance and austere manners
commanded higher respect in the eyes of nobles at both sides of the conflict. However,
he was also indecisive and impressionable, already an old man when being elected Pope.
In this situation, the King of France managed to influence the papacy, although papal
legates played key roles in various attempts to stop the conflict. Most notably in 1353 the
Bishop of Porto, Guy de Boulogne, tried to set up a conference. After initial successful
talks the effort failed, largely due to the mistrust from English side over Guy's strong ties
with the French court. In a letter Innocent VI himself wrote to the Duke of Lancaster:
Clement VI
"Although we were born in France and although for that and other reasons we hold the
realm of France in special affection, yet in working for peace we have put aside our
private prejudices and tried to serve the interests of everyone".
With Pope Urban V (1362–1370), the control by Charles V of France of the papacy became more direct. Urban V
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himself is described as the most austere of the Avignon popes after Benedict XII and probably the most spiritual of all.
However, he was not a strategist and made substantial concessions to the French crown especially in finances, a crucial
issue during the war with England. In 1369 Pope Urban V supported the marriage of Philip the Bold of the Duchy of
Burgundy and Margaret III, Countess of Flanders, rather than giving dispensation to one of Edward III of England's
sons to marry Margaret. This clearly showed the partisanship of the papacy; correspondingly, the respect for the
church dropped.
Schism
The most influential decision in the reign of Pope Gregory XI (1370–1378)
was the return to Rome, beginning on 13 September 1376 and ending with
his arrival on 17 January 1377.[9][10] Although the Pope was French born
and still under strong influence by the French King, the increasing conflict
between factions friendly and hostile to the Pope posed a threat to the papal
lands and to the allegiance of Rome itself. When the papacy established an
embargo against grain exports during a food scarcity 1374 and 1375,
Florence organized several cities into a league against the papacy: Milan,
Bologna, Perugia, Pisa, Lucca and Genoa. The papal legate, Robert of Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome
Geneva, a relative of the House of Savoy, pursued a particularly ruthless in 1376 and ended the Avignon
policy against the league to re-establish control over these cities. He Papacy.
convinced Pope Gregory to hire Breton mercenaries. To quell an uprising of
the inhabitants of Cesena he hired John Hawkwood and had the majority of
the people massacred (between 2,500 and 3,500 people were reported dead). Following such events opposition against
the papacy strengthened. Florence came in open conflict with the Pope, a conflict called "the war of the eight saints" in
reference to the eight Florentine councilors who were chosen to orchestrate the conflict. The entire city of Florence was
excommunicated and as reply the export of clerical taxes was stopped. The trade was seriously hampered and both
sides had to find a solution. In his decision about returning to Rome, the Pope was also under the influence of
Catherine of Siena, later canonized, who preached for a return to Rome.
This resolution was short-lived, however, when, having returned the papal court to Rome, Pope Gregory XI died. A
conclave met and elected an Italian pope, Urban VI. Pope Urban alienated the French cardinals, who held a second
conclave electing one of their own, Robert of Geneva, who took the name Clement VII, to succeed Gregory XI, thus
founding a second line of Avignon popes. Clement VII and his successors are not regarded as legitimate, and are
referred to as antipopes by the Catholic Church. This situation, known as the Western Schism, persisted from 1378
until the ecumenical Council of Constance (1414–1418) resolved the question of papal succession and declared the
French conclave of 1378 to be invalid. A new Pope, Pope Martin V, was elected in 1417; other claimants to succeed to
the line of the Avignon Popes (though not resident at Avignon) continued until c. 1437.
History
The period has been called the "Babylonian captivity" of the popes. When and where this term originated is uncertain
although it may have sprung from Petrarch, who in a letter to a friend (1340–1353) written during his stay at Avignon,
described Avignon of that time as the "Babylon of the west," referring to the worldly practices of the church
hierarchy.[11] The nickname is polemical, in referring to the claim by critics that the prosperity of the church at that
time was accompanied by a profound compromise of the papacy's spiritual integrity, especially in the alleged
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subordination of the powers of the Church to the ambitions of the French kings. As noted, the "captivity" of the popes
at Avignon lasted about the same amount of time as the exile of the Jews in Babylon, making the analogy convenient
and rhetorically potent. The Avignon papacy has been and is often today depicted as being totally dependent on the
French kings, and sometimes as even being treacherous to its spiritual role and its heritage in Rome.
Almost a century and a half later, Protestant reformer Martin Luther wrote his treatise On the Babylonian Captivity of
the Church (1520), but he claimed it had nothing to do with the Western Schism or papacy in Avignon.
Effects on the papacy

