Unit 2 - Machine Tools PDF

Manufacturing Science & Technology-II (NME-503)
Course Instructor- Shailendra Pratap Singh
Unit 2
Machine Tools
Lathe Machine
Lathe: Principle, construction, types, operations, Turret/Capstan,
semi/Automatic, Tool layout
Principle of lathe machine

 The lathe is a machine tool which holds the work piece between two rigid and strong
supports called centers or chuck or faceplate which revolves
 The cutting tool is rigidly held and supported in a tool post which is fed against the
revolving work piece
 The cutting tool in most of the operations is either fed parallel or perpendicular to the
axis of rotation. Sometimes cutting tool may fed at an angle to the axis of work piece
also like in taper turning
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Lathe Specification
1. Height of centers over bed
2. Maximum swing over bed
3. Maximum swing over carriage
4. Maximum swing over gap
5. Maximum distance between centers
6. Length of bed
7. Range of speeds and feeds
8. Powers of motors
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Construction of lathe
A general purpose horizontal lathe has following major components like-
1. Machine bed
2. Headstock
3. Tailstock
4. Carriage
5. Ways
6. Back gears
7. Lead screw
8. Feed rod
1. Machine bed
 The bed of lathe is a heavy iron casting
 It must be strong to support large work pieces and rigid enough not to distort under
the stress due to machining
 Cast iron is mostly used as the material for bed because it dampens vibration and
hence reducing the chatter
2. Headstock
 The headstock attaches to the left side of the bed
 It houses the headstock spindle, the bearings, gears, pulley and the belts used to
drive the spindle
 The headstock spindle is a hollow shaft supported in bearings
 Spindle might be driven either belt or gear
 Spindle speed is set by shifting levers on the headstock
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3. Tailstock
 The tailstock consists of a heavy tw o-part casting that slides on the ways and it is
clamped in place with the tailstock clamp
 The top part of the casting may be adjusted from side to side as needed for taper
turning
 The tailstock spindle can be moved in and out of the casting like the quill on a drill
press by turning the tailstock hand wheel
 The spindle bore is usually a standard Morse taper to accommodate a dead center,
drill chuck, drills or reamers
 The spindle can be locked in place with the tailstock clamp
4. Carriage
 The carriage rides on the ways and is made up of the saddle, cross-slide, compound
rest, apron and various controls
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 Saddle
 The saddle is an H-shaped casting that rides directly on the ways
 Saddle movement is longitudinal or parallel to the axis of spindle of machine
 Cross-slide
 The cross-slide sits on the top of saddle and moves at right angles to the axis
of work piece
 The cross-slide is moved by turning a hand wheel
 A graduated dial on the hand wheel measures the movement of the cross-
slide
 Compound rest
 The compound rest sits on top of cross-slide
 It is a small sliding mechanism that allows the tool to be adjusted a short
distance
 The compound rest can be swiveled 360° to obtain any angle to the machine
the work piece
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 The tool post mounts on the compound rest using the T-slot
 Apron
 The apron hangs down in front of the saddle and houses the drive gears and
split nut mechanism
 The split nut lever found on the apron, closes the split nut on the lead screw
when thread cutting
 The automatic feed lever engages the power feed for the carriage or cross-
slide
 Feed change lever allows to select whether the carriage or the cross-slide
moves under power when the automatic feed lever is engaged
5. Ways
 Ways are machined on the top of the bed and are hardened to resist wear
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 All modern machines use V and flat ways

 One set of ways for carriage and another set for the tailstock
6. Back gears
 Back gears link the spindle to the input shaft of the quick change gearbox
 It is often necessary to remove one set of gears and replace it with another in order
to achieve a particular feed rate or pitch
 Quick change gearbox
 The quick change gearbox allows to change gears quickly and easily by
shifting levers
 Which causes the carriage to move a specific distance every time the spindle
completes a revolution- this property is very useful for thread cutting
7. Lead screw
 The quick change gear box drives the lead screw or feed rod
 A lead screw is an accurate threaded rod that runs the length of the bed
 Lead screw has square thread because it has highest power transmission (without
any backlash and minimum friction) capacity but as square threads are costly to
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produce hence ACME threads (thread angle 29°) are used as an alternative in many
application
 Trapezoidal thread (thread angle 30°) is used in the lead screw of lathe machine. The
Half-nut has to engaged and disengaged quickly during thread cutting operation.
 Half-nut-
 There is split nut (half nut) housed in the carriage
 When the nut engages with the lead screw, it moves the carriage at a
predetermined speed relative to the rotation of the spindle (a predetermined
thread pitch per revolution)
8. Feed rod
 The feed rod transmits power from the quick change gearbox to another set of gears
within the carriage
 A pinion (a small gear) engages the rack which is found just under the front ways to
move the carriage under power
 The feed rod moves the carriage at a slower rate (more suitable for turning) than the
lead screw does for threading
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Work holding devices

Characteristics of work holding devices
 Hold the work piece securely

 Hold the work piece accurately
 They must be quick and convenient to use
Various work holding devices
1. Chucks
 Work pieces are held to the headstock spindle of the lathe with the chucks, faceplates,
or lathe centers
 A lathe chuck is a device that exerts force on the work piece to hold it
I. 4 jaws chuck (independent chuck)
 It has 4 jaws which are adjusted individually on the chuck by means of chuck
key
 The chuck face is scribed with concentric circles which are used for rough
alignment of jaws
 Final adjustment made by turning the work piece slowly and using gauges to
determine its concentricity
 It can hold square, round, octagonal or irregular shaped work pieces
 It is more accurate than 3 jaw chuck
II. 3 jaws chuck (universal scroll chuck)

 It has 3 jaws which move in unison as an adjusting pinion is rotate
 There is a scroll plate inside a 3 jaw chuck
 The spiral grove on the face of the scroll plate engages teeth on the back of
each three jaws
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 The scroll plate causes the three jaws to move in and out simultaneously
 It is easy to make centering adjustment of the work piece
 This chuck is not as accurate as 4 jaws chuck
 It can hold round or hexagonal shaped work pieces
 It cannot hold square, octagonal or irregular shaped work pieces effectively
2. Holding work between centers

 A work piece may be held between centers directly
 Lathe centers are used with lathe dog and drive plate
 These are ideal for supporting long work pieces like shafts
 Lathe dogs
 Lathe dogs are used to transmit drive power from the spindle to a work
piece when it is held between the centers
 Without a lathe dog the work piece stopped turning as the tool is
engaged
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 Drive plate
 A drive plate is a flat disc that attaches to the spindle nose
 It has grooves and pins to engage and turn a lathe dog
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Types of lathe
1. Speed Lathe
 It is very simple in design
 The spindle speed is very high
 These are used for small task
 It only has headstock, tailstock and very simple tool post
 It is used for light machine works like wood turning, metal spinning and metal
polishing
2. Engine lathe
 it is designed for low as well as high power operations
 it is commonly used for spinning sheet metals
 these machines come in many sizes
 it has a longitudinal bed to which is mounted a headstock and tailstock
 engine lathe can be seen in every machine shop
 various metal can be machine
3. Tool room lathes
 it has wider range of speeds and great device to manufacture die
 it is combination of accuracy, simplicity, and affordable to its users
 it has wider range of speeds
 it can give different types of feeds
4. Turret lathes
 It is a form of metal working lathe that is used for repetitive production of
duplicate part
 these machine has a turret over which various types of tools (at least eight) are
mounted
 sequential machining process can be done by using turret lathe without moving
work pieces
 the job can be produced very quickly
5. Special purpose lathe
 These machines allow the workers to perform tasks which are not possible in
normal lathe machines
 Lathe machines like Jeweler’s lathe, crankshaft lathe, multi-spindle lathe, break
drum lathe
6. CNC lathe
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 This lathe is highly beneficial with greater feedback control for watching,
powered axis drives, tool placing, maintain and quick repetition of difficult
device motion
 These lathes are programmed one
 Highly skilled workers are required to operate it
Types of Operation on Lathe machine

1. Turning
 The work pieces is rotated while SPCT is moved parallel to the axis of rotation
(longitudinal feed)
 Turning can be done on external as well as internal surface
 Turning can be of many types likes-taper turning, step turning, straight turning
2. Facing
 The work piece is rotated while SPCT is moved perpendicular to the axis of
rotation (transverse feed)
 This can be performed by the cross-slide
3. Parting off
 This process is also called as cutoff
 It is used to create deep grooves
 In this process complete or part-complete component from its parent stock
4. Grooving
 Grooving is like parting except that grooves are cut to a specific depth instead of
complete component from stock
 Grooving can be performed on internal and external surfaces as well as on the
face of the part [known as face grooving or trepanning]
5. Boring
 Enlarging or smoothing an existing hole created by drilling
 It is done by mounting work piece to the spindle via a chuck or mounting work
piece onto the cross-slide and placing cutting tool into the chuck
 Boring tool is mounted to the tailstock
6. Drilling
 It is used to remove material from the inside of work piece
 This process used standard drill bits held in tail stock
 This process is used to create fresh hole (either through or blind)
7. Knurling
 The cutting of a serrated pattern onto the surface of a part
 It is used as a hand grip
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 It is done by special knurling tool

