UNIVERSITE DE DSCHANG UNIVERSITY OF DSCHANG

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ECOLE DOCTORALE POST GRADUATE SCHOOL
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FACULTE DES SCIENCES FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DSCHANG SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Research Unit of Volcanology and Natural Hazard

GEOCHEMICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF

VOLCANIC ROCKS AND SOILS FROM THE BAMENDA MOUNTAIN
AREA (CAMEROON VOLCANIC LINE): LANDSLIDE RISK
ASSESSMENT

DETAILED SUMMARY OF THESIS

Option : Geotechnics and Valorisation of Materials

Speciality: Volcanology and Natural Hazard

BY
GUEDJEO CHRISTIAN SUH
Matriculation No: CM04SCI1963
M.Sc. Earth Sciences

Director Supervisor
Pr. Kagou Dongmo Armand Pr. Kamgang Kabeyene Veronique
Associate Professor Professor
The University of Dschang The University of Yaounde I
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 2
1. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................. 4
1.1. Sampling techniques ........................................................................................................ 4
1.2. Laboratory work ............................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1. Geochemical analysis................................................................................................ 4
1.2.2. Geotechnical analyses ............................................................................................... 4
1.2.3. Cartography............................................................................................................... 5
2. MAIN RESULTS........................................................................................................................ 8
2.1. PETROGRAPHY ................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.2. Trachyte ........................................................................................................................ 9
2.1.3. Rhyolites ....................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.4. Ignimbrite .................................................................................................................... 10
2.2. ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY ................................................................................................ 13
2.2.1. Major elements............................................................................................................ 13
2.2.2. Variation of major elements........................................................................................ 13
2.2.3. Geochemistry of trace elements .................................................................................. 15
2.2.4. Geochemistry of Rare Earth Elements ........................................................................ 17
2.3. CHARACTERIZATION OF SOILS ................................................................................. 17
2.3.1. Soil Profiles................................................................................................................. 17
2.3.2. Soil Geochemistry....................................................................................................... 20
2.4. GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISATION OF SOILS ................................................. 22
2.4.1. Physical Parameters: these parameters gotten are presented in table 6. ..................... 22
2.4.3. Mechanical parameters ............................................................................................... 23
2.5. LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY MAPPING AND RISK ASSESSMENT.................... 23
2.5.1. Landslide susceptibility mapping ............................................................................... 23
3. INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION .............................................................................. 25
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 27
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 28

1
INTRODUCTION

In tropical regions, chemical weathering of rocks is intense due to high temperatures and
abundant rainfalls. Their mineralogical and geochemical nature greatly change resulting in the
formation of new secondary minerals at the surface. The geochemical nature of a soil greatly
affects their physical and mechanical properties since it conditions’ the soil texture and structure.
Geotechnics applies engineering principles to provide solutions for engineering problems such as
stability of structures and slopes using earth’s materials such as rocks and soils. Soils act as
supporting material to several structures and their behaviour and properties needs to be
monitored. A landslide starts as consequence of terrain instability, and for this reason it is
important in geotechnical practice to ascertain the stability conditions of soils. The global trend
on landslide fatalities has been on the rise in the past decade.
The present research work aims to investigate the geochemical and geotechnical
characteristics of rocks and soils on the Bamenda Mountain and how they impact landslides.
This is to better understand the nature of soils on the Bamenda Mountain and consequently the
role soil properties play in slope instability in the area. Mount Bamenda is located along the CVL
which is a major structure in central Africa. Volcanism on the Bamenda Mountain is polygenic
and started more than 25 Ma up to 12 Ma with the emplacement of various rocks types. On this
Mountain, over 50,000 people reside in parts of five localities (Bambili, Bamendakwe, Akum,
Awing and Santa). It is situated in the humid tropical region characterized by abundant rainfall
and high temperatures. Consequently, rocks are easily altered into soils which act as construction
and supporting materials to many engineering structures. These soils sometimes pose
geoenvironmental problems notably landslides usually during the rainy season in areas where
they accumulate along steep slopes. Landslide mechanisms are not fully understood and it is not
yet possible to forecast with confidence their occurrences or their characteristics which is a major
challenge.
To achieve this research work successfully, the following methodology shall be
implemented. To begin with, a volcanologic and petrologic study shall be carried out to better
understand the typology and map the rocks on the Bamenda Mountain. This shall be done by
carrying out detailed field mapping and sampling using GPS, SRTM data, topo sheets, satellite
imagery and GIS software (Google earth and ArcGIS 10.2.2). This shall be followed by the
preparation of thin sections and whole rock geochemistry by XRF spectrometry. From these, a
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comprehensive geologic map of the Bamenda Mountain shall be prepared. Following this, three
wells shall be hand dug at selected sites on trachyte, rhyolite and basalt where soil and rock
samples shall be collected. Within identifiable horizons, soil samples shall be collected, air dried
and powdered, on which geochemical analysis shall be performed using XRF. The geomorphic
characteristics of each soil profile shall be described. Within each well, at varying depths, core
and perturbed soil samples shall be collected for geotechnical analysis (physical parameters,
grain size analysis, Atterberg limits, cohesion and internal friction angle). A landslide inventory
shall be done and used alongside geo-environmental factors to prepare a landslide susceptibility
map for the Bamenda Mountain using the informative value method in ArcGIS 10.2 software.
Finally, the risk in the area shall be assessed in term of buildings, roads, population, farmland
and cost.
Objectives
The general objective of this work is to characterize the geochemical and geotechnical properties
of rocks and soil on the Bamenda Mountain in order to connote their role in slope instability.
To attain this general objective, we have to:

- identify features and eruption mechanisms that emplaced the different rocks on the
Bamenda Mountain,
- describe soil profiles formed on different rocks,
- carry out geochemical analyses of the rocks and soils in this area,
- determine the geotechnical properties of the soils to perceive their impact on slope
instability and
- map and assess at elements risk on the Bamenda Mountain.