The relationship between the papacy and France changed drastically over the course of the 14th century. Starting with
open conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France, it turned to cooperation from 1305 to 1342, and
finally to a papacy under strong influence by the French throne up to 1378. Such partisanship of the papacy was one of
the reasons for the dropping esteem for the institution, which in turn was one of the reasons for the schism from
1378–1417. In the period of the Schism, the power struggle in the papacy became a battlefield of the major powers,
with France supporting the Pope in Avignon and England supporting the Pope in Rome. At the end of the century, still
in the state of schism, the papacy had lost most of its direct political power, and the nation states of France and
England were established as two of the main powers in Europe.
See also
Anglicanism – The practices, liturgy and identity of the Church of England
Châteauneuf-du-Pape
Gallicanism
Lollardy – Radical Christian movement in pre-Reformation England
Medieval Restorationism
References
1. The Avignon Papacy, P.N.R. Zutshi, The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 1300-c. 1415, Vol. VI, Ed.
Michael Jones, (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 653.
2. Adrian Hastings, Alistair Mason and Hugh S. Pyper, The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought, (Oxford
University Press, 2000), 227.
3. Catholic Encyclopaedia entry (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07056c.htm) para 7
4. Joseph F. Kelly, The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History, (Liturgical Press, 2009), 104.
5. Eamon Duffy, Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes, (Yale University Press, 1997), 165.
6. The History of the Council of Constance, page 403, Stephen Whatley, Jacques Lenfant, published by A.
Bettesworth, 1730.
7. P. M. Jones, Reform and Revolution in France: The Politics of Transition, 1774-1791, (Cambridge University
Press, 1995), 13.
8. Avignon Papacy, Thomas M. Izbicki, Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, ed. William Kibler, (Routledge, 1995),
89.
9. Joëlle Rollo-Koster, Raiding Saint Peter: Empty Sees, Violence, and the Initiation of the Great Western Schism
(1378), (Brill, 2008), 182.
10. Margaret Harvey, The English in Rome, 1362–1420: Portrait of an Expatriate Community, (Cambridge University
Press, 2004), 3.
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11. "Medieval Sourcebook: Petrarch: Letter Criticizing the Avignon Papacy" (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source
/14cpetrarch-pope.html). Fordham.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110604020249/http:
//www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/14cpetrarch-pope.html) from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-10.
Further reading
Ladurie, E. le Roi. Montaillou, Catholics and Cathars in a French Village, 1294–1324, trans. B. Bray, 1978. Also
published as Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error.
Read, P. P., The Templars, Phoenix Press. Chapter 17, "The Temple Destroyed"
Renouard, Yves. Avignon Papacy.
Rollo-Koster, Joelle. 2015. Avignon and Its Papacy, 1309–1417. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Sumption, J., Trial by Fire, Faber and Faber, 1999.
Tuchman, B., A Distant Mirror, Papermac, 1978. Chapter 16 The Papal Schism
Vale, M., "The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500". In: Holmes, G. (ed.) The Oxford History
of Medieval Europe, Oxford University Press, 1988.
Voltaire, F-M, "Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations et sur les principaux faits de l'histoire depuis
Charlemagne jusqu'à Louis XIII ". (English: "Essay on the manners and spirit of nations and on the principal facts
of history from Charlemagne to Louis XIII") Vol I, T XI, Chap LXV; edited by René Pomeau (1990) in 2 Volumes
(Garnier frères, Paris) OCLC 70306666 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70306666)
Zutschi, P. N. R., "The Avignon Papacy". In: Jones, M. (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History. Volume VI
c.1300–c.1415, pp. 653–673, 2000, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avignon_Papacy&oldid=884432797"
This page was last edited on 21 February 2019, at 16:19 (UTC).
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Crusades - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by
the Latin Church in the medieval period. The most commonly
known Crusades are the campaigns in the Eastern
Mediterranean aimed at recovering the Holy Land from
Muslim rule, but the term "Crusades" is also applied to other
church-sanctioned campaigns. These were fought for a variety
of reasons including the suppression of paganism and heresy,
the resolution of conflict among rival Roman Catholic groups,
or for political and territorial advantage. At the time of the
early Crusades the word did not exist, only becoming the
leading descriptive term around 1760. A battle of the Second Crusade (illustration of
William of Tyre's Histoire d'Outremer, 1337)
In 1095, Pope Urban II called for the First Crusade in a
sermon at the Council of Clermont. He encouraged military
support for the Byzantine Empire and its Emperor, Alexios I, who needed reinforcements for his conflict with
westward migrating Turks colonizing Anatolia. One of Urban's aims was to guarantee pilgrims access to the Eastern
Mediterranean holy sites that were under Muslim control but scholars disagree as to whether this was the primary
motive for Urban or those who heeded his call. Urban's strategy may have been to unite the Eastern and Western
branches of Christendom, which had been divided since the East–West Schism of 1054 and to establish himself as head
of the unified Church. The initial success of the Crusade established the first four Crusader states in the Eastern
Mediterranean: the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli.
The enthusiastic response to Urban's preaching from all classes in Western Europe established a precedent for other
Crusades. Volunteers became Crusaders by taking a public vow and receiving plenary indulgences from the Church.
Some were hoping for a mass ascension into heaven at Jerusalem or God's forgiveness for all their sins. Others
participated to satisfy feudal obligations, obtain glory and honour or to seek economic and political gain.
The two-century attempt to recover the Holy Land ended in failure. Following the First Crusade there were six major
Crusades and numerous less significant ones. After the last Catholic outposts fell in 1291, there were no more
Crusades; but the gains were longer lasting in Northern and Western Europe. The Wendish Crusade and those of the
Archbishop of Bremen brought all the North-East Baltic and the tribes of Mecklenburg and Lusatia under Catholic
control in the late 12th century. In the early 13th century the Teutonic Order created a Crusader state in Prussia and
the French monarchy used the Albigensian Crusade to extend the kingdom to the Mediterranean Sea. The rise of the
Ottoman Empire in the late 14th century prompted a Catholic response which led to further defeats at Nicopolis in
1396 and Varna in 1444. Catholic Europe was in chaos and the final pivot of Christian–Islamic relations was marked by
two seismic events: the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 and a final conclusive victory for the Spanish
over the Moors with the conquest of Granada in 1492. The idea of Crusading continued, not least in the form of the
Knights Hospitaller, until the end of the 18th-century but the focus of Western European interest moved to the New
World.
Modern historians hold widely varying opinions of the Crusaders. To some, their conduct was incongruous with the
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stated aims and implied moral authority of the papacy, as evidenced by the fact that on occasion the Pope
excommunicated Crusaders. Crusaders often pillaged as they travelled, and their leaders generally retained control of
captured territory instead of returning it to the Byzantines. During the People's Crusade, thousands of Jews were
murdered in what is now called the Rhineland massacres. Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth Crusade.
However, the Crusades had a profound impact on Western civilisation: Italian city-states gained considerable
concessions in return for assisting the Crusaders and established colonies which allowed trade with the eastern
markets even in the Ottoman period, allowing Genoa and Venice to flourish; they consolidated the collective identity of
the Latin Church under papal leadership; and they constituted a wellspring for accounts of heroism, chivalry, and piety
that galvanised medieval romance, philosophy, and literature. The Crusades also reinforced a connection between
Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism.
Contents
Terminology
Eastern Mediterranean
Background
First Crusade (1096–1099) and aftermath
12th century
13th century
European campaigns
Northern Crusades
Albigensian Crusade
Bosnian Crusade
Reconquista
Late Middle Ages and Renaissance
Crusader states
Military orders
Legacy
Historiography
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Historiography
Primary sources
Terminology
The term crusade used in modern historiography at first referred to the wars in the Holy Land beginning in 1095, but
the range of events to which the term has been applied has been greatly extended, so that its use can create a
misleading impression of coherence, particularly regarding the early Crusades. The term used for the campaign of the
First Crusade was iter "journey" or peregrinatio "pilgrimage".[1] The terminology of crusading remained largely
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indistinguishable from that of pilgrimage during the 12th century, reflecting the reality of the first century of crusading
where not all armed pilgrims fought, and not all who fought had taken the cross. It was not until the late 12th to early
13th centuries that a more specific "language of crusading" emerged.[2] Pope Innocent III used the term negotium
crucis "affair of the cross" for the Eastern Mediterranean crusade, but was reluctant to apply crusading terminology to
the Albigensian crusade. The Song of the Albigensian Crusade from about 1213 contains the first recorded vernacular
use of the Occitan crozada. This term was later adopted into French as croisade and in English as crusade.[3] The
modern spelling crusade dates to c. 1760.[4] Sinibaldo Fieschi (the future pope Innocent IV) used the terms crux
transmarina for crusades in Outremer against Muslims and crux cismarina for crusades in Europe against other
enemies of the church.[5] Medieval Armenian term for Crusades — xacˇ‘e˘nkalk‘.[6]
The Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade
of 1095–99 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271–72. This convention is used by Charles Mills in his History of the Crusades
for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Land (1820) and is often retained for convenience even though it is
somewhat arbitrary. The Fifth and Sixth Crusades led by Frederick II may be considered a single campaign, as can the
Eighth Crusade and Ninth Crusade led by Louis IX.[7]
In modern historiography, the term "Crusade" may differ in usage depending on the author. Giles Constable describes
four different perspectives among scholars:[8]
Traditionalists restrict their definition of the Crusades to the Christian campaigns in the Holy Land, "either to assist
the Christians there or to liberate Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulcher", during 1095–1291.[9]
Pluralists use the term Crusade of any campaign explicitly sanctioned by the reigning Pope.[10] This reflects the
view of the Roman Catholic Church (including medieval contemporaries such as Saint Bernard of Clairvaux) that
every military campaign given Papal sanction is equally valid as a Crusade, regardless of its cause, justification, or
geographic location. This broad definition includes attacks on paganism and heresy such as the Albigensian
Crusade, the Northern Crusades, and the Hussite Wars, and wars for political or territorial advantage such as the
Aragonese Crusade in Sicily, a Crusade declared by Pope Innocent III against Markward of Anweiler in 1202,[11]
one against the Stedingers, several (declared by different popes) against Emperor Frederick II and his sons,[12]
two Crusades against opponents of King Henry III of England,[13] and the Christian re-conquest of Iberia.[14]
Generalists see Crusades as any and all holy wars connected with the Latin Church and fought in defence of the
faith.
Popularists limit the Crusades to only those that were characterised by popular groundswells of religious fervour –
that is, only the First Crusade and perhaps the People's Crusade.[8]
The Arabic loanword Muslim is first attested in English in the 17th century. Before this the common term for Muslim
was Saracen,[15] in origin referring to the pre-Islamic, non-Arab inhabitants of the desert areas around the Roman
province of Arabia.[16] The term evolved to include Arab tribes, and by the 12th century it was an ethnic and religious
marker in Medieval Latin literature corresponding to modern "Muslim".[17]
Frank and Latin were used during the Crusades for Western Europeans, distinguishing them from Greeks.[18][19]
Medieval Muslim historiographers such as Ali ibn al-Athir refer to the Crusades as the "Frankish Wars" (ḥurūb al-
faranǧa ‫)ﺣﺮﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻧﺠﺔ‬.
The term used in modern Arabic, ḥamalāt ṣalībiyya ‫ﺣﻤﻼﺕ ﺻﻠﻴﺒﻴﺔ‬, lit. "campaigns of the cross", is a loan translation of
the term Crusade as used in Western historiography.[20]
Eastern Mediterranean
Background
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The Islamic prophet Muhammad founded Islam in the

Arabian Peninsula and had united much of Arabia into a
single polity by his death in 632. Arab power expanded
rapidly in the 7th and 8th centuries largely by military
conquest. This influence spread to the north-west Indian
subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North
Africa, southern Italy, the Iberian peninsula and the Pyrenees.
Jerusalem was taken from the Byzantine Empire after a siege
in 637.[21][22][23]
Tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the

Arabs and the Christian kingdoms waxed and waned.
Pilgrimages by Catholics to sacred sites were permitted,
Christian residents in Muslim territories were given Dhimmi
status, legal rights, and legal protection. These Christians
were allowed to maintain churches, and marriages between
faiths were not uncommon.[24] The various cultures and
creeds coexisted and competed, but the status quo was
disrupted by the western migration of the Turkish tribes. The
1071 victory over the Byzantine army at the Battle of
Manzikert was once considered a pivotal event by historians
but is now regarded as only one further step in the expansion
of the Great Seljuk Empire into Anatolia.[25] Catholic pilgrims Map of the Eastern Mediterranean in 1135. The
Frankish Crusader states are indicated with a red
and merchants reported that the frontier conditions between
cross ☩: Kingdom of Jerusalem, County of Tripoli,
the Syrian ports and Jerusalem became increasingly
Principality of Antioch, County of Edessa. The
inhospitable.[26] Principality of Armenian Cilicia was a Crusader
state under Armenian (Rubenid) rule. The
From the 8th century, the Christians entered to recapture the
remnant of the Byzantine Empire is visible in the
Iberian peninsula from the Muslims, known as the west; the (nascent) Seljuq Empire and Fatimid
Reconquista. The campaign reached a turning point in 1085 Egypt are shown in green.
when Alfonso VI of León and Castile captured Toledo.[27] In
the same period, the Muslim Emirate of Sicily was conquered
by Norman adventurer Roger de Hauteville in 1091.[28]
Europe was immersed in power struggles on many different

fronts. The Christian Church split along Latin Orthodox lines
in 1054 after centuries of disagreement leading to a
permanent division called the East–West Schism.[29]
Following the Gregorian Reform, an assertive, reformist
papacy attempted to increase its power and influence over the
laity. Beginning around 1075 and continuing during the First
Crusade, the Investiture Controversy was a power struggle Map of crusades to Eastern Mediterranean and
between Church and state in medieval Europe over whether Tunisia
the Catholic Church or the Holy Roman Empire held the right
to appoint church officials and other clerics.[30][31] Antipope
Clement III was an alternative pope for most of this period, and Pope Urban spent much of his early pontificate in exile
4 of 24 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
from Rome. The result was intense piety and an increased interest in religious affairs amongst the general population
in Catholic Europe and religious propaganda by the Papacy advocating a just war to reclaim Palestine from the
Muslims. Participation in a crusade was seen as a form of penance that could counterbalance sin.[32]
First Crusade (1096–1099) and aftermath