8. Reaming
 The process is a sizing operation that removes a very small amount of metal
from a already drilled hole
 It is done for making internal holes of very accurate diameters
9. Threading
 Both standard and non standard thread can be turned on a lathe using an
appropriate tool
10. Chamfering
 It is the operation of beveling the extreme end of the work piece
 This is done to remove the burrs to protect the end of the work piece from being
damaged and to have a better look
 Chamfering is an essential operation before thread cutting so that the nut may
pass freely on the threaded work piece
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Semi-automatic lathe
Types
1. Turret or saddle type lathe
 Horizontal turret
 Vertical turret
2. Capstan or ram type lathe
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Capstan & Turret lathe- Parts

 Bed
 Head Stock
 Turret Head & Saddle
 Cross slide
Turret head & saddle
 Use Geneva mechanism

 Block holds a number of tools at a time
 Indexed about its vertical axis
 Hexagonal turret- 6 faces with bore – 4 faces has threaded holes to clamp the tool
holders
 Large wheel to move turret
 Pre-set stop control forward movement of turret
Cross slide
 it is between head stock & turret saddle

 2 tool posts: one mounted at the front other mounted at the rear
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Working principle
 Turret head indexed automatically
 Eleven tools-set at a time
 6 tools on turret faces
 4 tools front square tool post- turning, thread cutting, drilling, necking
 1 parting tool at rear tool post- cutting off
 Turret head moves forward while machining- returns back to the starting position once
after completion of each operation
 Next tool comes to machining position
 Longitudinal movement controlled independently
 Pre-set stops- control cross wise movement of rear and front tool post
Difference between centre lathe and turret lathe
S.No Centre Lathe Turret Lathe

1 It is manually operated lathe It is semi automatic lathe
2 It has only one tool post Front and rear tool posts are available
3 Tool changing time is more Tool changing time is less
4 It has tailstock It has turret head instead of tailstock
5 Only one tool can be fitted in the Six different tools can be fitted in the turret
tailstock head
6 Number of speeds is less Number of speeds is more
7 The machine should be stopped for Tool can be changed without stopping the
changing tool machine
8 It is not suitable for mass production It is suitable for mass production
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Difference between turret and capstan lathe
S.No. Turret Capstan

1 Turret lathes are relatively more robust Capstan lathes deals generally with short or
and heavy duty machines long rod type work pieces
2 Generally work is held in chuck Generally work is held in the Collet
3 The heavy turret being mounted on the The turret travels with limited stroke length
saddle which directly slides with larger within saddle type which is clamped on main
stroke length on the main bed bed
4 Turret head can be moved crosswise in Turret head cannot be moved in crosswise
some turret lathe
5 As the construction is rigid heavy cut Heavy cut cannot be given
can be made
6 Saddle is moved along with the turret Saddle will not be moved during machining
head during machining
7 Turret head is directly mounted on the Turret head is mounted on the ram and the
saddle and saddle slides over the bed ram is mounted on the saddle
ways
8 Long work piece can be machined Short work pieces can only be machined
Automatic lathes
 Automatic lathes are those which machine the work piece automatically i.e. all
movement of cutting tools, their sequence of applications, feeding of raw material,
parting off and unloading of finished part all are done by machine
 Minimum man power utilized
 Meant for mass production
 To eliminate the amount of skilled labor
 Parts are fed and removed automatically
 Minimizing the loading and unloading time
 May have single or multiple spindles
 More accuracy can be obtained
 Example- Automatic cutting off lathe, Single spindle automatic lathe, swiss type
automatic lathe, multiple spindle lathe
Semi-automatic lathe (Capstan lathe, turret lathe)

 Suitable for batch or small lot production
 Costlier than centre lathes of same capacity
 The operators need lesser skill and putting lesser effort and attention
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 Some majors auxiliary motions and handling operations like bar feeding, speed change,
tool change etc are done quickly with lesser human involvement
Tool Layout
Tool Layout-For Automatic lathe
 The tool layout for an automatic contains the sketches of the work in the various stages
of machining by operation elements
 The required cutting tools are indicated and shown at the end of the feed motion
 The operation sheet usually has a sketch of the finished work piece
 It indicates the material of which the work piece is to be made and lists the operations
in their proper sequence
 Operation sheet includes – cutting speeds, cutting feeds and calculate the lengths of
travel of all the tools in each operation element
Tool Layout-For Capstan & Turret lathe
 The tool layout for a job constitutes the predetermined plan for the order and method
of machining operations necessary to produce it
 Accuracy and cost depend on an efficient layout
 The layout should be simple
 Standard tools should be used
 For the preparation of layout it will be necessary to have a finished drawing of the part
 There are two steps for tool layout for a turret lathe- 1. Preparation of operation sheet
2. Sketching the plan showing the various tools fitted into turret faces and on cross slide
in proper sequence
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Shaper, Planer & Slotter: Construction, operations and drives
Shaper
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Principal parts of shaper
3. Types of shaping machine
4. Specification of shaping machine
5. Operations on shaping machine
6. Drive mechanism
7. Feed drive mechanism
8. Cutting parameters
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Shaper Machine
1. Introduction
 Shaper is a machine tool which produces flat surfaces in horizontal, vertical or inclined
planes depending upon the orientation of the cutting tool
 Single point cutting tool is used for machining
 Job is held rigidly in the vice which mounted on the table
 Tool is clamped in the tool post mounted on the ram of the machine
 The ram reciprocates to and fro, tool cuts the material in forward stroke
 No cutting during return stroke
 Due to its limited stroke length it is generally adapted to small jobs
 It is used for cutting keyways and splines on shafts
 Although shaping process is quite slow but it is very popular because of its short setup
time, inexpensive tooling and ease of operation
 In comparison to planer it occupies less floor space, consumes less power, costs less, is
easier to operate, and it is about three times quicker in action as stroke length and
inertia forces are less
 Its stroke length is limited as the accuracy decreases for longer strokes due to ram
overhanging
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2. Principal parts of shaper
I. Base
 It is the main body of the machine
 Base is made of cast iron
 Provides support for other parts of machine
II. Ram
 It is the main part of the shaper machine
 Ram slides on accurately machined guide ways on top of the column
 It holds the tool and provides the reciprocating motion to it
 It is attached by the rocker arm which provides the motion to ram
III. Table
 It is the metal body attached over frame
 Its main function is to hold the vice and work piece over it
 It has T slots which is used to clamp vice and work piece
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IV. Tool head

 It is situated at the front of the ram
 Its main function is to hold the cutting tool
 It consists of tool slide, tool post and clapper box
V. Clapper box
 It carries the tool holder
 The main function of clapper box is to provide clearance for tool in
return stroke
 It prevents the cutting edge dragging the work piece while return stroke
and prevent tool wear
VI. Column
 Box type casting mounted vertically on top of the base
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 It has two guide ways. One vertical guide ways in the front over which a
cross slide moves up and down
 Second horizontal guide way on top over which ram reciprocate
 Reciprocating mechanism is housed inside the column
3. Classification of shapers
Basic types
 Horizontal shaper- ram holding the cutting tool moves in horizontal plane
 According to cutting action of stroke
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 Push Type Shaper

 Metal is removed when the ram moves away from column
 Most common type used in practice
 Unless otherwise specified, the term shaper refers to Push
type shaper
 Draw Type Shaper
 Metal is removed when the tool is drawn towards the
column
 Allows heavier cuts to be made
 Less vibration during cutting
 According to table design
 Standard Shaper
 Work table can be moved vertically & horizontally
 It cannot be swiveled or tilted
 Universal Shaper
 Table can be moved horizontally, vertically, swiveled &
tilted
 This is mostly used in tool rooms
 According to driving mechanism
 Crank Type
 Driving mechanism is by crank and a slotted lever quick
return motion mechanism is used to give reciprocating
motion to the ram
 The crank is adjustable and is arranged inside the body of
bull gear
 Geared Type
 Driven by Rack & Pinion mechanism
 Hydraulic Type
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 Driven by oil pressure developed by a pump which is run

by an electric motor
 It is more efficient than crank and geared type shapers
 Vertical shaper- the cutting tool moves in vertical plane
 Travelling head shaper- cutting tool reciprocates & moves cross wise
simultaneously
4. Specification of shaping machine