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 1. METHODOLOGY
1.1. Sampling techniques
Rocks were sampled in such a way as to acquire the most fresh and representative
samples possible. Soils for geotechnical analysis were sampled in plastic cylinders of 18 x 25 cm
in diameter by inserting them into the soil by hand pressure to extract unperturbed core soil
samples. These core samples were collected at different depths within the soil profile and were
immediately sealed with candle wax to prevent water loss. 10 kg of perturbed soil was then
collected from the well at corresponding depth. The soils were sampled on; basalt, trachyte and
rhyolite. Soil samples for geochemical analysis were also collected in triplicate within each
horizon and mixed to obtain a mean sample.
1.2. Laboratory work
1.2.1. Geochemical analysis
Firstly, pulps were prepared as follows; soil samples were oven dried at about 100°C,
crushed and pulverized in the BOCOM laboratory Douala for shipping. The pulp from soil and
rock was oven-dried at 105°C under N in order to eliminate water; another sample fraction was
heated at 1000°C under oxygen so as to remove the volatile components and oxidize iron.
Geochemical analyses were performed at the ALS Lab Johannesburg, Guateng, South Africa.
Thirty analyses were performed using the ME-ICP for major elements, and ME-MS for trace
elements. Trace elements were normalized by primitive mantle of McDonough and Sun, (1995),
while normalization of REE chondrite was by Boynton (1984). The CIPW norms were calculated
using the Fe2O3/FeOt ratios defined at 0.15 for basic lava, 0.225 for intermediate lava and 0.3 for
acid lavas. The Differentiation Index (DI=% quartz + nepheline + leucite + albite + orthoclase
normative) was that of Thornton and Tuttle (1960)

1.2.2. Geotechnical analyses

Grain size distribution: the test was done following the NF P 94-056 French norm. It consisted
of dividing a soil into several grain categories or particles in decreasing dimensions using a
series of sieves and by successively weighing the retained in each sieve.
Methylene blue test (MBV): the MBV test was performed using the NF P 94-068 norm. This is
a parameter which characterizes the clay content of a soil. The test consisted of progressively
adding methylene blue to a soil suspension maintained under agitation.
Atterberg Limits and associated indices: the Atterberg limits were done following the NF P
94-051 norm.
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Liquid Limit (LL); this was determined using a cassagrand tool where 25 blows were applied to
sample placed in a metal cup.
Plastic limit (PL): this was determined by rolling the sample to 3-10mm thread and observing if
it breaks or not.
Water content (W): this was done by comparing to weight of the dry sample to that of an oven
dried sample.
Plasticity Index (PI); the PI is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit gotten
by (IP = LL-PL)
Liquidity index (LI)

LI = (ω-PL)
(LL-PL) Where ω = natural water content.

Consistence index (IC): this is the ratio of the difference between the liquid limit and the water
content on the Plastic index.

𝐿𝐿−𝑃𝐼
CI= Where ω = water content
𝜔

Bulk density (da): the method used here was that of hydrostatic scale which consisted of
determining the volume of the sample thanks to the Archimedes principle.
Particle density (dr): this was determined with the help of a pycometer following the principle
of Robitaille and Tremblay (1997).
Combining the two densities and with the help of soil mechanics formula we calculated
some physical soil parameters such as: porosity, dry volumetric mass or dry density, void index,
compacity, submerged volumetric mass, volumetric mass of solid grains, degree of saturation
Consolidated undrained tri-axial test: this method was used to determine the angle of internal
friction (Φ) and cohesion (c), i.e the shear strength parameters of the soil.

1.2.3. Cartography
Cartographic work was done using several GIS and cartographic soft wares such as Arc
GIS 10.2.2, Global mapper 13, 3-DEM, Google earth and Adobe illustrator 2014 for different
applications. Various data sources were used during the cartographic process which included; of
a 2012 Landsat google earth satellite image with 1.5m resolution, NASA’s Shuttle Radar

5
Topographic Mission (SRTM) data 90m DEM, topo sheets of Bafoussam (Foumban-Dschang)
sheets NB-32-XI-3c and NB-32-XI-3d, field waypoints and tracts, field survey data and thematic
maps of the area, kml files from google earth and Esri shape files from the National Institute of
Cartography Yaounde in both raster and vector formats.

1.2.3.1. Landslide Susceptibility Mapping

A total of 9 landslide conditioning factors were use to build a landslide susceptibility map
for the Bamenda Mountain. The resultant raster was then reclassified to get the pixel values of
each conditioning class within the factor map. A landslide density map was also rasterized at
pixel sizes of 10m. This landslide density map was then crossed with individual classes of each
landslide conditioning factor (Ncpix) (Aleotti and Chowdhury, 1999; Süzen and Doyuran, 2004)
to get the combined landslide pixels for each individual class (Nslpix). The conditional
probability (Cp) (how probable a class will affect a slide) for each individual class per factor was
calculated.
Nslpix
Conditional probability (Cp) is gotten by: Cp = Ncpix

Where Cp= conditional probability

Nslpix = number of slide class pixels
Ncpix= number of factor class pixels
The prior probability (Pp) (which is the probability of slide for each class to the total area
of landslide in the study area) for each class was calculated from the total number of slide pixels
in the area (∑Nslpix) on the total pixels of the factor (∑Ncpix) as follows:
∑ Nslpix
Pp =
∑ Ncpix

The informative value for individual classes was calculated by using the natural log of the
conditional probability on the prior probability as follows:
Nslpix
Cp Ncpix
Inf = Log Pp or 𝑙𝑛 ∑ Nslpix
∑ Ncpix

From the Informative values determined, raster maps were constructed using the lookup
tool in ArcGIS and later classified.

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1.2.3.2. Risk Assessment
The methodology adopted in assessing the risk involved spatial statistics. This risk map
was prepared by superposing the elements at risk (buildings, farmland and roads) on the
landslide susceptibility map for the area. The landslide susceptibility mapping and risk
assessment methodology is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Landslide susceptibility mapping and risk assessment methodology

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2. MAIN RESULTS
2.1. PETROGRAPHY
Several eruptive dynamism such as: effusive, extrusive, explosive (strombolian and
phreatomagmatic) occur in the area, producsing rock such as; basalt, trachyte, ignimbrite and
rhyolite.
2.1.1. Basalt
Basalts encountered in the field are porphyritic and aphyric. This rock outcrops in the
field as massive flows, as columns and as spheroidal blocks surrounded by soil and within
pyroclastic materials in Tanjang, Alameti, Bambili, Bamendakwe, and Santa-Njong. The
weathered surfaces of this rock were smooth, brownish yellow to brown in colour. The main
minerals that constitute the rock include: olivine, pyroxene, plagioclase and opaque minerals.
(Figure 2)

Figure 2: Basalt from the Bamenda Mountain, (A) Polygonal joints in basalts (B) Hand specimen
(C) Olivine crystal enclosing opaques minerals (D) Olivine and pyroxene phenocrysts within fine
groundmass (E) Olivine and pyroxene microcrysts within fine groundmass (F) Olivine crystal
undergoing weathering.