In 1095, at the Council of Piacenza, Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos requested military aid from Pope Urban
II, probably in the form of a small body of mercenary reinforcements he could direct and control. Alexios had restored
the Empire's finances and authority, but he still faced a number of foreign enemies, particularly the migrating Turks
who had colonised the sparsely populated areas of Anatolia.[33] At the Council of Clermont later that year, Urban
raised the issue again and preached for a Crusade. Many historians consider that Urban also hoped that aiding the
Eastern Church would lead to its reunion with the Western under his leadership.[34]
Almost immediately Peter the Hermit led thousands of mostly poor

Christians out of Europe in what became known as the People's
Crusade.[35] He claimed he had a letter from heaven instructing Christians
to prepare for the imminent apocalypse by seizing Jerusalem.[36] The
motivations of this Crusade included a "messianism of the poor" inspired
by an expected mass ascension into heaven at Jerusalem.[37] Germany
witnessed the first incidents of major violent European antisemitism when
these Crusaders massacred Jewish communities in what became known as
the Rhineland massacres.[38] In Speyer, Worms, Mainz, and Cologne the
range of anti-Jewish activity was broad, extending from limited,
spontaneous violence to full-scale military attacks.[39] The Crusaders
journeyed, despite advice from Alexios' to wait for the nobles, to Nicaea. Miniature of Peter the Hermit
leading the crusade (Egerton 1500,
Only 3000 survived an ambush by the Turks at the Civetot.[40]
Avignon, 14th century)
Both Philip I of France and Emperor Henry IV were in conflict with Urban
and declined to participate in the official crusade. However, members of the
high aristocracy from France, western Germany, the Low countries, and Italy were drawn to the venture, commanding
their own military contingents in loose, fluid arrangements based on bonds of lordship, family, ethnicity, and language.
Foremost amongst these was the elder statesman, Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse. He was rivalled by the relatively
poor but martial Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred from the Norman community of southern Italy. They
were joined by Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin I of Jerusalem in leading a loose conglomerate from
Lorraine, Lotharingia, and Germany. These five princes were pivotal to the campaign that was also joined by a
Northern French army led by Robert Curthose, Stephen, Count of Blois, and Robert II, Count of Flanders.[41] The
armies, which may have contained as many as 100,000 people, including non-combatants, travelled eastward by land
to Byzantium where they were cautiously welcomed by the Emperor.[42] Alexios persuaded many of the princes to
pledge allegiance to him and that their first objective should be Nicaea, which Kilij Arslan I had declared the capital of
the Sultanate of Rum. Having already destroyed the earlier People's Crusade, the over-confident Sultan left the city to
resolve a territorial dispute, enabling its capture in 1097 after a Crusader siege and a Byzantine naval assault. This
marked a high point in Latin and Greek co-operation and also the start of Crusader attempts to take advantage of
political and religious disunity in the Muslim world: Crusader envoys were sent to Egypt seeking an alliance.[43]
The Crusades' first experience with the Turkish tactic of lightly armoured mounted archers occurred when an advanced
party led by Bohemond and Duke Robert was ambushed at Dorylaeum. The Normans resisted for hours before the
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arrival of the main army caused a Turkish withdrawal. After this, the nomadic Seljuks avoided the Crusade.[44] The
factionalism amongst the Turks that followed the death of Malik Shah meant they did not present a united opposition.
Instead, Aleppo and Damascus had competing rulers.[45] The three-month march to Antioch was arduous, with
numbers reduced by starvation, thirst, and disease, combined with the decision of Baldwin to leave with 100 knights in
order to carve out his own territory in Edessa.[46] The Crusaders embarked on an eight-month siege of Antioch but
lacked the resources to fully invest the city; similarly, the residents lacked the resources to repel the invaders.
Eventually, Bohemond persuaded a tower guard in the city to open a gate and the Crusaders entered, massacring the
Muslim and many Christian Greeks, Syrian and Armenian inhabitants.[47]
Sunni Islam now recognised the threat. The sultan of Baghdad raised a force to recapture the city led by the Iraqi
general Kerbogha. The Byzantines provided no assistance to the Crusaders' defence of the city because the deserting
Stephen of Blois told them the cause was lost. Losing numbers through desertion and starvation in the besieged city,
the Crusaders attempted to negotiate surrender, but this was rejected by Kerbogha, who wanted to destroy them
permanently. Morale within the city was boosted when Peter Bartholomew claimed to have discovered the Holy Lance.
Bohemond recognised that the only option now was for open combat, and he launched a counterattack against the
besiegers. Despite superior numbers, Kerbogha's army, which was divided into factions and surprised by the
commitment and dedication of the Franks, retreated and abandoned the siege.[48] The Crusaders then delayed for
months while they argued over who would have the captured territory. This ended only when news arrived that the
Fatimid Egyptians had taken Jerusalem from the Turks, and it became imperative to attack before the Egyptians could
consolidate their position. Bohemond remained in Antioch, retaining the city despite his pledge that this would return
to Byzantine control, while Raymond led the remaining Crusader army rapidly south along the coast to Jerusalem.[49]
An initial attack on the city failed and, due to the Crusaders' lack of resources, the siege became a stalemate. However,
the arrival of craftsman and supplies transported by the Genoese to Jaffa tilted the balance in their favour. Crusaders
constructed two large siege engines; the one commanded by Godfrey breached the walls on 15 July 1099. For two days
the Crusaders massacred the inhabitants and pillaged the city. Historians now believe the accounts of the numbers
killed have been exaggerated, but this narrative of massacre did much to cement the Crusaders' reputation for
barbarism.[50] Godfrey further secured the Frankish position by surprising the Egyptian relief force commanded by the
vizier of the Fatimid Caliph, Al-Afdal Shahanshah, at Ascalon. This relief force retreated to Egypt, with the vizier
fleeing by ship.[51] At this point most of the Crusaders considered their pilgrimage complete and returned to Europe,
leaving behind Godfrey with a mere 300 knights and 2,000 infantry to defend Palestine. Of the other princes, only
Tancred remained with the ambition to gain his own princedom.[52]
On a popular level, the First Crusade unleashed a wave of impassioned, pious Catholic fury – expressed in the
massacres of Jews that accompanied the Crusades[53] and the violent treatment of the "schismatic" Orthodox
Christians of the east which occurred at Antioch.[54] The Islamic world seems to have barely registered the Crusade;
certainly there is limited written evidence before 1130. This may be in part due to a reluctance to relate Muslim failure,
but it is more likely to be the result of cultural misunderstanding. Al-Afdal and the Muslim world mistook the
Crusaders for the latest in a long line of Byzantine mercenaries rather than religiously motivated warriors intent on
conquest and settlement.[55] In any case, the Muslim world was divided between the Sunnis of Syria and Iraq and the
Shia Fatimids of Egypt. Even the Turks were divided, with rival rulers in Damascus and Aleppo. In Baghdad the Seljuk
sultan vied with an Abbasid caliph in a Mesopotamian struggle. This gave the Franks a crucial opportunity to
consolidate without any pan-Islamic counter-attack.[56]
12th century
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Under the papacies of successive Popes smaller groups of Crusaders continued to travel to the Eastern Mediterranean
to fight the Muslims and aid the Crusader States in the early 12th century. The third decade saw campaigns by Fulk V
of Anjou, the Venetians, and Conrad III of Germany and the foundation of the Knights Templar.[57] The period also
saw the innovation of granting indulgences to those who opposed papal enemies, and this marked the beginning of
politically motivated Crusades.[58] The loss of Aleppo in 1128 and Edessa (Urfa) in 1144 to Imad ad-Din Zengi,
governor of Mosul, led to preaching for what subsequently became known as the Second Crusade.[59][60][61] King Louis
VII and Conrad III led armies from France and Germany to Jerusalem and Damascus without winning any major
victories.[62] As in the First Crusade, the preaching led to attacks on Jews including massacres in the Rhineland,
Cologne, Mainz, Worms and Speyer amid claims that the Jews were not contributing financially to the rescue of the
Holy Land. Bernard of Clairvaux, who had encouraged the Second Crusade in his preaching, was so perturbed by the
violence that he journeyed from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problem.[63][64]
Christian princes continued to make gains in the Iberian peninsula: the King of Portugal, Afonso I, captured Lisbon
and Raymond Berenguer IV of Barcelona conquered the city of Tortosa.[65][66] In northern Europe the Saxons and
Danes fought against tribes of Polabian Slavs known as Wends in the Wendish Crusade,[67] although no official papal
bulls were issued authorising new Crusades.[68] The Wends were finally defeated in 1162.[69]
Egypt was ruled by the Shi'ite Fatimid dynasty from 969, independent from the Sunni Abbasid rulers in Baghdad and
with a rival Shi'ite caliph – considered the successor to the Muslim prophet Mohammad. The caliph's chief
administrator, called the vizier, was chiefly responsible for governance. From 1121 the system fell into murderous
political intrigue and Egypt declined from its previous affluent state.[70] This encouraged Baldwin III of Jerusalem to
plan an invasion that was only halted by the payment by Egypt of a tribute of 160,000 gold dinars. In 1163 the deposed
vizier, Shawar, visited Zengi's son and successor, Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo, in Damascus seeking political and
military support. Some historians have considered Nur ad-Din's support as a visionary attempt to surround the
Crusaders, but in practice he prevaricated before responding only when it became clear that the Crusaders might gain
an unassailable foothold on the Nile. Nur al-Din sent his Kurdish general, Shirkuh, who stormed Egypt and restored
Shawar. However, Shawar asserted his independence and allied with Baldwin's brother and successor Amalric of
Jerusalem. When Amalric broke the alliance in a ferocious attack, Shawar again requested military support from Syria,
and Shirkuh was sent by Nur ad-Din for a second time. Amalric retreated, but the victorious Shirkuh had Shawar
executed and was appointed vizier. Barely two months later he died, to be succeeded by his nephew, Yusuf ibn Ayyub,
who has become known by his honorific 'Salah al-Din', 'the goodness of faith', which in turn has become westernised as
Saladin.[71] Nur al-Din died in 1174. He was the first Muslim to unite Aleppo and Damascus in the Crusade era. Some
Islamic contemporaries promoted the idea that there was a natural Islamic resurgence under Zengi, through Nur al-
Din to Saladin although this was not as straightforward and simple as it appears. Saladin imprisoned all the caliph's
heirs, preventing them from having children, as opposed to having them all killed, which would have been normal
practice, to extinguish the bloodline. Assuming control after the death of his overlord, Nur al-Din, Saladin had the
strategic choice of establishing Egypt as an autonomous power or attempting to become the pre-eminent Muslim in the
Eastern Mediterranean – he chose the latter.[72]
As Nur al-Din's territories became fragmented after his death, Saladin legitimised his ascent by positioning himself as
a defender of Sunni Islam subservient to both the Caliph of Baghdad and Nur al-Din's son and successor, As-Salih
Ismail al-Malik.[73] In the early years of his ascendency, he seized Damascus and much of Syria, but not Aleppo.[74]
After building a defensive force to resist a planned attack by the Kingdom of Jerusalem that never materialised, his
first contest with the Latin Christians was not a success. His overconfidence and tactical errors led to defeat at the
Battle of Montgisard.[75] Despite this setback, Saladin established a domain stretching from the Nile to the Euphrates
through a decade of politics, coercion, and low-level military action.[76] After a life-threatening illness early in 1186, he
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determined to make good on his propaganda as the champion