 Maximum length of stroke of the ram
 Maximum tool overhang
 Dimension of table working surface
 Type of drive
 Power input
 Floor space required
 Weight of the machine
 Forward to return stroke ratio
 Feed
5. Operations on shaper machine

1. Regular operations
i. Machining horizontal surfaces
 Horizontal surfaces are machined by moving the work mounted on
the machine table at a cross direction with respect to the ram
movement
 Clapper box can be set vertically to the uncut surface
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ii. Machining vertical surfaces

 The vertical cut is made while machining the end of a work piece,
squaring up a block
 The feed is given to the tool by rotating the down feed screw of the
vertical slide
 The apron is swiveled away from the vertical surface being machined
iii. Machining angular surfaces

 Machining the inclined surfaces can be done in several ways
 Swivel tool head method- an angular cut is made at any angle other
than a right angle to the horizontal or to the vertical plane
 Universal table method- if the universal table is available in the
shaping machine then table can be tilted to the required position and
work is fitted on that
 Universal vice method- the job may be fixed in the universal vice and
then vice is swiveled to the required angular position
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2. Special operations
i. Making of internal keyway
 Internal keyways are cut inside the holes of gears and pulleys
 It is done by holding the tool on a special tool holder called snout bar
 The snout bar is directly fitted on the clapper box
ii. Making of external keyway

 Machining external keyways refers to the cutting of long slots along
the length of cylindrical rods
iii. Making of V-block

 The required shape of a V block is marked on the face of the work and
machining is done by any suitable method of angular machining
iv. Making of dovetail
 Dovetail joint is machined on two separate pieces of work as male
and female elements
 A special form tool is used for machining
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v. Making of rack gear

 Rack gear cutting is a process of cutting teeth elements at linear pitch
on a flat surface
 Firstly the groove is machined with a square nose parting tool
 Then groove is further machined with a form tool conforming the
shape of the teeth
vi. Making of T-slot
 The shape of the T-slot is marked on the face of the work
 A parting off tool is fitted on the tool post and a rectangular slot is
machined at the middle for the required depth
 The broad base of the T-slot is machined by a T-slot cutting tool
Shapers tools
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6. Drive mechanism
Types of drive mechanism

1. Hydraulic drive
 Inside the hydraulic cylinder a piston reciprocates
 Between the piston and ram a piston rod is connected
 So the ram reciprocates along with the piston
 Two inlets are provided near each end of the cylinders
 A four-way wall control valve connects these two inlets with the reservoir
which contains the fluid
 The reservoir is connected to the valve with the help of a drain pipes and a
supply
 The supply pipe is again connected to the reservoir by a pump and a relief
valve
 The valve is actuated by the lever and trip dog fitted to the ram
 Oil is sucked by the gear pump from the reservoir at a particular pressure
 This high pressure oil goes to the cylinder through the four-way valve
 The oil is allowed from the pump to the left side of the piston which forces
the piston to move the ram towards right
 It is called as forward or cutting stroke
 In this stroke oil flows out on the right side entry to the reservoir through the
four-way valve and drain pipe
 The lever hits one trig dog at the end of this stroke
 Now the lever position is changed due to this the supply pipe supplies the oil
on the right side of the piston which moves the ram towards left called as
return stroke or non-cutting or idle stroke
 This stroke the high pressure oil covers on lesser area on the cylinder
 Due to this the pressure force will increase
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 Hence this return stroke is faster by supplying the same quantity of oil
2. Crank and slotted lever mechanism

 In this mechanism the ram is actuated by gear drives associated with electric
motor
 First the electric motor drives the pinion gear
 The pinion gear drives the bull gear which rotates in opposite direction due
to external meshing
 A radial slide is provided on the bull gear
 A sliding block is assembled on this slide
 The block can be positioned in radial direction by rotating the stroke
adjustment screw
 The sliding block has a crank pin
 A rocker arm is freely fitted to this crank pin
 The rocker arm sliding block slides in the slot provided in the rocker arm
called as slotted link
 The upper end has a fork which is connected to the arm block by a pin while
the bottom end of the rocker arm is pivoted
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 When the pinion gear rotates along with the bull gear the crank will also
rotate
 Due to this the rocker arm sliding block also rotates in the same circle
 Simultaneously the sliding block slides up and down in the slot
 This movement is transmitted to the ram which reciprocates
 The angle through which bull gear rotates on the forward stroke is greater
than the angle through which it rotates on the return stroke
 Hence forward stroke is slow and return stroke is quick hence mechanism is
known as quick return mechanism
7. Feed drive mechanism (Table feed mechanism)

 The table feed mechanism is that when the ram is moving in the return stroke the
table should be cross fed so that next time the tool takes cut in different line
 It may be done either manually or automatically
 A arrangement is provided in the shaper in which a gear E is placed concentric to the
bull gear G and the gear E is in mesh with gear F having a slot in it as shown in the
diagram
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 A slider B can move in this slot and connecting rod is connected to this slider at one
end and pawl arm at the other end
 By changing the position of B the radius R can be changed and thereby the amount
of swing of pawl arm can be adjusted
 The ratchet wheel is rotated a little with the help of swinging of the pawl arm and
cross feed screw is also connected with the ratchet wheel
 For automatic feed the pawl is connected in the ratchet wheel otherwise it is pulled
outside
 The amount of feed per stroke is changed by changing radius R
8. Cutting parameters
1. Length values that are considered in time calculations
 The length of the total stroke results from the length of the work piece,
approach and overrun
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L  la  l  lo
Where L is length of total stroke, l is length of work piece, la is tool approach,

lo is tool overrun
 Recommended values for l a = 10 mm and lo = 5 mm
2. The number of stroke per unit of time

 The number of forward and return strokes that can be achieved in a period
of time can be calculated as follows:
v  103[mm / min]
n  m
L 2  L[mm]
where, n L = number of forward and return strokes in min 1
v  average velocity m/min
L= stroke length in mm
3. Machining time
 Machining time in shaping can be estimated
L
Tm 
f  nL
Tm is machining time in min
L is the sum of job length + tool approach + tool overrun
f is feed in mm/stroke
n L number of strokes per min
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Planer
1. Introduction
 The planer is a machine tool designed to produce plane and flat surface on a work
piece
 The work piece is securely fixed on the table and table reciprocates horizontally
against a stationary single point cutting tool
 The surface machined may be horizontally, vertical or inclined, angular surfaces are
easier to machine on planer machine
 Planer is similar to shaper but larger in size
 In planer work piece reciprocates but in shaper tool reciprocates
 Planer is used for machining large size work piece because of their capacity for long
table travel and robust construction
 Setting time is of the order 5-6 times that of shaper
 The planer produces large work at lowest cost in comparison to any other machine
tool
2. Operations of planer machine

The planer is used for:
I. Planning flat horizontal, vertical and inclined surfaces
II. Machining dovetails
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III. Machining slots and grooves
3. Types of planer machine

a) According to general motor construction
I. Double housing planer
II. Open side planer
III. Pit planer
IV. Divided table planer
b) According to drive
I. Gear drive
II. Belt drive
III. Hydraulic drive
a) According to general motor construction
I. Double housing planer
The double planer consists of following parts:
1) Bed
 The bed is very strong and rigid of box type which is made by casting
process
 The table is mounted over the bed
2) Table
 It is also a box type structure which reciprocates on the bed guide
ways
 It is having T-slot as that of shaper for clamping the work
3) Column
 The two long structural member along with guide ways provided on
both sides of the member
 The two columns linked by a cross rail and cross beam
 The cross rail moves on the guide ways
36
 It carries feed mechanism and power transmission links

4) Cross rail
 It is a rigid structural member mounted between two columns and
slides on the guide ways already provided on the columns
 The cross rail can be fixed or fastened at any height
 It moves tool heads
5) Tool heads
 Maximum four tool heads can be mounted on the planer
 Two on cross rail and the other two are on the guide ways of both
columns
 It may tilt to desired angle
37
II. Open side planer

 The only difference in this type is that only one vertical column is provided
on one side of the bed and other side is left open
 Larger and heavier jobs can be mounted on the table
 The construction and working principle are same as that of double housing
planer
III. Pit Planer

 The working principle of this planer is same as that of the other types of
planer
 But the table of this planer is kept in a pit as the floor coincides with the top
surface of the table
 So heavy and large work can be held and machined easily
IV. Divided table planer