8
2.1.2. Trachyte
These rocks are the most abundant in the area and outcrop as; domes, flows and volcanic
plugs. The trachytic domes they form are rounded to elongate. Due to intense weathering, these
rocks form tors in some areas as is the case in Pangseh. On hand specimen, these rocks are dark
to light brown in color, with identifiable minerals of plagioclase and sanidine. The main minerals
that constitute the rock include: sanidine, plagioclase, hornblende pyroxene and opaque minerals
(Figure 3).

Figure 3: Trachyte from the Bamenda Mountain, (A) Trachytic flow at Santa, (B) hands
specimen (C) Hornblend crystal in trachyte (D) Sanidine phenocrysts enclosing groundmass (E)
Plagioclase phenocrysts showing polysynthetic twinnig (F) Sanidine Phenocrysts in microlitic
groundmass.

2.1.3. Rhyolites
These rocks occur as flows at Alameti at an altitude of 1,729m and at Pangseh at an
altitude of 1930m. In the field they were found in restricted areas and occur sometimes in

9
association with ignimbrites. It is made up of the following minerals: sanidine, quartz, opaque
minerals, biotite (Figure 4)

Figure 4: Trachyte from the Bamenda Mountain, (A) Rhyolite flow at Alameti (B) Hand
specimen (C and D) Photomicrograph of showing Sanidine and quart crystal in melanocratic
groundmass (E) Oxide crystals in groundmass (F) Sanidine phenocrysts in micolitic groundmass.

2.1.4. Ignimbrite
These are a mélange of rock fragments which outcrop at Pangseh Awing as massive
flows at an altitude of 2,003m. These flows present rough and smooth surfaces in some portions.
They are highly weathered due to the presence of joints within the rock which facilitate the
percolation of meteoric water. These flows occupy an area of about 25km2, having an ESE trend
into the Awing valley. The main minerals that constitute the rock include: sanidine, quartz,
opaque minerals. The rock also contains some glass, fiammes and rock fragments (Figure 5).

10
Figure 5: Ignimbrite from the Bamenda Mountain, (A) Ignibritic flow at Pangseh (B) Hand
specimen showing rock fragments (C and D) Glass enclosing fiammes and crystals (E) Opaque
mineral phenocrysts (F) fiammes and rock fragments.

The samples collected from the field and those use for analysis are presented in Figure 6.
From field mapping and petrographic studies, a new geologic for the Bamenda Mountain was
established (Figure 7).

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Figure 6: Sample map of the Bamenda Mountain

ͦ
Figure 7: Geologic map of the Bamenda Mountain

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2.2. ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY
2.2.1. Major elements
The results of 30 analysed rock samples for major elements (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3t,
MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O and P2O5) are presented in table 1. Amongst these samples, 17 had
LOI values <1% and 13 had values between 2 and 2.9%, thus indicating samples are less
weathered. Nomenclature of the rock is given by taking into consideration four classification
systems of TAS after Le maître et al. (2002), (Figure 8).

Figure 8: TAS diagrams of rocks from the Bamenda after Le Maitre et al. (2002)

2.2.2. Variation of major elements

The behavior of major elements oxides (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, FeOt, MnO, MgO, CaO,
Na2O, K2O and P2O5) expressed in weight percent (wt %) is shown by plotting them on SiO2.
Silica is taken as the differentiation element since it is the major constituent of rocks and shows a
greater variability. The binary plots are present in Figure 9

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Table 1: Geochemical analysis for major trace elements and REE of rocks from the Bamenda Mountain, samples SAK and SAR are from Chi Muluh (2014)