of Islam, embarking on heightened campaigning against the
Latin Christians.[77] King Guy responded by raising the
largest army that Jerusalem had ever put in the field.
However, Saladin lured the force into inhospitable terrain
without water supplies, surrounded the Latins with a superior
force, and routed them at the Battle of Hattin. Saladin offered
the Christians the option of remaining in peace under Islamic
Miniature showing King Philip II of France arriving
rule or taking advantage of 40 days' grace to leave. As a result,
in the Eastern Mediterranean (Royal MS 16 G VI,
much of Palestine quickly fell to Saladin including, after a
mid-14th century)
short five-day siege, Jerusalem.[78] According to Benedict of
Peterborough, Pope Urban III died of deep sadness on
19 October 1187 on hearing of the defeat.[79] His successor as Pope, Gregory VIII issued a papal bull titled Audita
tremendi that proposed a further Crusade later named the Third Crusade to recapture Jerusalem. On 28 August 1189
King Guy of Jerusalem besieged the strategic city of Acre, only to be in turn besieged by Saladin.[80][81] Both armies
could be supplied by sea so a long stalemate commenced. Such were the deprivations of the Crusaders that at times
they are thought to have resorted to cannibalism.[82]
The journey to the Eastern Mediterranean was inevitably long and eventful. Travelling overland, Frederick I, Holy
Roman Emperor, drowned in the Saleph River, and few of his men reached the Eastern Mediterranean.[83] Travelling
by sea, Richard the Lionheart, King of England conquered Cyprus in 1191 in response to his sister and fiancée, who
were travelling separately, being taken captive by the island's ruler, Isaac Komnenos.[84] Philip II of France was the
first king to arrive at the siege of Acre; Richard arrived on 8 June 1191.[80] The arrival of the French and Angevin forces
turned the tide in the conflict, and the Muslim garrison of Acre finally surrendered on 12 July. Philip considered his
vow fulfilled and returned to France to deal with domestic matters, leaving most of his forces behind. But Richard
travelled south along the Mediterranean coast, defeated the Muslims near Arsuf, and recaptured the port city of Jaffa.
He twice advanced to within a day's march of Jerusalem before judging that he lacked the resources to successfully
capture the city, or defend it in the unlikely event of a successful assault, while Saladin had a mustered army. This
marked the end of Richard's crusading career and was a calamitous blow to Frankish morale.[85] A three-year truce
was negotiated that allowed Catholics unfettered access to Jerusalem.[86] Politics in England and illness forced
Richard's departure, never to return, and Saladin died in March 1193.[80] Emperor Henry VI initiated the German
Crusade to fulfil the promises made by his father, Frederick, to undertake a Crusade to the Holy Land. Led by Conrad,
Archbishop of Mainz, the army captured the cities of Sidon and Beirut. However, in 1197 Henry died and most of the
Crusaders returned to Germany to protect their holdings and take part in the election of his successor as Emperor.[87]
13th century
Pope Innocent III also began preaching what became the Fourth Crusade in 1200, primarily in France but also in
England and Germany.[88] After gathering in Venice, the Crusade was used by Doge Enrico Dandolo and Philip of
Swabia to further their secular ambitions. Dandolo aimed to expand Venice's power in the Eastern Mediterranean, and
Philip intended to restore his exiled nephew, Alexios IV Angelos, along with Angelos's father, Isaac II Angelos, to the
throne of Byzantium. This would require overthrowing the present ruler, Alexios III Angelos, the uncle of Alexios
IV.[89] When an insufficient number of knights arrived in Venice, the Crusaders were unable to pay the Venetians for a
fleet, so they agreed to divert to Constantinople and share what could be looted as payment. As collateral, the
Crusaders seized the Christian city of Zara; Innocent was appalled, and promptly excommunicated them.[90] However,
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the French Crusaders eventually had their excommunications

lifted. When the original purpose of the campaign was
defeated by the assassination of Alexios IV Angelos, they
conquered Constantinople, not once but twice. Following
upon their initial success, the Crusaders captured
Constantinople again and this time sacked it, pillaging
churches and killing many citizens. The Fourth Crusade never
came within 1,000 miles of its objective of Jerusalem.[91]
The 13th century saw popular outbursts of ecstatic piety in

support of the Crusades such as that resulting in the Siege of Constantinople (1204) (BNF Arsenal MS
Children's Crusade in 1212. Large groups of young adults and 5090, 15th century)
children spontaneously gathered, believing their innocence

would enable success where their elders had failed. Few, if any at all, journeyed to the Eastern Mediterranean.
Although little reliable evidence survives for these events, they provide an indication of how hearts and minds could be
engaged for the cause.[92]
Following Innocent III's Fourth Council of the Lateran, crusading resumed