 The working principle is similar to that of the standard planer
 But it has two reciprocating tables
 The time required to set the work on planer is more
 To reduce the setting time of work the two same machining are combined by
using two tables
38
 When the first job is machining that the first table will be only reciprocating
and second table is stationary
 On that time the setting of work can be carried out
 After machining the first work piece the table is taken to rest and next one
work is set on it
 On that time second table is in machining operation
4. Specification of planer
 Length of bed
 Width of bed
 Table size (working surface)
 Height under cross rail
 Table surface speed
 Main drive
39
Slotter (Slotting Machine)

1. Introduction
 A slotting machine or slotter may be considered as vertical shaper
 The slotter has vertical arm and a hand or a power operated rotary table
 A slotter can perform a variety of operations such as finishing of external and
internal plain surfaces in addition to slotting
 Slotters are commonly used for internal machining of blind holes or vertical
machining shapes that are complicated in horizontal shaper
 They are useful for machining keyways, cutting internal and external teeth on
large gears
 Cutting action takes place during downward stroke
 The ram is either crank driven or hydraulically driven
2. Construction
i. Base
 The base is rigidly built and is cast integral with column
 The top of the bed and front face of the vertical column are provided
guide ways for the saddle and ram respectively
ii. Saddle
40
 The saddle is mounted upon the guide ways and may be moved towards
or away from the column
 The top face of the saddle is machined to provide guide ways for cross-
slide
 These guide ways are perpendicular to the guide ways on the base
iii. Cross-slide
 The cross-slide is mounted on the guide ways of saddle and may be
moved parallel to the face of the column
iv. Rotary table
 The rotary table is circular table mounted on the top of the cross-slide
 This table can be rotated by hand or by automatic device
 The angular graduation on the table helps work to be machined at angles
v. Ram
 Ram reciprocates vertically up and down
 Its bottom carries the cutting tool
 A slot is cut on the body of the ram for changing the position of the
stroke
3. Types of slotting machines

i. Puncher slotter
41
 The puncher slotter is the heavy duty machine and equipped with
powerful motor
 It is design to remove large amount of metal from large castings or
forgings
 The length of the strike is large
ii. Production slotter
 This is common type of slotter used for general production work
 The drive of the ram is by means of slotted disc and connecting rod
 The flywheel is fitted to prevent shock at the end of the stroke
iii. Tool room slotter

 This slotting machine is of precision type and is used for very accurate
machining
 It is lighter machine and is operated at high speeds
4. Drive mechanism of a slotter
42
In slotter mainly three drive mechanisms are used:

i. Slotted disc mechanism
ii. Slotted link mechanism

iii. Hydraulic drive mechanism
5. Operations performed on slotting machine

 Machining flat surfaces
 Machining cylindrical surfaces
 Machining irregular surfaces
 Machining slots and keyways and grooves
43
6. Difference among shaper, planer and slotter

S.No. Shaper Planer Slotter
1 Can use lighter cuts and It can used heavier cuts It can used light cuts
finer feeds and coarse feeds and improved feeds
2 Use for smaller jobs Used for much bigger jobs It is used for making
slots in smaller jobs
3 Work is held at stop and Tool is fixed and the work The job is held at a
the tool on ram is moved piece is on the table- stop and the tool is
back and forth moves back and forth on the ram and it
under the tool moves up and down
across the work
4 Use quick return Drive is gears or hydraulic Crank driven or
mechanism hydraulic driven
5 It is lighter machine It is heavier machine It is a lighter machine
44
Unit 2
Milling
Contents
 Introduction
 Type of milling operation
 Types of milling cutters
 Types of milling machine
 Characteristics of milling
 Terminology of milling cutter
 Work holding devices
 Indexing and dividing head
45
1. Introduction
 Milling is the machining process in which the removal of metal takes place due to
cutting action of rotating cutter when the work is fed past to it
 The rotating cutter is held on a arbor and the work is clamped on the table
 The work piece is fed to the cutter, the teeth of cutter remove the metal in the
form of chips to get the desired shape of work piece
2. Characteristics of milling operation

 Interrupted cutting
 Each of the cutting edges removes material for only part of rotation of
the milling cutter
 As a result the cutting edge has time to cool before it removes material
again
 Thus milling operation is cooler compared to the turning operation on
lathe
 This allows for larger MRR
 Smaller size chips
 The size of the chips is small per cutting edges
 Due to multiple cutting edges in contact a large amount of material is
removed in a single pass but in the turning process requires a large
number of cuts
 Variation in chip thickness
 Cutting forces vary during the contact of cutting edge with the chip
thickness varying from zero to maximum size
 This makes it interrupted cutting process
 The variation in cutting forces lead to vibration and would be harmful to
the tool life and surface finish generated
46
3. Types of milling
Based on the directions of movement of the milling cutter and the feeding direction of
the work piece there are two possible types of milling:
a) Up milling (conventional milling)
 In this method of milling the cutter rotates in a direction opposite to that
in which the work is fed. This relative direction of movements of the
cutter and the work piece is noted at the point of contact between the
two.
 In conventional milling (up milling) as the cut proceeds the chip thickness
increases gradually as from A to B
 Chip thickness in conventional milling in minimum (zero) at the start of
the cut and maximum at the end of the cut
 This method is generally used for machining castings and forgings since
this method enables the cutter to dig-in and start the cut below the hard
upper surface
b) Down milling (climb milling)

 In this method the direction of rotation of the cutter coincides with the
direction of work feed
 Shape of chip removed by the cutter in both the cases is the same
 In climb milling (down milling) chip thickness decreases as the cut
proceeds
 In climb milling or down milling maximum chip thickness is in the
beginning and minimum (zero) at the end of the cut
 This method is particularly useful for finishing operations and small work
such as slot cutting, milling grooves, slitting etc.
 It gives better surface finish
47
4. Types of milling machine

I. Column and knee type milling machine
 These are general purpose machines
 They have single arbor only
 Work table is supported on knee like casting which can slide in vertical
direction along a vertical column
 Most common in machine shops and tool room
 These are further classified as
 Hand milling machine
 Horizontal milling machine
48
 Vertical milling machine
 Universal milling machine

II. Fixed bed type milling machine
 These are more sturdy, rigid, heavier and larger as compare to knee type
machines
 They may carry single or multiple arbors
 They are further classified as
 Plain type (single horizontal spindle)
49
 Duplex head (two horizontal spindle)
 Triplex head (two horizontal and one vertical spindle)

III. Planer type milling machine
 They are used for heavy work

 Up to maximum four tool heads can be mounted over it
 It has robust and massive construction like planer
50
IV. Production milling machine

 These machines do not have fixed bed
 Rotary table
 Drum type
V. Special purpose milling machine
 These machines are designed to perform a specific type of operation
only
 Thread milling machine
 Gear milling machine
 Cam milling machine
5. Work holding devices in milling
Vices are very common work holding devices on milling machines. Common type of
vices as follows-
 Plain or parallel vice
 Most widely used

 It is commonly used for holding the work in all plain milling operations
 Its specially low construction enables the work to remain quite close to
the table and thus reduces the chances of vibrations to a minimum
 The base carries slots to accommodate T-slots to fix the vice on the table
51
 Swivel vice
 This device facilitates milling of an angular surface on the work piece

 It consists a swivel base and graduated plate helps in adjusting the body
at any desired angle relative to base
 The upper construction is same to that of plain vice
 Universal swivel vice
 It enables milling at various inclination without removing the work piece

 It is vastly used in tool room shop
 It is not used where heavy cuts are to be employed since it does not have
the required clamping rigidity
 Vertical vice
 It is very much similar to plain vice in construction and operation both
 It carries vertical jaws instead of horizontal jaws
52
 Precision angle vice
 It enables a precision angular adjustment of the job in a vertical plane

 It is quick to adjust at the desired angle
 Compound vice
 It carries precision vice and a compound slide similar to centre lathe

 The work piece is held on the table can be swiveled in a horizontal plane
to any desired angle
 The work piece can be adjusted in any desired position
53
 Rotary milling table
 It carries an indexing attachment with it by means of which the work

piece held on this table can be easily indexed
 This is hand operated model
6. Milling cutters
 Milling cutters may have either straight teeth i.e. parallel to the axis of rotation
or in helical shape
 The helix angle may be right hand or left hand and this will direction of rotation
of the cutter
 Cutter may be made of single piece of steel or having the cutting portion welded
to a tough shank or having removable cutting teeth (bits) in a solid body
Types of milling cutters
i. Plain milling cutters
54
 These milling cutters have cutting teeth on their periphery