Sample Th Tm U V W Y Yb Zr SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O Cr2O3 TiO2 MnO P2O5 SrO BaO LOI
B01 3.71 0.32 0.91 309 1 27 1.89 213 41.7 13.75 14.4 10.6 7.87 2.25 1.37 0.04 4 0.28 0.65 0.15 0.07 2.95
B02 3.25 0.31 0.78 237 1 25 1.83 185 45.5 13.05 13.3 9.78 10.95 2.84 1.09 0.05 2.65 0.19 0.64 0.09 0.06 -0.1
B03 3.25 0.31 0.8 235 1 24 1.77 184 44.6 12.85 13.2 9.65 10.9 2.81 1.08 0.05 2.61 0.18 0.64 0.09 0.06 -0.1
B04 3.52 0.31 1.25 237 1 24 1.65 182 45.2 13.15 13.4 9.8 11.3 2.78 1.09 0.05 2.61 0.18 0.62 0.09 0.06 -0.1
B05 3.31 0.33 0.81 240 1 24 1.79 185 45.4 13 13.3 9.72 11.05 2.85 1.1 0.05 2.64 0.19 0.65 0.1 0.06 0.03
B06 3.17 0.3 0.77 235 1 24 1.76 180 45.1 12.95 13.2 9.66 11 2.83 1.09 0.05 2.62 0.18 0.64 0.1 0.06 0.01
R01 25.5 1.56 3.77 <5 2 363 9.34 881 69.3 15.2 4.6 0.35 0.02 4.75 5.81 <0.01 0.21 0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.01 0.87
R02 25.6 1.6 3.76 <5 2 366 9.64 876 69.9 15.3 4.64 0.35 0.02 4.79 5.82 <0.01 0.21 0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.01 0.87
R03 25.4 1.58 3.7 <5 3 366 9.56 875 69.6 15.25 4.63 0.35 0.02 4.77 5.78 <0.01 0.21 0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.82
R04 24.9 1.55 3.64 <5 3 361 9.65 871 68 14.8 4.51 0.34 0.02 4.66 5.64 <0.01 0.21 0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.01 0.89
R05 25.9 1.62 3.83 <5 3 375 9.87 905 69.3 15.35 4.67 0.34 0.02 4.66 5.76 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.89
R06 25.4 1.63 3.68 <5 2 367 9.56 885 68.4 15.1 4.57 0.34 0.02 4.73 5.71 <0.01 0.21 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.92
T01 9.26 0.59 2.63 21 1 40 3.6 566 56.4 16.45 8.04 3.74 1.37 6.03 3.1 <0.01 1.33 0.3 0.6 0.09 0.18 2.28
T02 8.74 0.54 2.47 20 1 38 3.48 539 55.8 16.25 7.93 3.71 1.36 6 3.08 <0.01 1.32 0.29 0.6 0.1 0.17 2.39
T03 9.11 0.58 2.56 21 1 40 3.52 562 55.9 16.3 7.96 3.73 1.36 6.01 3.08 <0.01 1.32 0.29 0.61 0.09 0.18 2.35
T04 8.71 0.55 2.49 21 1 38 3.29 539 55.9 16.25 7.97 3.69 1.36 6.02 3.1 <0.01 1.31 0.29 0.6 0.1 0.17 2.37
T05 9.32 0.59 2.66 22 1 40 3.64 576 56.3 16.45 8.01 3.72 1.36 6.04 3.11 <0.01 1.33 0.3 0.6 0.1 0.18 2.4
T06 9.15 0.58 2.66 22 1 40 3.53 569 56.1 16.35 7.99 3.71 1.37 6.02 3.09 <0.01 1.32 0.29 0.59 0.1 0.17 2.34
SAK2 14 0.86 3.24 <5 1 58 5.27 803 63.4 15.2 5.92 1.41 0.22 5.63 4.96 <0.01 0.45 0.19 0.09 0.02 0.07 2.25
SAK3A 13.6 0.84 3.3 <5 1 57 5.47 770 63.7 15.3 6.18 1.48 0.23 5.81 5.02 <0.01 0.47 0.2 0.09 0.02 0.08 2.19
SAK6B 14.7 0.88 3.32 <5 1 57 5.26 818 63.3 15.1 5.76 1.22 0.16 5.56 4.93 <0.01 0.46 0.14 0.09 0.02 0.08 2
SAK10 13.5 0.87 3.2 <5 1 56 5.4 771 64.5 15.4 5.92 1.5 0.22 5.77 4.98 <0.01 0.48 0.19 0.09 0.02 0.08 2.25
SAK11A 14.3 0.87 3.34 <5 1 58 5.46 809 63.9 15.3 5.97 1.49 0.22 5.76 4.96 <0.01 0.46 0.2 0.09 0.02 0.08 2.22
SAK11B 14.1 0.85 3.16 <5 1 58 5.23 790 63.5 15.15 5.91 1.49 0.23 5.72 4.94 <0.01 0.45 0.2 0.1 0.02 0.08 2.32
SAR1A 19.2 1.09 4.33 <5 2 76 6.82 1050 71.2 15.75 0.97 0.31 0.03 5.74 5.52 <0.01 0.38 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.87
SAR1C 18.7 1.06 4.4 <5 3 72 6.71 1030 70.7 15.6 0.82 0.3 <0.01 5.67 5.43 <0.01 0.37 <0.01 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.89
SAR2A 19.1 1.09 4.4 <5 3 76 6.87 1050 70.4 15.95 0.86 0.3 0.02 5.77 5.53 <0.01 0.38 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.87
SAR2B 18.9 1.12 4.35 <5 3 74 7.23 1040 71.3 15.7 0.81 0.32 0.04 5.73 5.49 <0.01 0.39 <0.01 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.95
SAR2C 19.3 1.13 4.35 <5 3 77 6.86 1080 71.6 15.95 0.77 0.29 <0.01 5.8 5.6 <0.01 0.38 <0.01 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.84
SAR3 406 350 <10 0.1 15 7.94 2.76 33.9 20.1 24.7 3.03 173 1 183 154 39.9 126 26.2 6 91.6 10.1 2.9