in 1217 against Saladin's Ayyubid successors in Egypt and Syria for what is
classified as the Fifth Crusade. Led by Andrew II of Hungary and Leopold
VI, Duke of Austria, forces drawn mainly from Hungary, Germany,
Flanders, and Frisia achieved little. Leopold and John of Brienne besieged
and captured Damietta but an army advancing into Egypt was compelled to
surrender.[93][94] Damietta was returned and an eight-year truce
agreed.[95] Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, was excommunicated for
breaking a treaty obligation with the Pope that required him to lead a Frederick II (left) meets al-Kamil
crusade. However, since his marriage to Isabella II of Jerusalem gave him a (right), illumination from Giovanni
claim to the kingdom of Jerusalem, he finally arrived at Acre in 1228. Villani's Nuova Cronica(Vatican
Frederick was culturally the Christian monarch most empathetic to the Library ms. Chigiano L VIII 296,
Muslim world, having grown up in Sicily, with a Muslim bodyguard and 14th century).
even a harem. His great diplomatic skills meant that the Sixth Crusade was
largely negotiation supported by force.[96] A peace treaty was agreed upon,
giving Latin Christians most of Jerusalem and a strip of territory that linked the city to Acre, while the Muslims
controlled their sacred areas. In return, an alliance was made with Al-Kamil, Sultan of Egypt, against all of his enemies
of whatever religion. The treaty and suspicions about Frederick's ambitions in the region made him unpopular, and he
was forced to return to his domains when they were attacked by Pope Gregory IX.[97] While the Holy Roman Empire
and the Papacy were in conflict, it often fell to secular leaders to campaign. What is sometimes known as the Barons'
Crusade was led by Theobald I of Navarre and Richard of Cornwall; it combined forceful diplomacy and the playing of
rival Ayyubid factions off against each other.[98] This brief renaissance for Frankish Jerusalem was illusory, being
dependent on Ayyubid weakness and division following the death of Al-Kamil.[99]
In 1244 a band of Khwarezmian mercenaries travelling to Egypt to serve As-Salih Ismail, Emir of Damascus, seemingly
of their own volition, captured Jerusalem en route and defeated a combined Christian and Syrian army at the Battle of
La Forbie.[100] In response, Louis IX, king of France, organised a Crusade, called the Seventh Crusade, to attack Egypt,
arriving in 1249.[101] It was not a success. Louis was defeated at Mansura and captured as he retreated to
Damietta.[102] Another truce was agreed upon for a ten-year period, and Louis was ransomed. Louis remained in Syria
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until 1254 to consolidate the Crusader states.[103] From 1265 to 1271, the Mamluk sultan Baibars drove the Franks to a
few small coastal outposts.[104]
Late 13th-century politics in the Eastern Mediterranean were complex, with a number of powerful interested parties.
Baibars had three key objectives: to prevent an alliance between the Latins and the Mongols, to cause dissension
between the Mongols particularly between the Golden Horde and the Persian Ilkhanate, and to maintain access to a
supply of slave recruits from the Russian steppes. In this he developed diplomatic ties with Manfred, King of Sicily,
supporting him against the Papacy and Louis IX's brother Charles of Anjou. The Crusader states were fragmented, and
various powers were competing for influence. In the War of Saint Sabas, Venice drove the Genoese from Acre to Tyre
where they continued to trade happily with Baibars' Egypt. Indeed, Baibars negotiated free passage for the Genoese
with Michael VIII Palaiologos, Emperor of Nicaea, the newly restored ruler of Constantinople.[105]
The French, led by Charles, similarly sought to expand their influence;

Charles seized Sicily and Byzantine territory while marrying his daughters
to the Latin claimants to Byzantium. To create his own claim to the throne
of Jerusalem, Charles executed one rival and purchased the rights to the
city from another. In 1270 Charles turned his brother King Louis IX's last
Crusade, known as the Eighth Crusade, to his own advantage by persuading
Louis to attack his rebel Arab vassals in Tunis. Louis' army was devastated
by disease, and Louis himself died at Tunis on 25 August. Louis' fleet
returned to France, leaving only Prince Edward, the future king of England,
and a small retinue to continue what is known as the Ninth Crusade.
Edward survived an assassination attempt organised by Baibars, negotiated
a ten-year truce, and then returned to manage his affairs in England. This
ended the last significant crusading effort in the Eastern Miniature of the Siege of Acre
(1291) (Estoire d'Oultre-Mer, BNF fr.
Mediterranean.[106] The 1281 election of a French pope, Martin IV, brought
2825, fol 361v, ca. 1300)
the full power of the papacy into line behind Charles. He prepared to
launch a crusade against Constantinople but, in what became known as the
Sicilian Vespers, an uprising fomented by Michael VIII Palaiologos deprived him of the resources of Sicily, and Peter
III of Aragon was proclaimed king of Sicily. In response, Martin excommunicated Peter and called for an Aragonese
Crusade, which was unsuccessful. In 1285 Charles died, having spent his life trying to amass a Mediterranean empire;
he and Louis had viewed themselves as God's instruments to uphold the papacy.[107]
The causes of the decline in Crusading and the failure of the Crusader States is multi-faceted. Historians have
attempted to explain this in terms of Muslim reunification and Jihadi enthusiasm but Thomas Asbridge, amongst
others, considers this too simplistic. Muslim unity was sporadic and the desire for Jihad ephemeral. The nature of
Crusades was unsuited to the conquest and defence of the Holy Land. Crusaders were on a personal pilgrimage and
usually returned when it was completed. Although the philosophy of Crusading changed over time, the Crusades
continued to provide short-lived armies without centralised leadership led by independently minded potentates. What
the Crusader states needed were large standing armies. Religious fervour enabled amazing feats of military endeavour
but proved difficult to direct and control. Succession disputes and dynastic rivalries in Europe, failed harvests and
heretical outbreaks, all contributed to reducing Latin Europe's concerns for Jerusalem. Ultimately, even though the
fighting was also at the edge of the Islamic world, the huge distances made the mounting of Crusades and the
maintenance of communications insurmountably difficult. It enabled Islam, under the charismatic leadership of Nur
al-Din and Saladin as well as the ruthless Baibars to use the logistical advantages from proximity to victorious
effect.[108] The mainland Crusader states of the outremer were finally extinguished with the fall of Tripoli in 1289 and
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Acre in 1291.[109] Many Latin Christians were evacuated to Cyprus by boat, were killed or enslaved.[110][111]
European campaigns
Northern Crusades
The success of the First Crusade
inspired 12th-century popes such as
Celestine III, Innocent III,
Honorius III, and Gregory IX to call
for military campaigns with the aim of
Christianising the more remote
regions of northern and north-eastern
Europe. These campaigns are known
as the Northern Crusades.[112] The
Wendish Crusade of 1147 saw Saxons,
Danes, and Poles attempt to forcibly
convert the tribes of Mecklenburg and
Lusatia, who were Polabian Slavs or
"Wends". Celestine III called for a
Crusade in 1193, but when Bishop
Berthold of Hanover responded in
1198, he led a large army into defeat Extent of the Teutonic Order in 1300
and to his death. In response,
Innocent III issued a bull declaring a
Crusade, and Hartwig of Uthlede, Bishop of Bremen, along with the Brothers of the Sword brought all of the north-east
Baltic under Catholic control.[112] Konrad of Masovia gave Chelmno to the Teutonic Knights in 1226 as a base for a
Crusade against the local Polish princes.[112][113] The Livonian Brothers of the Sword were defeated by the Lithuanians,
so in 1237 Gregory IX merged the remainder of the order into the Teutonic Order as the Livonian Order.[114] By the
middle of the century, the Teutonic Knights completed their conquest of the Prussians before conquering and
converting the Lithuanians in the subsequent decades.[115] The order also came into conflict with the Eastern Orthodox
Church of the Pskov and Novgorod Republics. In 1240 the Orthodox Novgorod army defeated the Catholic Swedes in
the Battle of the Neva, and, two years later, they defeated the Livonian Order in the Battle on the Ice.[116]
Albigensian Crusade
The Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) was a campaign against heretics that Innocent III[117] launched to eradicate
Catharism, which had gained a substantial following in southern France. The Cathars were brutally suppressed and the
autonomous County of Toulouse formally submitted to the crown of France. The county's sole heiress Joan was
engaged to Alphonse, Count of Poitiers, a younger brother of Louis IX of France. The marriage was childless so that
after Joan's death the county fell under the direct control of Capetian France which was in part one of the motivations
of the Crusaders.[118]
Bosnian Crusade
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The Bosnian Crusade was a campaign against the

independent Bosnian Church, which was accused of
Catharism (Bogomilism). However, it was also possibly
motivated by Hungarian territorial ambitions. In 1216 a
mission was sent to convert Bosnia to Rome but failed. In
1225 Honorius III encouraged the Hungarians to crusade in
Bosnia. This ended in failure after the Hungarians were
defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Mohi. From 1234 Dual miniature showing Innocent III
Gregory IX encouraged further crusading, but again the
Bosniaks repelled the Hungarians.[119] excommunicating the Albigensians (left), and the
crusaders massacring them (BL Royal 16 G VI,
fol. 374v, 14th century)
Reconquista
In the Iberian peninsula, Crusader privileges were given to
those aiding the Templars, the Hospitallers, and the Iberian orders that
merged with the orders of Calatrava and Santiago. The Christian kingdoms
pushed the Muslim Moors and Almohads back in frequent Papal-endorsed
Iberian Crusades from 1212 to 1265. The Emirate of Granada held out until
1492, at which point the Muslims and Jews were finally expelled from the
peninsula.[120]
"The Surrender of Granada (1492)",