 The teeth may be either straight or helical
 No cutting action is provided by the side faces
 These cutter are used for milling flat surfaces parallel to the axis
of rotation
ii. Side milling cutters
 These cutters apart from having teeth on the periphery also have
cutting teeth on one or both sides
 They are always provided with a central hole for the purpose of
mounting them on the arbor
 They are also called straddle mills when used in pairs
 Main types of side milling cutters are following
 Plain side milling cutters-
Pl
 They are made to have cutting teeth on periphery

as well as both sides
 They are normally used for cutting slots
 Half side milling cutters
 These cutters have teeth on the periphery and on
one side only
 They can be used in face milling
 These cutters have longer teeth than plain milling
cutters
55
 Staggered teeth side milling cutters
 These cutters have teeth alternate teeth on the

periphery only
 These alternate teeth are of opposite helix angle,
staggered from side to side
 They are used for keyway cutting and slot cutting
iii. End milling cutters
 These are solid circular cutters which may or may not have shank
 They carry teeth on the periphery as well as on the end
 Teeth may be parallel or helical
 These are used for milling slots, keyways, grooves and irregular
shaped surfaces
iv. Face milling cutters
 It carries teeth on the periphery as well as end face

 Maximum cutting is done by the teeth on the periphery and those
on the end face perform a type of finishing operation
56
v. Metal slitting cutters
 They are used for cutting thin slots or parting off

 They are of two types- plain slitting cutters and staggered teeth
slitting cutter
vi. Angle milling cutters
 These cutters carry sharp angular teeth

 Their specific use is in milling V-grooves, notches, dovetail slots,
reamer teeth and other angular surfaces
 They are of two types- single angle cutters and double angle
cutters
vii. Form milling cutters
 They are used for producing different shaped contours
 They are of following types-
 Corner rounding cutters
57
 These cutters are used for milling the edges and

corners of the jobs to a required radius
 They may be single cutter or double cutter
 Concave and convex cutters
 They are used for milling concave and convex

surfaces
 Concave cutter will be used for milling a convex
surface and a convex cutter for milling a concave
surfaces
 Gear cutters
 They are designed as involute gear cutters

 They are used for milling gear on a milling machine
58
 Tap and reamer flute cutters

 These formed cutters are used for milling flutes on
reamers and taps
 They look like double angle cutters
 Gear hobs
 Gear hob is a formed milling cutter which carries

helical cutting teeth
 It is used for cutting teeth of different forms like
helical, spur and spline shafts
 Thread milling cutters
 Used for milling different types of thread mostly for
worms and acme type thread
viii. Woodruff milling cutters
 It is a small type of end milling cutter which resembles with plain

and side milling cutter
 These are used to cut keyways for woodruff key
7. Milling operations
a) Plain or slab milling
59
 It is the process of producing flat surfaces parallel to the axis of cutter

 Plain or slab milling cutter is used for this operation
b) Face milling
 It is the process of producing flat surfaces perpendicular to the axis of

rotating cutter
 Face milling cutter is used for this operation
c) Angular milling
 It is the process of producing flat surfaces at an angle other than right

angle to the axis of the rotating cutter
 The cutter may be a single or double angle cutter depending upon the
single surface is to be machined or double
60
d) Form milling
 This process is used for machining those surface which are of irregular
shapes
 The cutter used called as form milling cutter and have the shape of its
cutting teeth conforming to the profile of the surface to be produced
e) Straddle milling
 It is a milling operation in which a pair of side milling cutters is used for

machining two parallel vertical surfaces of a work piece simultaneously
f) Gang milling
61
 In this operation combination of more than two cutters mounted on a

common arbor for milling a number of flat horizontal and vertical
surfaces
 This combination may consist of only side milling cutter or of plain and
side milling cutters both
g) Slot and groove milling
 Slot milling is the operation of producing slots in work piece

 These slots can be of various shapes- plain slots, T-slots, Dovetail slots
 Groove milling is the operation of producing grooves of varied shapes like
plain groove, curved groove, V-grooves etc
 The cutter is choose according to shape of slot or groove to be produced
h) Keyway milling
 Woodruff key seat (a) is milled with a woodruff key seat cutter. It is a
closed groove with a rounded bottom. It can be produce anywhere along
the length of the work piece
 Plain key seat (b) is milled with a single plain or side milling cutter. It is an
open groove
 Sunk key (c) is milled with an end milling cutter. It is a close groove with
rounded ends. It can be produced anywhere along the length of the work
piece
62
i) Slitting or saw milling
 A parting off operation is performed by means of slitting saw

j) Side milling
 A side milling cutter is used to machine a flat vertical surface on a side of
the work piece
 When two parallel vertical flat surfaces are required to be machined the
two side milling cutters can be used and this operation is known as
straddle milling
k) End milling
 The end milling cutter is used to machine and produce a flat surface or a
pair of parallel flat surfaces
 The surfaces produced may be horizontal, vertical or inclined
l) Gear milling
 The gear cutting operation involves cutting of different types of gears on
a milling machine
63
 End mill cutter or a form relieved cutter is used which carries the profile
on its cutting teeth
 For dividing the periphery of the gear blank into required number of equi-
spaced parts an indexing mechanism or dividing head is used
8. Terminology: Plain Milling Cutter
 A milling cutter can be produced as a built up unit of a number of single point

cutting tools such that each tooth of the cutter is a single point cutting tool as
shown by A
 Name of various parts of the cutter teeth such as Face, Cutting edge, Back, Flute,
Fillet, Land, tooth thickness and depth etc are the primary dimensions of the
cutter teeth
 Relief angle α - is the angle between the plane P1 which is normal to the axial
plane PP at a point on the cutting edge and the tangent to the relieved land of
the cutter tooth. It varies between 10° to 30°
 Rake angle γ - is the angle between the axial plane PP and the face of the cutter
tooth measured in a plane normal to the cutting edge. The maximum rake angle
is 20°
64
 Lip angle β - is the angle between the face and the land of the cutter. A larger lip
angles ensures stronger tooth
 Outside diameter (D), root diameter (d), fillet radius (r), depth of tooth (t)
9. Dividing heads
 Dividing heads help in changing the angular position of the component in
relation to the cutter
 With its help it is possible to divide the periphery of the work piece into any
number of equal parts
 Types of dividing heads
a. Plain dividing head
 First type- It carries the indexing plate directly mounted on its

spindle and has no use of the worm and worm wheel
 It is the simplest dividing head and it is used in direct indexing
 The index plate carries 12 or 24 equi-spaced slots on its periphery
 The job is held between two centers one on the dividing head
spindle and other on the tailstock
 Second type- it consists of a cast body carrying spindle, on the
front end of the spindle carrier and centre are mounted
65
 On its rear end index plate is mounted which is having different

hole circles on its face and teeth on its periphery
 The plate gets movement through worm by rotating the handle
 Usually the plates have 3 circles of 16, 42 and 60 or 24, 30 and 36
holes
 The job is held between centers as usual
b. Universal dividing head
 The spindle carrying the worm which meshes with worm wheel
 The spindle carries a crank at its outer end
 The index plates are available in a set of two or three with a
number of hole circles
 Functions of dividing heads- it sets the work piece in a desired
position
 After each cut it rotates the job through a desired angle and thus
indexes the periphery of the work
66
 It provides a continuous rotary motion to the job during milling of

helical grooves
 It also acts as holding as well as supporting device with the help of
tailstock
10. Use of dividing head
 The angle through which the job will rotate for each revolution of the crank
depends on the velocity ratio between the worm and worm wheel
 The ratio is usually 40 to 1 i.e. for 40 revolution of the worm or the crank the job
will make one revolution
 For using the dividing head, first it is calculated, how many full turns the crank
has to rotate through and how many holes on which circle it has to cross further
in order to give required rotation to the work
 In differential indexing the plate has also to rotate
11. Indexing Methods
 Indexing means division of the job periphery into a desired number of equal
divisions
 Which means that the job rotates through a definite angle after each cut is over
 Methods of indexing
A. Direct indexing
 In this indexing method plain dividing head is used
 Index plate is mounted on spindle and rotated by hand
 It can be used only when the number of divisions to be obtained is
such that the number of slots on the periphery of the index plate
is a multiple of the former
 Indexing ratio = N/n where N = number of slots in the index plate
and n = number of divisions required to be obtained
 Example- if the circumference of a job has to be divided into 6
equal divisions and the index plate has 24 slots then the required
indexing ratio = 24/6 = 4/1 i.e. the index plate will be required to
move through 4 slots after each cut is over
B. Plain or simple indexing
 This method is used when the direct indexing method cannot be
employed for obtaining the required number of divisions on the
job
 For example- if the work is required to be divided into 22 equal
divisions the direct indexing cannot be used because 22 is not
divisible into any of the hole circles on direct indexing plate
67
Hence simple indexing is used