SAMPLE Ba Ce Cr Cs Dy Er Eu Ga Gd Hf Ho La Lu Nb Nd Pr Rb Sm Sn Sr Ta Tb
B01 696 80.1 260 0.39 6.04 2.69 2.99 19.6 7.82 5.1 1.05 38.8 0.28 57.3 44 10.3 26.1 8.95 2 1250 3.3 1.09
B02 566 72.7 330 0.35 5.34 2.38 2.64 19.8 6.82 4.4 0.96 35.3 0.26 49.8 37.2 8.91 38.2 7.75 2 789 2.9 0.95
B03 558 72.4 340 0.34 5.31 2.28 2.59 19.6 6.99 4.4 0.96 35.2 0.24 53.7 37.1 8.81 38.1 7.52 2 783 2.8 0.96
B04 560 71.8 330 0.33 5.47 2.42 2.6 19.7 6.81 4.5 0.93 35 0.24 50.6 37.3 8.68 38.2 7.71 2 783 2.8 0.97
B05 570 72.4 340 0.36 5.29 2.42 2.6 19.3 7 4.4 0.97 35.5 0.24 51.2 37 8.82 39.2 7.58 2 791 2.9 0.99
B06 551 70.5 330 0.33 5.21 2.37 2.5 19.4 6.85 4.5 0.94 34.4 0.24 49.3 36 8.51 37.2 7.35 2 769 2.9 0.95
R01 77.7 582 10 0.58 43.7 13.2 11.1 44.7 94.7 22 6.24 1815 1.37 156 1045 315 152 153 5 10 8.8 10.1
R02 76.4 584 10 0.59 44.3 13.2 11 44.5 95.5 22.2 6.32 1820 1.41 158.5 1050 318 154 155 5 9.9 8.8 10.3
R03 76.9 584 10 0.62 43.8 13.3 11 44.5 94.2 22.1 6.21 1820 1.37 158.5 1045 317 155 152 5 10.1 8.7 10.2
R04 74.7 571 10 0.6 42.8 12.9 10.7 43.7 92.3 21.8 6.09 1775 1.34 156 1025 310 152 150 5 10.2 8.7 9.87
R05 76.9 592 10 0.61 44.5 13.7 10.9 45.9 95.7 22.5 6.3 1850 1.39 161.5 1065 321 157 157 6 10.3 9 10.2
R06 76.4 584 10 0.64 44.2 13.4 11 44.4 94.2 22.3 6.35 1825 1.38 158 1050 315 155 154 5 10.1 8.8 10.1
T01 1655 154.5 10 0.17 8.25 3.96 4.63 27.9 10.3 11.8 1.52 75.7 0.52 117.5 69.7 17.9 58.8 12.5 3 775 6.9 1.5
T02 1565 145.5 10 0.15 7.91 3.94 4.2 26.7 9.67 11.5 1.48 71 0.51 110.5 64.8 16.8 55.4 11.6 3 739 6.7 1.41
T03 1640 152 10 0.17 8.13 4.13 4.53 28.1 10.1 12.2 1.51 73.6 0.52 115.5 68 17.6 58.7 12.2 3 771 6.9 1.43
T04 1560 145 10 0.17 7.67 3.93 4.22 26.2 9.66 11.7 1.47 70.1 0.51 109 63.9 16.8 55.2 11.6 3 736 6.5 1.43 .
T05 1680 155 10 0.2 8.31 4.14 4.6 28.4 10.1 12.1 1.53 75.3 0.55 118 69.5 17.9 59.7 12.5 3 793 6.9 1.49
T06 1655 153.5 10 0.17 8.18 4.17 4.54 27.9 10.1 12.3 1.49 74.4 0.52 116 68.2 17.8 58.5 12.3 4 778 7 1.45
SAK2 650 226 10 0.24 11.5 5.62 2.99 29.6 13.5 17.9 2.18 112 0.77 138 99.8 25.7 97.9 17.7 5 180.5 7.4 2.01
SAK3A 661 218 10 0.25 11.2 5.94 2.91 28.7 13.4 17.9 2.26 108 0.8 135.5 97.4 24.9 96.3 17.9 5 181.5 7.3 1.95
SAK6B 685 235 10 0.27 11.3 5.76 3.12 30 13.7 19.1 2.3 115 0.75 143 103 26.8 103 18.1 5 188 7.6 2.09
SAK10 652 219 10 0.18 10.8 5.61 2.93 28.6 13.1 18.2 2.07 107 0.77 133.5 95.5 24.8 95.6 17.1 4 186 7.3 2.03
SAK11A 684 229 10 0.23 11.4 5.95 3.17 29.9 13.8 18.7 2.21 113 0.86 139.5 101 25.8 98.8 17.7 5 192 7.6 2.06
SAK11B 653 223 10 0.21 10.9 5.69 2.9 29.3 13.1 18.4 2.12 110 0.82 136 100 25.3 96.9 17.6 4 183.5 7.4 2.05
SAR1A 396 317 10 0.17 15.1 7.69 2.64 33.3 19.4 24.8 2.98 165 1.01 180 144 38.4 123 25.5 6 90.3 9.7 2.82
SAR1C 406 310 <10 0.2 14.4 7.05 2.53 32.5 18.1 24.3 2.79 159 0.94 174.5 142 36.9 123 24.8 6 92.9 9.8 2.75
SAR2A 413 319 <10 0.16 15.7 7.37 2.67 33.8 19.5 24.9 3.01 167 0.99 179 148 38.5 126 25.5 6 90.5 9.9 2.88
SAR2B 403 318 <10 0.25 15 7.48 2.61 32.2 18.5 24.4 2.81 162 0.96 178.5 143 37.2 123 25.3 6 92.8 9.9 2.72
SAR2C 396 320 <10 0.17 15.1 8 2.66 33.7 19.2 25.6 2.98 169 1 180.5 147 38.8 127 26.7 6 89.1 9.9 2.88
SAR3 406 350 <10 0.13 15.5 7.94 2.76 33.9 20.1 24.7 3.03 173 1 183 154 39.9 126 26.2 6 91.6 10.1 2.9

14
 15
TiO2 17
Al2O3 FeOt
4
13

3 16
11

15 9
2

7
1 14
5

0 13
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 3
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

0.3 12 12
MnO MgO CaO
0.25 10 10

0.2 8 8

0.15 6 6

0.1 4
4

0.05 2
2

0 0
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 0
40 45 50 55 60 65 70
40 45 50 55 60 65 70
6.5 6
Na2O K 2O
6 5.5 P 2O 5
0.6
5.5 5
4.5
5
4
4.5 0.4
3.5
4
3
3.5 2.5
0.2
3 2
2.5 1.5

2 1 0
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
SiO2 SiO2 SiO2
Figure 9: Harker variation diagrams for lavas from Mt Bamenda using major elements versus SiO2

2.2.3. Geochemistry of trace elements

The behavior of trace elements was studies by plotting them on Th, the binary plots show a
positive correlation for elements like: U, Nb, Yb, Hf, Ta, Y, Zr and La, (incompatible) while Cr, Sr
and V show a negative correlation with increasing differentiation (Figure 10).

15
 30 2000 200 12
La Nb Ta
Hf
25 10
1600 160

20 8
1200 120
15 6
800 80
10 4

400 40
5 2

0 0 0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
400 5 12 400
Y U Yb
V
10
4
300 300
8
3
200 6 200
2
4
100 100
1
2

0 0 0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30

1400 1200 400

Sr Zr Cr
1200

1000 300
800
800
200
600
400
400
100
200

0 0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Th

Figure 10: Trace elements on Th binary diagram of lavas from the Bamenda Mountain

16
2.2.4. Geochemistry of Rare Earth Elements
Multi-element spectra normalised primitive mantle (McDonough and Sun, 1995) show a
positive anomaly for elements La, Pr, Nd, Sm Dy and Y in rhyolites and a negetive anomaly in
Sr, P, Ti (Figure 11). The spectra for basalt shows a parallel trend with slight positive anomaly in
Ba and Sr. benmoriete show a parallel trend with a negetive anomaly in Sr, P, Ti.