Late Middle Ages and Renaissance history painting by Francisco
Pradilla Ortiz (1882)
Minor Crusading efforts lingered

into the 14th century, and several Crusades were launched during the 14th and
15th centuries to counter the expansion of the Ottoman conquest of the
Balkans. In 1309 as many as 30,000 peasants gathered from England, north-
eastern France, and Germany proceeded as far as Avignon but disbanded
there.[121] Peter I of Cyprus captured and sacked Alexandria in 1365 in what
became known as the Alexandrian Crusade; his motivation was as much
commercial as religious.[122] Louis II led the 1390 Barbary Crusade against
Muslim pirates in North Africa; after a ten-week siege, the Crusaders signed a
ten-year truce.[123]
The Ottomans had conquered most of the Balkans and reduced Byzantine
influence to the area immediately surrounding Constantinople after victory at
the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Nicopolis was seized from the Bulgarian Tsar
The Battle of Nicopolis in a Ivan Shishman in 1393 and a year later Pope Boniface IX proclaimed a new
miniature by Jean Colombe titled Crusade against the Turks, although the Western Schism had split the
Les Passages d'Outremer, BnF papacy.[124] This Crusade was led by Sigismund of Luxemburg, King of
Fr 5594, c. 1475 Hungary; many French nobles joined Sigismund's forces, including the
Crusade's military leader, John the Fearless (son of the Duke of Burgundy).
Sigismund advised the Crusaders to adopt a cautious, more defensive strategy,
when they reached the Danube, instead they besieged the city of Nicopolis. The Ottomans defeated them in the Battle
of Nicopolis on 25 September, capturing 3,000 prisoners.[125]
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The Hussite Wars, also known as the Hussite Crusade, involved military action
against the Bohemian Reformation in the Kingdom of Bohemia and the followers of
early Czech church reformer Jan Hus, who was burned at the stake in 1415.
Crusades were declared five times during that period: in 1420, 1421, 1422, 1427, and
1431. These expeditions forced the Hussite forces, who disagreed on many doctrinal
points, to unite to drive out the invaders. The wars ended in 1436 with the
ratification of the compromise Compacts of Basel by the Church and the
Hussites.[126]
As the Ottomans pressed westward, Sultan Murad II destroyed the last Papal-
funded Crusade at Varna on the Black Sea in 1444 and four years later crushed the
last Hungarian expedition.[124] In 1453 they extinguished most of the remains of the
Byzantine Empire with the capture of Constantinople. John Hunyadi and Giovanni Hussite victory over the
da Capistrano organised a 1456 Crusade to oppose the Ottoman Empire and lift its Crusaders in the Battle of
Siege of Belgrade.[127] Æneas Sylvius and John of Capistrano preached the Crusade, Domažlice in 1431 (Jena
Codex fol. 56r, c. 1500)
the princes of the Holy Roman Empire in the Diets of Ratisbon and Frankfurt
promised assistance, and a league was formed between Venice, Florence, and Milan,
but nothing eventually came of it. In April 1487 Pope Innocent VIII called for a Crusade against the Waldensians of
Savoy, the Piedmont, and the Dauphiné in southern France and northern Italy because they were unorthodox and
heretical. The only efforts undertaken were in the Dauphiné, resulting in little change.[128] Venice was the only polity
to continue to pose a significant threat to the Ottomans in the Mediterranean, but it pursued the "Crusade" mostly for
its commercial interests, leading to the protracted Ottoman–Venetian Wars, which continued, with interruptions, until
1718. The end of the Crusading in terms of at least nominal efforts by Catholic Europe against Muslim incursion, came
in the 16th century, when the Franco-Imperial wars assumed continental proportions. Francis I of France sought allies
from all quarters, including from German Protestant princes and Muslims. Amongst these, he entered into one of the
capitulations of the Ottoman Empire with Suleiman the Magnificent while making common cause with Hayreddin
Barbarossa and a number of the Sultan's North African vassals.[129]
Crusader states
After the First Crusade's capture of
Jerusalem and victory at Ascalon the
majority of the Crusaders considered
their personal pilgrimage complete
and returned to Europe. Godfrey
found himself left with only 300
knights and 2,000 infantry to defend
the territory won in the Eastern
Mediterranean. Of the crusader
princes, only Tancred remained with
the aim of establishing his own
lordship.[52] At this point the Franks
The Latin and Byzantine Empires in 1205
held Jerusalem and two great Syrian
cities – Antioch and Edessa – but not
the surrounding country. Jerusalem remained economically sterile despite the advantages of being the centre of
13 of 24 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
administration of church and state and benefiting from streams of pilgrims.[130]
The "Law of Conquest" supported the seizure of land and property by impecunious Crusaders from the autochthonous
population, enabling poor men to become rich and part of a noble class. Although some historians, like Jotischky,
question the model once proposed, in which the primary motivation was understood in sociological and economic
rather than spiritual terms.[131]
That class did not expel the native population, but adopted strict segregation and at no point attempted to integrate it
by way of religious conversion. In this way the Crusaders created a colonial noble class that perpetuated itself through
an incessant flow of religious pilgrims and settlers keen to take economic advantage. The territorial gains followed
distinct ethnic and linguistic entities. The Principality of Antioch, founded in 1098 and ruled by Bohemond, became
Norman in character and custom. The Kingdom of Jerusalem, founded in 1099, followed the traditions of northern
France. The County of Tripoli, founded in 1104 (although the city of Tripoli itself remained in Muslim control until
1109) by Raymond de Saint-Gilles became Provençal. The County of Edessa, founded in 1098, differed in that although
it was ruled by the French Bouillons and Courteneys its largely Armenian and Jacobite native nobility was preserved.
[132][133] These states were the first examples of "Europe overseas". They are generally known by historians as
Outremer, from the French outre-mer ("overseas" in English).[134][135]
Largely based in the ports of Acre and Tyre, Italian, Provençal and Spanish communes provided a significant
characteristic of Crusader social stratification and political organisation. Separate from the Frankish nobles or
burgesses, the communes were autonomous political entities closely linked to their countries of origin. This gave the
inhabitants the ability to monopolise foreign trade and almost all banking and shipping in the Crusader states. Every
opportunity to extend trade privileges was taken. One example saw the Venetian Doge receiving one third of Tyre, its
territories and exemption from all taxes, after Venice participated in the successful 1124 siege of the city. However,
despite all efforts, the two ports were unable to replace Alexandria and Constantinople as the primary centres of
commerce in the region.[136] Instead, the communes competed with the Crown and each other to maintain economic
advantage. Power derived from the support of the communards' native cities rather than their number, which never
reached more than several hundred. Thus by the middle of the 13th century, the rulers of the communes were barely
required to recognise the authority of the crusaders and divided Acre into a number of fortified miniature
republics.[137]
The Fourth Crusade established a Latin Empire in the east and allowed participating crusaders to partition the
Byzantine European territory. The Latin emperor controlled one-fourth of the Byzantine territory, Venice three-eighths
(including three-eighths of the city of Constantinople), and the remainder was divided among the other leaders of the
Crusade. This began the period of Greek history known as Frankokratia or Latinokratia ("Frankish [or Latin] rule"),
when Catholic Western European nobles – primarily from France and Italy – established states on former Byzantine
territory and ruled over the Orthodox Byzantine Greeks.[138][A] In the long run, the sole beneficiary was Venice.[139]
Military orders
The Crusaders' mentality to imitate the customs from their Western European homelands meant that there were very
few innovations developed from the culture of the crusader states. Three notable exceptions to this rule are the military
orders, warfare and fortifications.[140] The Hospitallers (Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem)
were founded in Jerusalem before the First Crusade but added a martial element to its ongoing medical functions to
become a much larger military order.[141] In this way the knighthood entered the previously monastic and ecclesiastical
sphere.[142]
14 of 24 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
The military orders such as the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar provided Latin Christendom's first
professional armies in support of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader states. The Poor Knights of
Christ (Templars) and their Temple of Solomon were founded around 1119 by a small band of knights who dedicated
themselves to protecting pilgrims en route to Jerusalem.[143] The Hospitallers and the Templars became supranational
organisations as Papal support led to rich donations of land and revenue across Europe. This in turn led to a steady
flow of new recruits and the wealth to maintain multiple fortifications across the Outremer. In time, this developed
into autonomous power in the region.[144] After the fall of Acre the Hospitallers first relocated to Cyprus, then
conquered and ruled Rhodes (1309–1522) and Malta (1530–1798), and continue in existence to the present day. Philip
IV of France probably had financial and political reasons to oppose the Knights Templar, which led to him exerting
pressure on Pope Clement V. The Pope responded in 1312, with a series of papal bulls including Vox in excelso and Ad
providam that dissolved the order on the alleged and probably false grounds of sodomy, magic, and heresy.[145]
Legacy
The Kingdom of Jerusalem was the first experiment in European
colonialism creating a 'Europe Overseas' or Outremer.[89] The Arabs had
come to dominate trade in the Mediterranean after their conquests.[146]
Before the Crusades, Fatimids had trade relations with Italian city-states
like Amalfi and Genoa. Amalfian merchants are attested to have lived in
Cairo in 10th century by Cairo Geniza documents and were allowed to live
in Jerusalem around 1060 by al-Mustansir.[147] In return for assisting the
Crusaders, Genoa, Pisa and Venice were granted wide privileges in matter
of land, trade and jurisdiction. Amalfi however didn't participate.[148] The
raising, transportation, and supply of large armies led to flourishing trade "Saladin and Guy de Lusignan after
battle of Hattin in 1187", painting by
between Europe and the outremer. The Italian city states of Genoa and
Said Tahsine (1954)
Venice flourished, creating profitable trading colonies in the Eastern
Mediterranean.[149] The colonies allowed them to engage in trade with
eastern markets.[150] This trade was sustained through the middle Byzantine and Ottoman eras, and the communities
were often assimilated and known as Levantines or Franco-Levantines.[B][152]
The Crusades consolidated the papal leadership of the Latin Church, reinforcing the link between Western
Christendom, feudalism, and militarism and increased the tolerance of the clergy to violence.[89] The growth of the
system of indulgences became a catalyst for the Protestant Reformation in the early 16th century.[153] The Crusades
also had a role in the creation and institutionalisation of the military and the Dominican orders as well as the Medieval
Inquisition.[154]
The behaviour of the Crusaders appalled the Greeks and Muslims, creating a lasting barrier between the Latin world
and both the Islamic and Orthodox religions. It was an obstacle to the reunification of the Christian church and created
a perception of Westerners as defeated aggressors.[89]
Many historians argue that the interaction between the western Christian and Islamic cultures was a significant,
ultimately positive, factor in the development of European civilisation and the Renaissance.[155] The many interactions
between Europeans and the Islamic world across the entire length of the Mediterranean Sea led to improved
perceptions of Islamic culture, but also make it difficult for historians to identify the specific source of various
instances of cultural cross-fertilisation.[156] The art and architecture of the Outremer show clear evidence of cultural
fusion but it is difficult to track illumination of manuscripts and castle design back to their sources.[156] Textual
15 of 24 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
sources are simpler, and translations made in Antioch are notable but
considered secondary in importance to the works emanating from Muslim
Spain and the hybrid culture of Sicily. In addition, Muslim libraries
contained classical Greek and Roman texts that allowed Europe to
rediscover pre-Christian philosophy, science and medicine.[157]
Jonathan Riley-Smith considers that much of the popular understanding of