For this either a plain indexing head or a universal dividing head
can be used
 The method of indexing involves the use of crank, worm, worm
wheel and index plate
 Generally worm wheel carries 40 teeth and worm is single start
thread
 1 turn of the worm (crank) the worm wheel will rotate 1/40 of a
revolution
 For n divisions on the work, the crank will make 40/n turns
 For example- if the work has to be divided into 23 equal divisions,
then the corresponding crank movement will be given by- crank
movement = 40/23 = 1 17/23 turns
 Whole number indicates full turns of crank and in the fraction,
numerator denotes the number of holes to be moved and the
denominator the number of holes on the circle to be used
 1 17/23 turns represent- one complete revolution of crank and
will move further through 17 holes on 23 holes circle
 Example- required 35 divisions on a plate. Find the indexing
movement. Required movement = 40/35 = 8/7 = 1 1/7. 1/7 =
(1/7)*(3/3) = 3/21. 1 full turn and 3 holes on 21 holes circle
 Note- multiply denominator by such a number that the resultant
will give one number on any of the 3 plates (Brown and Sharp
plates) then multiply numerator by the same number to get the
result
C. Compound indexing
 This method is employed when the number of divisions required
is outside the range in simple indexing
 This is two stages method:
 Stage 1: by turning the crank a definite amount in one direction in
the same way as in simple indexing
 Stage 2: the index plate and the crank both either in the same or
reverse direction thus adding further movement to or subtracting
from that obtained in the first stage
 Procedure-
 Factorize the number of divisions required
 Factorize the standard no. 40
68
 Select for trial any two circles on the same plate

and on its same side. Factorize their difference
 Factorize the number of holes of one circle
 Factorize the number of holes of the other circle
 Factors of divisions required  Factors of difference of hole circles
Factors of 40  Factors of first circle  Factors of second circle
 First check- Indexing movement- if suitable index

circles have been selected then all factors in the
numerator will be cancelled by those in the
denominator. If it does not happen select another
set of circles and made another attempt in the
same way as above. Repeat till we get 1 in the
numerator
 Let after simplification, comes to the form 1/X
where X may be any number
 a and b denotes the number of holes on the two
circles
 then indexing movement X  X or X  X
a b b a
 Similar signs of two part indicate that movement
will be in the same direction and vice versa
 Second check- after finding the above two
expressions check that the algebraic sum of the
two movements i.e. of the crank in one direction
and that of the crank and plate in the opposite
direction should be equal to 40/N
 N is number of divisions required
X X 40
  
a b N
69
Unit 2
Drilling, Boring and Reaming
Drilling
1. Introduction
 Drilling is a hole making machining operation done by a drilling tool

 The work piece is clamped on a machine table
 The drill is clamped in the machine spindle that provides the rotation and the feed
motions
 There are number of drilling operations used in modern industry like drilling, core
drilling, step drilling etc.
2. Classification of drill
a. Classification based on construction
i. Homogeneous drills- made of one piece of tool material such as carbide or
high speed steel
ii. Tipped drills- those having a body of one material with cutting lips made of
other materials brazed in place
iii. Insert drills- those having cutting portions or indexable cutting inserts held
in place
70
b. Classification based on shank configuration

i. Straight shank drills- those having cylindrical shanks which may be the same
or different diameter than the body of the drill
ii. Taper shank drills- those having conical shanks suitable for direct fitting into
tapered holes in machine spindles. Tapered drills with Morse taper shanks
are very common generally have tang meant to facilitate drill removal from
the machine drill chuck
c. Classification based on the length to diameter ratio
i. Stub drills-those having very short body length
ii. Regular length drills- drills having length to diameter ratio not exceeding 10
iii. Long drills- drills having length to diameter ratio more than 10
d. Classification based on number of flutes
i. Single flute drills- those having only one flute. Example – gundrills
ii. Two flute drills- those having two chip removal flutes. Example- conventional
drill and twist drill
iii. Multiple flute drills- those having more than two flutes
e. Classification based on flute longitudinal shape

i. Twist drills- those having helical chip removal flutes
ii. Straight flute drills- those having straight flutes
f. Classification based on coolant supply
i. Drills with external coolant supply- those having no special means for
coolant supply
ii. Drills with internal coolant supply- those having internal coolant supply
holes or passages and those having coolant supply passages separated from
the chip removal passages
71
g. Classification based on functions and applications

i. Solid drills- those making holes in solid work pieces without previously made
holes
ii. Core drills- those having no center point cutting but used for enlarging or
finishing previously made holes
iii. Center drills- those for making center holes in work pieces to provide a
starting hole for a large sized drill or a conical indentation in the end of work
piece to mount it between centers for machining operations
iv. Trepanning drills- it is used for making a burr hole, cuts only a small groove
instead of solid core. It is used to drill into the human skull.
3. Method of drilling
It is a two stage procedure-
 To begin the hole- the drill point chisel edge rests on the work piece and the conical tip
penetrates the material. Feed force and torque increases. The sectional area of chip
changes.
 Full cut phase- the sectional area of the chip remains constant. Cutting forces increase
with increasing drill depth as a result friction increases
4. Types of holes
1. Blind holes
 Purpose- to retain bolts or axes
 Generation- blind holes are centre drilled with the twist drill. For large diameters
they are pre-drilled with a twist drill and drilled out with twist drill
72
2. Through hole
 Purpose- to join two or more elements
 Generation- Through holes are centre drilled with the twist drill. For large
diameters they are pre-drilled with a twist drill and drilled out with twist drill
3. Tapered hole
 Purpose- to mount conical elements such as taper pins. Taper holes are also
needed to mount tools with taper shanks
 Generation- tapered holes are tolerance holes. They are pre-drilled with a
twist drill and then reamed with a tapered reamer. Tool clamping holes are
additionally ground
4. Counterbores
 Purpose- to mount bolts and rivets that must not protrude
 Generation- they are pre-drilled with a twist drill and counterbored with a
counterbore (for cylindrical shape) or otherwise shaped with countersink (for
tapered and other shapes)
5. Tapped hole
 Purpose- these holes are intended to be used in attaching elements for
instance in mounting a plate on a press die
73
 Generation- after pre-drilling with a twist drill the thread is generated with
taps
6. Basic Terminology: Twist drill

 Twist drill was invented by Steven A. Morse in 1863
 The original method of manufacture was to cut two grooves in opposite side of a round
bar then to twist the bar to produce the helical flutes
a) Back taper- a slight decrease in diameter from front to back in the body of the drill
b) Body- the portion of the drill extending from the shank or neck to the periphery corners
of the cutting lips
c) Body diameter clearance- that portion of the land that has been cut away to prevent its
rubbing against the walls of the hole being drilled- also known as land clearance
d) Chip packing- the failure of chips to pass through the flute during cutting action
e) Chisel edge- the edge at the end of the web that connects the cutting lips
f) Chisel edge angle- the angle included between the chisel edge and the cutting lip as
viewed from the end of the drill
74
g) Clearance- the space provided to eliminate undesirable contact (interference) between

the drill and the work piece
h) Cutter sweep- the section of the flute formed by the tool used to generate the flute in
leaving the flute
i) Cutting tooth- a part of the body bounded by the rake and flank surfaces and by the
land
j) Double margin drill- a drill whose body diameter clearance is produced to leave two
margins on each land and is normally made with margins on the leading edge and on the
heel of the land
k) Drill axis- the imaginary straight line which forms the longitudinal center line of the drill
l) Drill diameter- the diameter over the margins of the drill measured at the periphery
corners
m) Flute length- the length from the periphery corner of the lips to the extreme back end
of the flutes. It includes the sweep of the tool used to generate the flutes and therefore
does not indicate the usable length of flutes
n) Flutes- helical or straight grooves cut or formed in the body of the drill to provide
cutting lips to permit removal of chips and to allow cutting fluid to reach the cutting lips
o) Galling- an adhering deposit of nascent work material on the margin adjacent to the
periphery corner of the cutting edge
p) Helix angle- the angle made by the leading edge of the land with the plane containing
the axis of the drill
q) Hill- the trailing edge of the land
r) Land- the peripheral portion of the cutting tooth and drill body between adjacent flutes
s) Web- the central portion of the body that joins the lands. The extreme end of the web
forms the chisel edge on a two flute drill
t) Margin- the cylindrical portion of the land which is not cut away to provide clearance
u) Lip (major cutting edge)- a cutting edge that extends from the drill periphery corner to
the vicinity of the drill center
75
7. Types of drilling machine