Figure 11: Multi-elements diagrams of lavas from the Bamenda Mountian normalized to
primitive mantle (after McDonough and Sun, 1995)

2.3. CHARACTERIZATION OF SOILS

2.3.1. Soil Profiles
The soil profile developed on trachyte (PT) at an altitude of 1,965m at Santa, on a slope
of 20˚. The vegetation type where the well was dug is the Sudan savannah, with cattle rearing as
the main activity here. This profile was, with horizons O, A, B and C (Figure 12). The profile
developed on basalt was found at an altitude of 1,524m at Awing, on a slope of 1˚. The
vegetation where the well was dug is anthropogenized, with some fruit trees and cash crops. This
profile is 3m deep presenting a complete profile with Horizons O, A, B and C (Figure 13). The
profile developed on rhyolite was at an altitude of 1,652m at Awing on a slope of 20˚. The
profile here is also complete and is made up of horizons; O, A, B and C (Figure 14).
A B

17
Figure 12: Weathering profile developed on trachyte from the Bamenda Mountain (PT), (A)
Field photograph of soil profile, (B) Macroscopic organization of the weathering profile
A B

Figure 13: Weathering profile developed on basalt from the Bamenda Mountain (PB), (A) Field
photograph of soil profile, (B) Macroscopic organization of the weathering profile

18
 A B

Figure 14: Weathering profile developed on rhyolite from the Bamenda Mountain (PR), (A)
Field photograph of soil profile, (B) Macroscopic organization of the weathering profile

The characteristics of the soils samples developed on the Bamenda Mountain are presented in
table 2

Table 2: Characteristic of soil samples developed on weathering profiles from the Bamenda
Mountain
Pedon Parent Horizon sample Sampling colour Textural structure
rock depth (cm) class
A RA1 20 7.5YR6/3 (brown) Loam Strong aggregates
PR RA2 70 7.5Y/6/2 (pinkish Loam Strong aggregates
gray)
Rhyolite

RBC1 150 10YR/7/8 (yellow) Silty Strong aggregates

BC RBC2 200 5YR6/3 (light reddish Silty sand Strong aggregates
brown)
A TA1 50 10R6/1 (reddish gray) loam Regular, moderate
PT grade
B TB1 120 10YR/8/8 (yellow) loam Regular, weak grade
C TC1 300 7.5YR/8/6, (reddish Loamy Strong grade
Trachyte

yellow) sand
TC2 315 10YR2/2 (very dark Loamy Strong grade,
brown) sand blocky
A BA1 60 5YR5/6 (yellowish Silty Weak aggregate
PB red) loam
B BB1 170 2.5Y8/8 (yellow) Sandy No agrregates
loam
Basalt

C BC1 200 2.5Y7/3 (pale yellow) Sandy Strong grade

loam

19
 2.3.2. Soil Geochemistry
2.3.2.1. Major elements
The concentrations of the analyzed major oxides are presented in table 3. The LOI of the
soil samples are significantly high (11.25-20.7%) relative to the parent rocks (0.87-2.95) with
samples from profile PB presenting the highest values.
Table 3: Major elements oxides and weathering indices of soil phases on profles from the
Bamenda mountain
Profile PB Profile PR Profile PT
Horizon Horizon Horizon Horizon Horizon
BC B A Horizon BC Horizon A Horizon C B A
Elements B01 BC1 BB1 BA1 R01 RBC2 RBC1 RA2 RA1 SAK TC2 TC1 TB1 TA1
SiO2 41.7 9.57 16.2 17.4 69.3 55.6 47.4 55.8 52.3 63.4 48.7 50.4 38.9 49.5
Al2O3 13.75 28.3 30.3 30.4 15.2 26 30.3 26.2 27.8 15.2 25.5 22.8 19 25
Fe2O3 14.4 29.7 27.1 23.7 4.6 5.58 7.36 6.29 7.7 5.92 7.54 9.26 23.9 7.18
CaO 10.6 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.35 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 1.41 0.15 0.1 0.02 0.03
MgO 7.87 0.54 0.28 0.29 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.22 0.18 0.08 0.07 0.1
Na2O 2.25 0.01 0.01 0.02 4.75 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 5.63 0.98 1.03 0.82 0.82
K2O 1.37 0.06 0.13 0.17 5.81 0.42 0.57 0.32 0.28 4.96 0.78 0.78 0.62 0.64
TiO2 4 9.88 5.77 6.05 0.21 0.46 0.52 0.46 0.44 0.45 1.27 1.15 1.24 1.21
MnO 0.28 0.28 0.36 0.14 0.01 0.03 0.14 0.08 0.06 0.19 0.02 0.68 0.11 0.19
P2O5 0.65 0.97 0.19 0.26 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.09 0.15 0.1 0.21 0.13
LOI 2.95 19.5 19.4 20.7 0.87 11.25 13.7 11.55 12.45 2.25 15.75 13.6 14.5 14.8
Total 100.1 98.92 99.84 99.26 101.2 100 101.2 100.8 101.1 99.81 101.03 100 99.4 99.62
SiO2/Al2O3 3.03 0.34 0.53 0.57 4.56 2.14 1.56 2.13 1.88 4.17 1.91 2.21 2.05 1.98
Fe2O3/K2O 10.51 495.00 208.46 139.41 0.79 13.29 12.91 19.66 27.50 1.19 9.67 11.87 38.55 11.22
TRB 22.09 0.62 0.45 0.53 10.93 0.47 0.61 0.37 0.34 12.22 2.09 1.99 1.53 1.59
Bases/R2O3 68.71 0.91 0.71 0.88 54.62 1.47 1.60 1.12 0.95 56.65 6.09 5.99 3.47 4.76
CIW 52 72.73 74.07 74.11 74.88 98.60 98.83 98.61 98.65 68.35 91.43 90.33 89.50 91.81
CIA 72.62 73.83 73.80 41.80 97.05 97.02 97.43 97.68 58.15 88.94 87.62 86.96 89.70
ICV 2.97 1.43 1.11 1.00 1.04 0.25 0.28 0.27 0.31 1.24 0.43 0.57 1.41 0.41
S 1.48 0.17 0.28 0.32 3.50 1.76 1.26 1.72 1.47 3.00 1.47 1.57 0.91 1.54

2.3.3.2. Weathering indices

The molar ratio Ki=SiO2/Al2O3 of the soils decrease abruptly from the parent rock to the
soil phases in all the 3 profiles. The molar ratio of Fe2O3/K2O, presents a very clear contrast in
soils developed on basalt with very high values, the highest (495) registered in the BC1 phase
and this value decreases as we move towards the surface (139.41%). Conversely this ratio
remains very low in soils developed on rhyolite and trachyte with values ranging from 11.9-
38.5%. The ratio of Bases/R2O3 drops significantly from parent rocks to soils in all the soil
profiles, with only soils developed on trachyte presenting values >3. CIA and CIW present
similar trends in all the profiles, with CIA values higher than CIW. Their values increase from
the parent rock to the soils and as we move towards the surface. TRB is significantly low in all
the soil profiles. The ICV in all the soil profiles is lower than that of the parent rock.