the Crusades derives from the novels of Walter Scott and the French
The Battle of the Ice (1242), mosaic
histories by Joseph François Michaud. The Crusades provided an enormous
panel by Aleksandr Kirovich Bystrov
amount of source material, stories of heroism, and interest that
(1985), Ploshchad Alexandra
underpinned growth in medieval literature, romance, and philosophy.[89] Nevskogo I metro station, Saint
Petersburg.
Historical parallelism and the tradition of drawing inspiration from the
Middle Ages have become keystones of Islamic ideology. Secular Arab
Nationalism concentrates on the idea of Western Imperialism. Gamal Abdel Nasser likened himself to Saladin and
imperialism to the Crusades. In his History of the Crusades Sa'id Ashur emphasised the similarity between the modern
and medieval situation facing Muslims and the need to study the Crusades in depth. Sayyid Qutb declared there was an
international Crusader conspiracy. The ideas of Jihad and a long struggle have developed some currency.[158]
Historiography
Five major sources of information exist on the Council of Clermont that led
to the First Crusade: the anonymous Gesta Francorum (The Deeds of the
Franks), dated about 1100–01; Fulcher of Chartres, who attended the
council; Robert the Monk, who may have been present, and the absent
Baldric, archbishop of Dol and Guibert de Nogent. These retrospective
accounts differ greatly.[159] In his 1106–07 Historia Iherosolimitana,
Robert the Monk wrote that Urban asked western Roman Catholic
Christians to aid the Orthodox Byzantine Empire because "Deus vult" ("God
wills it") and promised absolution to participants; according to other
sources, the pope promised an indulgence. In these accounts, Urban
emphasises reconquering the Holy Land more than aiding the emperor,
Illustration of the Council of
and lists gruesome offences allegedly committed by Muslims. Urban wrote
Clermont, Jean Colombe, Les
to those "waiting in Flanders" that the Turks, in addition to ravaging the
Passages d'Outremer, BnF Fr 5594,
"churches of God in the eastern regions", seized "the Holy City of Christ, c. 1475
embellished by his passion and resurrection – and blasphemy to say it –
have sold her and her churches into abominable slavery". Although the
pope did not explicitly call for the reconquest of Jerusalem, he called for military "liberation" of the Eastern
Churches.[160]
During the 16th-century Reformation and Counter-Reformation, Western historians saw the Crusades through the lens
of their own religious beliefs. Protestants saw them as a manifestation of the evils of the papacy, and Catholics viewed
them as forces for good.[161] 18th-century Enlightenment historians tended to view the Middle Ages in general, and the
Crusades in particular, as the efforts of barbarian cultures driven by fanaticism.[162] These scholars expressed moral
outrage at the conduct of the Crusaders and criticised the Crusades' misdirection – that of the Fourth in particular,
which attacked a Christian power (the Byzantine Empire) instead of Islam. The Fourth Crusade had resulted in the
16 of 24 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
sacking of Constantinople, effectively ending any chance of reconciling the East–West Schism and leading to the fall of
the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans. In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 18th-century
English historian Edward Gibbon wrote that the Crusaders' efforts could have been more profitably directed towards
improving their own countries.[7]
The 20th century produced three important histories of the Crusades: one by Steven Runciman, another by Rene
Grousset, and a multi-author work edited by Kenneth Setton.[163] Historians in this period often echoed
Enlightenment-era criticism: Runciman wrote during the 1950s, "High ideals were besmirched by cruelty and greed ...
the Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance in the name of God".[138] According to Norman Davies,
the Crusades contradicted the Peace and Truce of God supported by Urban and reinforced the connection between
Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism. The formation of military religious orders scandalised the Orthodox
Byzantines, and Crusaders pillaged countries they crossed on their journey east. Violating their oath to restore land to
the Byzantines, they often kept the land for themselves.[164][165] The Fourth Crusade is widely considered controversial
in its "betrayal" of Byzantium.[166] Similarly, Norman Housley viewed the persecution of Jews in the First Crusade – a
pogrom in the Rhineland and the massacre of thousands of Jews in Central Europe – as part of the long history of anti-
Semitism in Europe.[167]
With an increasing focus on gender studies in the early 21st century, studies have examined the topic of "Women in the
Crusades". An essay collection on the topic was published in 2001 under the title Gendering the Crusades. In an essay
on "Women Warriors", Keren Caspi-Reisfeld concludes that "the most significant role played by women in the West
was in maintaining the status quo", in the sense of noble women acting as regents of feudal estates while their
husbands were campaigning.[168] The presence of individual noble women in Crusades has been noted, such as
Eleanor of Aquitaine (who joined her husband, Louis VII).[169] The presence of non-noble women in the Crusading
armies, as in medieval warfare in general, was mostly in the role of logistic support (such as "washerwomen"),[168]
while the occasional presence of women soldiers was recorded by Muslim historians.[170]
The Muslim world exhibited little interest in European culture until the 16th century and in the Crusades until the
mid-19th century. There was no history of the Crusades translated into Arabic until 1865 and no published work by a
Muslim until 1899.[171] In the late 19th century, Arabic-speaking Syrian Christians began translating French histories
into Arabic, leading to the replacement of the term "wars of the Ifranj" – Franks – with al-hurub al Salabiyya – wars
of the Cross. Namik Kamel published the first modern Saladin biography in 1872. The Jerusalem visit in 1898 of Kaiser
Wilhelm prompted further interest, with Sayyid Ali al-Harri producing the first Arabic history of the Crusades. Muslim
thinkers, politicians and historians have drawn parallels between the Crusades and modern political developments
such as the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, Mandatory Palestine, and the United Nations mandated
foundation of the state of Israel.[172]
See also
Arab–Byzantine wars (634–1050s)
Art of the Crusades
Byzantine–Ottoman Wars (1265–1479)
Crusade cycle – Old French cycle of epic poems concerning the First Crusade
The Crusades, An Arab Perspective
History of the Jews and the Crusades
Jihad
List of principal Crusaders
17 of 24 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
List of Crusader castles