1. Bench drill
2. Upright drilling machine

3. Radial drilling machine
 This machine is very versatile due to its wider range of action

 In this tool is moved to the desired position instead of moving the work piece
76
4. Multiple spindle drilling machine

5. Deep hole drilling machine
 Special type of drills are used on this machine

 In deep hole drilling operation work piece rotates at high speed instead of the
drill and drill is fed into the work at low speed
 The coolant is fed to the cutting edges through the passages provided in the
hollow body of the drill for this purpose
 Generally horizontal machines are employed for this purpose
6. Gang drilling machine
 It is nothing but a type of multiple spindle drilling machine
 In this spindles are arranged in a row
 Number of tools for various operations like drilling, reaming, counter-boring and
tapping can be mounted
 Work piece moves from one spindle to other after each operation
77
8. Operations done on drilling machines
1. Drilling
 It is the main operation done on this machine

 It is the operation of producing a hole by means of a rotating tool called drill
2. Reaming
 It is the operation of finishing a hole to bring it to accurate size and have a fine
surface finish
 This operation is performed by multi-teeth tool called as reamer
3. Boring
 It is the operation of enlarging a hole to bring it to the required size and have a
better finish
 This operation is performed by single cutting edge tool called as boring tool
 This operation is also used for correcting the hole location and out of roundness
if any
 It is a slower process than reaming
78
4. Counter-boring
 The operation is used for enlarging only a limited portion of the hole
 It can be performed by either double tool boring bar or counter boring tool
 Usually drilling and counter-boring are done in one sequence on the same
machine
 Counter-boring operation is done by specially designed tools named as counter-
bores
 A counter-bore tool enters the work piece axially and enlarges the top portion of
an existing hole to the diameter of tool
 It provides space for the head of a fastener such as bolt, to sit flush with the
work piece surface
 Types of counter-boring tools
 Solid counter-bores
 Interchangeable pilot counter-bores
 Multi-diameter counter-bores
 Interchangeable counter-bores
5. Spot-facing
 This operation is used for squaring and finishing the surface around and at the
end of a hole so that the same can provide a smooth and true seat to the
underside of bolt heads or collars
 This is usually done on castings or forgings
 It is a machining operation for producing a flat seat for a bolt head, washer, nut
or a similar element at the opening of a drilled hole
79
 Spot-facing usually follows drilling, either in continuation with it or as a single

operation
6. Counter-sinking
 Counter-sinking is the operation of producing a taper or cone shape surface at

the entrance of a hole for the purpose of having the head of a flat head screw
 The variety of tools for countersinking are available in sizes and included angles
of 60°, 82°, 90° etc
7. Tapping
 It is the operation done for forming internal threads by means of the tool called
tap
 To perform this operation the machine should be equipped with a reversible
motor
80
Boring
1. Introduction
 It is process of enlarging the already drilled hole
 The boring operation can easily be performed on centre lathe or turrets and capstan
lathe for medium size job
 For large and heavy jobs special boring machines are to be used which make the
operation easy and efficient
2. Classification of boring machine
 Horizontal boring machine
 Floor type horizontal boring machine
 Planer type boring machine
 Multiple head type horizontal boring machine
 Vertical boring machine
 Jig boring machine- Used for precision boring
81
Reaming
1. Introduction
 Modern engineering requirements often demand mass production of holes having
smooth surface finish, good geometrical accuracies, and close tolerances needed for
precision assembly
 These requirement cannot be fulfilled by drilling alone
 The reaming process specially developed for enlarging and finishing holes to accurate
dimension
 This is one of the important operation for precision fits and interchangeability
2. Types of reamers
 Hand reamers
 Machine reamers
 Taper reamers
 Adjustable reamers
82
Review University Questions
Lathe: Principle, construction, types, operations, Turret/Capstan,

semi/Automatic, Tool layout
1) What are the various methods available for taper turning in a lathe? Explain their specific
advantages and limitations.
Answer:
i. Tail stock set-over method
 For this the nut of the clamping bolt of the tailstock is loosened. Then by
means of the set-screws provided on both the front and rear sides of the
tailstock the dead center is shifted from the original position by a
predetermined amount of set-over.
 If the large diameter of the tapered part is to be obtained on the tailstock
side the center will be shifted away from the operator and vice versa
 Graduations or steel rule can be used for set over of tailstock
 Advantages
 Longer jobs can be tapered
 Good surface finish can be obtained by automatic feed
 External taper thread can be cut
 Limitations
 Steep taper cannot be cut
 Internal taper cannot be cut
 Since the centers are out of alignment the center points do not seat
exactly in the center holes on the work and therefore the danger of
the work being thrown out is more under severe machining condition
83
ii. Swiveling the compound rest

 Swiveling the compound rest on the carriage through half taper angle
 The compound rest carries a swivel plate under it. The swivel plate is
screwed to cross-slide by means of a bolt and nut
 The graduations provided on the periphery of swivel plate are in degrees
 For swiveling the compound rest the swivel plate is unscrewed and then
rotated along with the compound rest through the required angle
 Tool is then fed to the work piece to get the desired taper
 Advantages
 Short and steep tapers can be cut
 External as well as internal taper can be cut
 Limitations
 Production efficiency is low and finishing is not good because of hand
feed
 Only short tapers can be turned because the length of taper is limited
by compound slide travel
iii. Taper turning attachment
 It is a very suitable method of taper turning which provides a very wide range
of tapers
 As the attachment travels along with the saddle it is possible to turn the
taper anywhere along the length of the job
 The attachment consists of a bracket attached to the rear side of the bed
 It carries a guide plate which can be swung and set at a desired inclination to
the axis of the work
 A graduated scale is provided on the bracket which is calibrated into degrees
84
 The half taper angle is calculated and the guide plate set at this angle
 When the longitudinal feed is given to the saddle guide block will slide alon g
the center line of the guide plate
 As the guide block is connected to the cross-slide it will guide the tool to
travel parallel to its own line of movement, that is an angle to the axis of the
job
 This will result in the desired taper on the job
 Advantages-
 Accurate taper can be obtained in a single setting
 It is equally suitable for external and internal tapers
 It is easy to operate, normal set-up and alignment of the lathe is not
disturbed during its operation
 Long tapers can be given
 Tapers are turned with the longitudinal power feed and thus the work
can be machined quickly and with better surface finish
 Taper turning attachment can be used for turning taper threads
 Limitations-
 This attachment is not available in very few lathe machines
 This is a sometimes costly if machining is not meant for mass
production
85
iv. Taper turning using a form tool

 A form tool in which cutting edge of the tool is ground to contain the half
taper angle.
 Advantages- Very short external tapers can easily be turned

 Limitations- Use of such tool will cause a lot of chatter and vibrations
because the full cutting edge of the tool is involved in cutting.
2) Draw the tool layout for manufacturing hexagonal bolt on Capstan lathe in mass.
Answer: Capstan lathe will have circular turret head
Procedure:
1. Feed the bar against stop

2. Rough turn the bolt diameter with roller steady box tool
3. Finish turn the bolt diameter with roller steady box tool
4. Cut threads with self-opening die head
5. Face and form turn the head by the tools mounted on the front tool
post
6. Cut-off by parting off tool held in rear tool post
86
3) Differentiate between capstan and turret lathe.

Answer:
S.No. Turret Lathe Capstan Lathe

1. Its turret head is mounted directly on the Its turret head is mounted on an auxiliary
saddle slide (ram) which moves on the guide-ways
on the saddle
2. For feeding the tools the entire saddle In this case saddle is fixed at convenient
unit is moved distance from the work and the tools are
fed by moving the slide (ram)
3. Above arrangements enables a very high In this case because of overhung of the
rigidity slide (ram) the tool is subjected to
deflection resulting in vibration
4. Turret lathe is capable of handling It is not capable of withstanding heavy
heavier jobs involving heavy cutting cutting forces hence it handles smaller and
forces lighter jobs
5. Tool feeding is relatively slower Tool feeding is relatively faster
6. Tool travel is up to full length of bed Tool travel is limited
7. There is provision of Pneumatic or There is no such provision in capstan lathe
hydraulic chuck to hold heavier jobs
4) Describe in brief various parts of capstan and turret lathes.