20
2.3.3.3. Trace elements
The concentration of trace elements from the studied profiles is presented in table 4. The
concentration of trace elements varies from one profile to another.
Table 4: Trace Elements content of soils from the Bamenda Mountain
Profile PB Profile PR Profile PT
Horizon Horizon Horizon Horizon Horizon Horizon
BC B A BC Horizon A Horizon C B A
Parent Parent Parent
Elements rock BC1 BB1 BA1 rock RBC2 RBC1 RA2 RA1 rock TC2 TC1 TB1 TA1
Ba 696 265 186 140 77.7 34 81.5 80 73.6 1655 114 737 119.5 207
Cr 260 470 330 350 10 <10 10 <10 10 10 10 <10 10 10
Cs 0.39 0.65 1.88 1.72 0.58 0.51 0.35 0.6 0.64 0.17 1.32 0.28 0.15 0.29
Ga 19.6 45.1 48.4 47.1 44.7 71 82.5 74.7 72.6 27.9 86.6 78.3 77.4 85.6
Hf 5.1 14.5 18.1 17 22 48.2 54.7 48.4 44.8 11.8 55.3 52.2 54 54.2
Nb 57.3 146 137 135 156 314 343 314 291 117.5 498 475 458 459
Rb 26.1 4.3 12.8 10.3 151.5 14.8 18.7 12.3 11.7 58.8 15.8 8.6 5.4 7
Sn 2 5 6 6 5 11 11 10 11 3 15 13 13 13
Sr 1250 18.6 30 36 10 3.9 2.9 2.9 4.1 775 12 10.2 2.3 4.1
Ta 3.3 9.2 8.3 8.1 8.8 18.5 19.3 18.2 16.8 6.9 30.9 29 29.4 28.6
Th 3.71 12.15 21.5 21.4 25.5 49.1 53.8 47.2 45.9 9.26 39.8 40.1 35.5 40.2
U 0.91 2.69 5.5 5.05 3.77 6.82 8.99 7.58 7.07 2.63 11.8 4.32 7.12 5.49
V 309 654 522 476 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 21 <5 <5 <5 <5
W 1 2 3 3 2 5 5 6 10 1 10 9 9 8
Y 26.6 33.8 43.3 34.8 363 385 296 158 141 40.2 637 474 467 523
Zr 213 585 773 721 881 1940 2220 1915 1785 566 2520 2370 2320 2400

2.3.3.4. Rare Earth Elements

The concentrations of REE are presented in table 5. The behavior of REE in the soils also
varies from one profile to another. In soils developed on basalt, the concentration of ∑REE is the
lowest relative to the other profiles. In this profile, the soil phases are more enriched in REE
from the rock to the BB1 phase (778.4) before decreasing at BA1 phase (411.7) close to the
surface. ∑HREE remain very low in the soil phases with highest values of 38.8. The most
abundant LREE in this profile is Ce (556) in the BB1 phase, followed by La (89.8ppm) in the
BC1 phase and Nd (75) in the BC1 phase.

21
 Table 5: REE content of soils developed on the Bamenda Mountain
Profile PB Profile PR Profile PT
Horizon Horiz Horiz Horizo Horiz Horiz Horiz Horiz
BC on B on A n BC on A on C on B on A
Elements B01 BC1 BB1 BA1 PR01 RBC2 RBC1 RA2 RA1 PT01 TC2 TC1 TB1 TA1
La 38.8 89.8 79.9 56.3 1815 977 1310 794 632 75.7 1330 793 872 1220
Ce 80.1 184.5 556 238 582 570 646 477 617 154.5 707 354 195.5 589
Pr 10.3 20.2 18.15 14.15 315 198.5 265 181 150.5 17.9 321 183 197.5 282
Nd 44 75 70.5 56.5 1045 710 954 656 551 69.7 1240 704 756 1075
Sm 8.95 16.05 14.35 12.5 153 137 163 92.9 74.4 12.5 224 129.5 128 176
Eu 2.99 4.58 3.53 3.25 11.1 14.9 15.9 6.79 5.44 4.63 64.1 40.1 38.4 49.9
Gd 7.82 12.15 11.2 9.53 94.7 138.5 118.5 50.1 40 10.3 189 122.5 115.5 148
Tb 1.09 2.03 1.73 1.53 10.1 18.55 14 6.22 5.29 1.5 25.6 17.35 16.25 19.7
Dy 6.04 11.25 9.74 8.58 43.7 89.2 69.4 34.6 31.1 8.25 134.5 94 89.6 104.5
Ho 1.05 1.99 1.83 1.59 6.24 14.45 11.9 6.66 6.07 1.52 23.5 17.3 16.75 19.2
Er 2.69 5.3 5.17 4.23 13.15 33 28.9 18.2 16.25 3.96 56.7 43.3 43.1 46.7
Tm 0.32 0.75 0.74 0.62 1.56 4.03 3.9 2.54 2.29 0.59 6.84 5.57 5.61 6
Yb 1.89 4.71 4.9 4.3 9.34 22.6 24 15.85 14.3 3.6 37 32.1 32.6 34.2
Lu 0.28 0.64 0.69 0.61 1.37 3.48 3.63 2.45 2.15 0.52 5.17 4.59 4.72 4.93
∑REE 206.3 429.0 778.4 411.7 4101.3 2931.2 3628.1 2344. 2147. 365.2 4364. 2540. 2511. 3775.
3 8 4 3 5 1
∑LREE 185.1 390.1 742.4 380.7 3921.1 2607.4 3353.9 2207. 2030. 334.9 3886. 2203. 2187. 3391.
7 3 1 6 4 9
∑HREE 21.2 38.8 36.0 31.0 180.2 323.8 274.2 136.6 117.5 30.2 478.3 336.7 324.1 383.2
∑LREE/∑HREE 8.7 10.0 20.6 12.3 21.8 8.1 12.2 16.2 17.3 11.1 8.1 6.5 6.7 8.9
Eu/Eu* 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 1.3 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
LaN/YbN 14.0 13.0 11.1 8.9 132.3 29.4 37.2 34.1 30.1 14.3 24.5 16.8 18.2 24.3