Ottoman Wars in Europe (1453–1922)
Miles Christianus ("Christian soldier")
Religious war
Notes
A. The Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae is a valuable record of early-13th-century Byzantine administrative
divisions (episkepsis) and family estates.
B. Frankolevantini; French Levantins, Italian Levantini, Greek Φραγκολεβαντίνοι, and Turkish Levantenler or Tatlısu
Frenk leri. The term "Levantine" was used pejoratively for inhabitants of mixed Arab and European descent and
for Europeans who adopted local dress and customs.[151]
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/10.101353%2Ften.1995.0009) (inactive 2019-02-08).
Hindley, Geoffrey (2004). The Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy. Carrol &
Graf. ISBN 978-0-7867-1344-8.
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/books?id=rTUlDwAAQBAJ). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-98392-1.
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doi:10.1016/S0304-4181(97)00013-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0304-4181%2897%2900013-4).
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ISBN 978-90-474-3259-3.
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(https://books.google.com/books?id=_OSJIyW7q2MC&pg=PA103). WCIU Press. ISBN 978-0-86585-006-4.
Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Prawer, Joshua (2001). The CRusaders' Kingdom. Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-1-84212-224-2.
Retso, Jan (2003). The Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads. Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-7007-1679-1.
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1999). Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. The Crusading Movement and Historians. The Oxford
History of the Crusades. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280312-2.
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2005). The Crusades: A Short History (Second ed.). Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0-300-10128-7.
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Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2009). What Were the Crusades?. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-22069-0.
The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274. Documents of Medieval History. 4. E. Arnold. 1981.
ISBN 978-0-7131-6348-3.
Riley-Smith, Louise; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1981). The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274. Documents of
Medieval History. 4. E. Arnold. ISBN 978-0-7131-6348-3.
Rubenstein, Jay (2011). Armies of Heaven: The First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse. Basic Books.
ISBN 978-0-465-01929-8.
Runciman, Steven (1951). A History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades (reprinted
1987 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-06163-6.
Runciman, Steven (1958). The Sicilian Vespers. A History of the Mediterranean World in the Later Thirteenth
Century (reprinted 1987 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43774-5.
Slack, Corliss K (2013). Historical Dictionary of the Crusades (https://books.google.com
/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108). Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7831-0. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Strack, Georg (2012). "The Sermon of Urban II in Clermont and the Tradition of Papal Oratory"
(http://www.mag.geschichte.uni-muenchen.de/downloads/strack_urban.pdf) (PDF). Medieval Sermon Studies. 56:
30. doi:10.1179/1366069112Z.0000000002 (https://doi.org/10.1179%2F1366069112Z.0000000002).
Strayer, Joseph Reese (1992). The Albigensian Crusades. University of Michigan Press.
ISBN 978-0-472-06476-2.
Tolan, John Victor (2002). Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. Columbia University Press.
ISBN 978-0-231-12333-4.
Tyerman, Christopher (2006). God's War: A New History of the Crusades. Belknap Press.
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Tyerman, Christopher (2007). The Crusades (https://books.google.com/books?id=x5z1MqPHWLgC&pg=PA111).
Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4027-6891-0. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Vasilev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1952). History of the Byzantine Empire: 324–1453. University of Wisconsin
Press.
Villegas-Aristizabal, L (2009). "Anglo-Norman involvement in the conquest of Tortosa and Settlement of Tortosa,
1148–1180". Crusades (8).
Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages 400–1000. Penguin Books.
ISBN 978-0-14-311742-1.
Further reading
Asbridge, Thomas (2005). The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and
Islam. ISBN 978-0-19-518905-6.
Daniel, Norman (1979). The Arabs and Mediaeval Europe. Longman Group Limited. ISBN 978-0-582-78088-0.
Hodgson, Natasha (2007). Women, Crusading and the Holy Land in Historical Narrative. Boydell.
Kahf, Mohja (1999). Western Representations of the Muslim Women: From Termagant to Odalisque. U of Texas
Press. ISBN 978-0-292-74337-3.
Madden, Thomas F. (2013). The Concise History of the Crusades. Rowman and Littlefield.
ISBN 978-1-4422-1575-7.
Maier, Christoph T. (March 2004). "The roles of women in the Crusade movement: a survey". Journal of Medieval
History. 30 (1): 61–82. doi:10.1016/j.jmedhist.2003.12.003 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jmedhist.2003.12.003).
Paterson, Linda. 'Singing the Crusades. French and Occitan Responses the Crusading Movements, 1137–1336'.
Cambridge: D.S.Brewer, 2018.
Phillips, Jonathan. Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades (2010)
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (ed.) The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades Paperback, Oxford University Press
(2001).
22 of 24 3/31/2019, 11:03 PM
Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades: A history (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014)

Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades (3 vols. 1951–1954)
Setton, Kenneth ed., A History of the Crusades, University of Wisconsin Press (6 vols., 1969–1989; online edition
(wisc.edu) (https://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/collections/history/histCrusades/))
Includes: The first hundred years (http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-

idx?id=History.CrusOne) (2nd ed. 1969); The later Crusades, 1189–1311
(http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=header&
id=History.CrusTwo) (1969); The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
id=History.CrusThree) (1975); The art and architecture of the Crusader states
id=History.CrusFour) (1977); The impact of the Crusades on the Near East
id=History.CrusFive) (1985); The impact of the Crusades on Europe
id=History.CrusSix) (1989).
Tolan, John; Veinstein, Gilles; Henry, Laurens (2013). Europe and the Islamic World: A History. Princeton
University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14705-5.
Villegas-Aristizábal, Lucas, "Pope Gregory VII and Count Eblous II of Roucy's Proto-Crusade in Iberia c. 1073",
Medieval History Journal 21.1 (2018), 1-24. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0971945817750508
Historiography
Constable, Giles. "The Historiography of the Crusades" in Angeliki E. Laiou, ed. The Crusades from the
Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World (2001) Extract online. (https://web.archive.org
/web/20130703012414/http://www.doaks.org/resources/publications/doaks-online-publications/byzantine-studies
/crusades/cr01.pdf)
Phillips, Jonathan. "A new history of the Crusades" The Telegraph 17 Sep 2006 (https://www.telegraph.co.uk
/culture/books/3655538/A-new-history-of-the-Crusades.html)
Powell, James M. "The Crusades in Recent Research," The Catholic Historical Review (2009) 95#2 pp. 313–19 in
Project MUSE (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/catholic_historical_review/v095/95.2.powell.html)
Rubenstein, Jay. "In Search of a New Crusade: A Review Essay," Historically Speaking (2011) 12#2 pp. 25–27 in
Project MUSE (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/historically_speaking/v012/12.2.rubenstein.html)
von Güttner-Sporzyński, Darius. "Recent Issues in Polish Historiography of the Crusades" in Judi Upton-Ward,
The Military Orders: Volume 4, On Land and by Sea (2008) available on Researchgate
(https://www.researchgate.net/publication
/235718826_Recent_Issues_in_Polish_Historiography_of_the_Crusades), available on Academia.edu
(https://www.academia.edu/399540/Recent_Issues_in_Polish_Historiography_of_the_Crusades)
Primary sources
Barber, Malcolm, Bate, Keith (2010). Letters from the East: Crusaders, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th–13th
Centuries (Crusade Texts in Translation Volume 18, Ashgate Publishing Ltd)
Bird, Jessalynn, et al. eds. Crusade and Christendom: Annotated Documents in Translation from Innocent III to the
Fall of Acre, 1187–1291 (2013) excerpts (https://www.amazon.com/Crusade-Christendom-Middle-Ages-Jessalynn-
ebook/dp/B00B4FJPGA/)
Housley, Norman, ed. Documents on the Later Crusades, 1274–1580 (1996)
Savignac, David. "The Medieval Russian Account of the Fourth Crusade - A New Annotated Translation"
(https://www.academia.edu/31064036).
Shaw, M. R. B. ed.Chronicles of the Crusades (1963)
Villehardouin, Geoffrey, and Jean de Joinville. Chronicles of the Crusades ed. by Sir Frank Marzials (2007)
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crusades&oldid=887908343"
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Mongol Conquest

• Reading Assignment: Mongol Invasion and

• Areas of northern India, Moghuls, descendant

• Internal conflict between groups for millennia

Oh race of the Franks, we learn that in some of your provinces no one

Iranian Plateau; and westwards as far as the

The Mongol Empire emerged from the

Empire would become a sedentary, Great Khan

The Ilkhanate in the southwest. from 1235 to 1260.

number of war horses and other livestock which significantly

Rise of Genghis Khan

Temujin forbade looting of his enemies without permission, and he

He appointed his adopted brother Shigi-Khuthugh as supreme judge

Push into Central Asia

Death of Genghis Khan and expansion under Ögedei (1227–1241)

Invasions of Kievan Rus' and central China

They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great

Push into central Europe

Post-Ögedei power struggles (1241–1251)

When Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge threatened to seize the

Death of Güyük (1248)

claiming he had no interest in the position.[60] Batu

Rule of Möngke Khan (1251–1259)

Although he had a strong Chinese contingent, Möngke relied heavily on

New invasions of the Middle East and Southern China

Death of Möngke Khan (1259)

Dispute over succession

Mongolian Civil War

In southwestern Ilkhanate, Hulagu was loyal to his brother Kublai, but

Campaigns of Kublai Khan (1264–1294)

After achieving actual or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia and

Disintegration into competing entities

pooled their resources in a cooperative military endeavor.[91]

Development of the khanates

When Ghazan took the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1295, he formally

Relict states of the Mongol Empire

Discipline was inculcated during a nerge (traditional hunt), as reported by

Law and governance

Manichaeism to Islam. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution

Eventually, each of the successor states adopted the dominant religion of

Policies changed under the Great Khan Möngke. Because of money

Some of the other long-term consequences of the Mongol Empire include:

75–200 million with up to 50 million deaths in Europe alone.[124]

Western researcher R. J. Rummel estimated that 30 million people

and Kyrgyz enemies. After several months of travel, only one-third of

Kalmyk migration from Russia to

11. Allsen. Culture and Conquest. pp. xiii, 235.

35. May 2004 (https://books.google.com/books?id=NfzOAAAAMAAJ&

47. Atwood. p. 297.

86. Oljeitu's letter to Philipp the Fair

California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24468-9.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mongol_Empire&oldid=890233567"

This page was last edited on 31 March 2019, at 01:23 (UTC).

• Curia moved to 1309

History County of Comtat

Pope Clement V: 1305–1314 (curia moved to Avignon March 9, 1309)

Clement VII: 1378–1394

Clement VIII: 1423–1429 (recognized in the Crown of

Temporal role of the Roman Church

Centralization of Church administration

Papacy in the 14th century

suppress the order.

Pope Benedict XII (1334–1342), born Jaques Fournier in