Answer:
Capstan Lathe Sketch
Turret Lathe Sketch Top View
87
Main parts:
 Head stock- Turret or capstan lathe carries a similar type of head stock as a center
lathe but is comparatively larger in size and heavier in construction
 Carriage- Carriage mounted on the bed of a turret or capstan lathe, is not much
different from center lathe. It carries a cross-slide over it on which are mounted two
tool posts one at the front and the other at the rear. The cross-slide of a turret lathe
differs from that of center lathe in that it does not carry a compound rest.
 Turret saddle- This saddle replaces the tailstock of center lathe. It is mounted
directly on the lathe bed on the same side as a tailstock in center lathe. It can be of
two types. Type One- turret head carrying the tools is mounted directly on it. It is
also called as saddle type turret lathes. Type two- turret head is mounted on the
slide (ram). It is also called as ram type turret lathes or capstan lathes.
 Turret head- Turret head mounted on the slide or the saddle. Generally hexagonal
turret head is used in turret lathes and circular or hexagonal in capstan lathes.
Hexagonal turret head is having six holes one on each flat face and circular turret
head is having equi-spaced holes along its periphery. The shanks of tool holders are
mounted into these holes.
 Bed- it is a box type casting with parallel guide ways over its top to enable sliding of
carriage and turret saddle over it. It also supports headstock at its one end.
88
Shaper, Slotter & Planer: Construction, operations and drives

1. Differentiate between shaping, planning and slotting with respect to relative tool and
work motions. Describe various operations performed on them.
S.No Shaper Planer Slotter
1 Use for shaping on smaller Use for larger jobs. Jobs as Use for making slots in
jobs big like 6 meter wide and smaller jobs
twice as long can be
machines
2 Work is held on the table Tool is fixed and the work Job is held on the table
and tool on the ram is piece on the table move and tool on the ram is
moved back and forth back and forth under the moved up and down
across the work tool across the work
3 Uses single cutting tool at More than one tools can be Single cutting tool is
a time used at a time used
4 It is a light machine It is a heavy weight machine It is a light machine
5 It is lesser rigid and lesser Rigidity and robust is very It is lesser rigid and
robust higher that gives more lesser robust
precision on machined
surfaces
6 Can employ lighter cuts Can employ heavier cuts Can employ light cuts
and finer feed and coarse feed and finer feeds
7 Driven using quick-return The drive on the planer The rams are either
link mechanism table is either by gears or crank-driven or
by hydraulic means hydraulically driven
2. What is a slotting machine? Describe with neat sketches and illustrate its use.
Answer:
 Its main use is in cutting different types of slots and it certainly proves to be most
economical for this kind of work
 Its other uses are in machining irregular shapes, circular surfaces both internal as
well as external
 Its construction is similar to vertical shaper
 Ram moves vertically and the tool cuts during the downward stroke only
Main parts of a slotter
 Base- It is a heavy cast iron construction and is also known as bed. It acts as
support for the column, the driving mechanism ram, table and all other fittings.
89
 Column- It is heavy cast iron body which acts as a housing for the complete
driving mechanism. At its front it carries vertical ways along which the ram
moves up and down
 Table- Usually a circular table is provided on slotting machine. In some heavy
duty slotters such as puncher slotter either a rectangular or circular table can be
mounted. On the top of the table are provided T-slots to clamp the work
 Ram- It moves in a vertical direction between the vertical guide-ways provided in
front of the column. At its bottom it carries the tool post in which the tool is
held. The cutting action takes place during the downward movement of the ram.
90
Milling: Construction, Milling cutters, up & down milling, dividing

head and indexing, maximum chip thickness and power required
1. Explain the working principle of dividing head in milling machine. Draw schematic sketch
of milling machine.
Answer: See the notes
2. Explain up milling and down milling with a neat sketch.
3. Explain the characteristics that distinguish a milling process from other machining
processes.
4. Describe the set-up that can be used for milling cams in a milling machine with the help of
neat sketches.
Answer:
5. What are the different types of milling cutting? Draw the sketch of a milling cutter and
show different angles provided on its teeth.
6. Define milling. What are the various work holding devices used in milling? Explain their
relative advantages and disadvantages.
91
7. Describe the mechanism of a dividing head and explain how it is used for indexing a work
piece e.g. a gear blank. Explain the difference between simple indexing and compounding
indexing.
Difference between simple and compound indexing
 Compound indexing is a combination of two plain indexing procedures
 Indexing of one number of divisions by using the standard simple/plain indexing
method and another by turning the index plate (leaving the crankpin engaged in the
hole as set in the first indexing operation) by a required amount
 The difference between the amounts indexed in the first and second operations
results in the spindle turning the required amount for the number of divisions.
 Compound indexing is used because number of divisions required on work piece
sometimes is out of range of simple/plain indexing
 Disadvantages of compound indexing
 It is seldom used
 Differential indexing is easier
 High-number index plates are usually available to provide any range of
divisions normally required
 The computation and actual operation are quite complicated
 Error can be introduced
8. Classify different types of milling machines.
Answer: See notes
92
Drilling & Boring: Drilling, boring, reaming tools, geometry of twist

drills
1. Explain different types of holes and processes used for making holes.
2. Explain what are the following operations- boring, reaming, tapping, counter boring,
sinking and counter sinking?
3. Describe twist drill nomenclature using sketches.
4. What are different horizontal boring machines? List them and specify their suitability.
Answer:
 Horizontal boring machines covers a number of types of horizontal boring machines
like table type, planer type, floor type and multiple head type.
 Table type
 This is more versatile and most commonly used boring machine

 This is also called as universal boring machine due to its versatility
 The spindle of machine is capable of holding drills and milling cutters as well
to perform the operations of drilling and milling
93
 Floor type
 This machine is comparatively heavier type of horizontal boring machine

 The operating and spindle supporting units are not mounted on a bed as in
table type machine
 It carries separate runways which facilitate the movement of these units
together with the spindle past the work
 The work does not move at all but is kept stationary at a platform called floor
type
 This type of machine is very suitable for long and heavy jobs of which
frequent manipulation on a table is not easy
94
 Planer type
 This machine resembles in construction with the table type

 The only difference is in construction and operation of the work supporting
mechanism
 In this a heavy cross bed is used between the spindle column and the end
support column
 The bed is mounted across the axis of the spindle and carries a table over it
 The job is mounted over the table
 In operation it resembles a planer in that tool is held between the two
columns or mounted on headstock only and the work mounted on the table
moves past the tool
 This type of machine is very suitable for long jobs
95
 Multiple head type
 It consists of two vertical columns mounted on the sides of the a stationary

bed
 The columns are bridged by means of cross-rail
 As maximum four headstocks can be mounted on the machine one each on
the two vertical columns and two on the cross rail
 The headstocks on the columns will have horizontal spindles and those on
the cross rail vertical spindles
 In this way maximum four tools can be mounted simultaneously on this
machine
 This machine very much resembles with planer type milling machines
 This type of machine is very suitable if machining on more than one surfaces
is to done and can operate simultaneously on the job from different angles
and different locations
96

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Manufacturing Science & Technology-II (NME-503)

Course Instructor- Shailendra Pratap Singh

Principle of lathe machine

 All modern machines use V and flat ways

Work holding devices

 Hold the work piece securely

Various work holding devices

II. 3 jaws chuck (universal scroll chuck)

2. Holding work between centers

Types of Operation on Lathe machine

 It is done by special knurling tool

Capstan & Turret lathe- Parts

Turret head & saddle

 Use Geneva mechanism

 it is between head stock & turret saddle

Difference between centre lathe and turret lathe

S.No Centre Lathe Turret Lathe

Difference between turret and capstan lathe

S.No. Turret Capstan

Semi-automatic lathe (Capstan lathe, turret lathe)

Tool Layout-For Capstan & Turret lathe

Shaper, Planer & Slotter: Construction, operations and drives

2. Principal parts of shaper

IV. Tool head

 Push Type Shaper

 Driven by oil pressure developed by a pump which is run

4. Specification of shaping machine

5. Operations on shaper machine

ii. Machining vertical surfaces

iii. Machining angular surfaces

ii. Making of external keyway

iii. Making of V-block

v. Making of rack gear

Types of drive mechanism

2. Crank and slotted lever mechanism

7. Feed drive mechanism (Table feed mechanism)

Where L is length of total stroke, l is length of work piece, la is tool approach,

2. The number of stroke per unit of time

2. Operations of planer machine

III. Machining slots and grooves

3. Types of planer machine

 It carries feed mechanism and power transmission links

II. Open side planer

III. Pit Planer

IV. Divided table planer

Slotter (Slotting Machine)

3. Types of slotting machines

iii. Tool room slotter

4. Drive mechanism of a slotter

In slotter mainly three drive mechanisms are used:

ii. Slotted link mechanism

5. Operations performed on slotting machine

6. Difference among shaper, planer and slotter

2. Characteristics of milling operation

b) Down milling (climb milling)

4. Types of milling machine

 Vertical milling machine

 Universal milling machine

 Duplex head (two horizontal spindle)

 Triplex head (two horizontal and one vertical spindle)

 They are used for heavy work

IV. Production milling machine