2.4. GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISATION OF SOILS

2.4.1. Physical Parameters: these parameters gotten are presented in table 6.

Table 6: Atterberg limits for soils samples from the Bamenda Mountain
Depth Water Liquid Plastic Liquidity Consistency Activity
Sample (m) content limit Plastic limit Index index index
PR01 1 0.59
16 65 52.9 12.1 -3.05 3.31
PR02 2 0.60
19.1 66.2 53.2 13 -2.62 2.79
PR03 3 0.70
14.8 70.1 55.9 14.2 -2.89 3.78
PR04 4 0.65
15.5 65.3 52.6 12.7 -2.92 3.39
PT01 1 1.26
24.7 67.4 51.1 16.3 -1.62 2.07
PT02 2 1.39
26 70 54.2 15.8 -1.78 2.08
PT03 3 0.61
47.2 69.9 61.5 8.4 -1.70 1.30
PT04 4 1.35
42.4 68.8 58.7 10.1 -1.61 1.38
PB01 1 0.36
10 55.2 48 7.2 -5.28 4.80
PB02 2 0.38
19.9 59.3 51.8 7.5 -4.25 2.60
PB03 3 0.31
15.9 58 53.1 4.9 -7.59 3.34
PB04 4 0.40
29.8 58.3 49 9.3 -2.06 1.64

2.4.2. Other physical parameters

The other physical parameters studied on the Bamenda Mountain such as water content,
dry density, bulk densit, specific gravity, porosity, void ratio, compacity and degree of saturation
are presented in table 7.

22
Table 7: Other geotechnical physical parameters of soils developed on the Bamenda Mountain

Sample Depth(m) Water Dry density Bulk density Specific Porosity Void Compacity Degree
content 3 (da)(Mg/m3) gravity (Gs) (n)% ratio (e) (C) saturation
(ρd) (Mg/m )
(w)(%) or (Dr) (Sr)%
PR01 1 16.0 1.35 1.43 1.94 26.10 0.35 0.74 0.88
PR02 2 19.1 1.30 1.42 1.94 26.89 0.37 0.73 1.00
PR03 3 14.8 1.34 1.49 1.94 23.30 0.30 0.77 0.95
PR04 4 15.5 1.4 1.49 1.94 23.00 0.30 0.77 1.01
PT01 1 24.7 1.63 1.75 2.45 28.31 0.39 0.72 1.53
PT02 2 26.0 1.56 1.61 2.16 25.72 0.35 0.74 1.63
PT03 3 47.2 1.44 1.6 2.16 26.03 0.35 0.74 2.90
PT04 4 42.4 1.56 1.62 2.16 25.21 0.34 0.75 2.72
PB01 1 10.0 1.76 1.99 2.45 18.70 0.23 0.81 1.06
PB02 2 19.9 1.75 1.94 2.45 20.69 0.26 0.79 1.87
PB03 3 15.9 1.70 1.92 2.45 21.72 0.28 0.78 1.41
PB04 4 29.8 1.76 1.95 2.82 30.65 0.44 0.69 1.90

2.4.3. Mechanical parameters

Cohesion and internal friction angle
The results obtained during this test are presented in table 8.
Table 8: Mechanical parameters of soil samples developed on trachyte, rhyolite and basalt

Dep Effective Effective angle Total angle of Natural

Sample
th cohesion of internal cohesion internal slope
code
(m) (c’) Kpa friction (Φ’) (Ccu) Kpa friction (Φcu) angle
PT01 1 15 18° 21 10° 25°
PT02 2 112 23° 130 20° 25°
PT03 3 25 32° 32 25° 25°
PT04 4 30 35° 40 27° 25°
PR01 1 35 24° 39 23° 20°
PR02 2 35 11° 39 10° 20°
PR03 3 24 26° 28 23° 20°
PR04 4 19 27° 21 25° 20°
PB01 1 31 54° 38 43° 1°
PB02 2 50 36° 70 33° 1°
PB03 3 50 37° 66 34° 1°
PB04 4 23 35° 39 12° 1°

2.5. LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY MAPPING AND RISK ASSESSMENT

2.5.1. Landslide susceptibility mapping
The landslide informative value method applied had 9 landslide conditioning factors.
These factors were use to realise the informative values which are presented in table 9.

23
Table 9: Landslide conditioning factor parameter for the Bamenda Mountain
Factor Id Class Ncpix Nslpix Cp Pp Cp/Pp Inf
1 0 to 5 242396 34 0.00014 0.000678 0.206958 -0.68412
2 5 to 10 422603 105 0.000248 0.000678 0.366594 -0.43581
Slope 3 10 to 15 438767 120 0.000273 0.000678 0.40353 -0.39412
4 15 to 20 296210 289 0.000976 0.000678 1.439551 0.158227
5 20 to 25 179462 305 0.0017 0.000678 2.507589 0.399256
6 25 to 30 106395 215 0.002021 0.000678 2.981578 0.474446
7 30 to 35 55160 90 0.001632 0.000678 2.407394 0.381547
8 >35 22188 37 0.001668 0.000678 2.460439 0.391013
1 North 171064 87 0.000509 0.000678 0.750394 -0.12471
2 Northeast 175360 36 0.000205 0.000678 0.302901 -0.5187
3 East 214273 144 0.000672 0.000678 0.991571 -0.00368
Aspect

4 Southeast 221354 113 0.00051 0.000678 0.753217 -0.12308

5 South 257611 147 0.000571 0.000678 0.841942 -0.07472
6 Southwest 221524 281 0.001268 0.000678 1.871606 0.272215
7 West 272955 212 0.000777 0.000678 1.145971 0.059174
8 Northwest 229040 175 0.000764 0.000678 1.127342 0.052056
1 Convex 246544 334 0.001355 0.000678 1.998854 0.300781
Curvat
ure

2 Rectilinear 1195932 637 0.000533 0.000678 0.78589 -0.10464

3 Concave 320705 234 0.00073 0.000678 1.076562 0.032039
1 0-1.49 240812 143 0.000594 0.000676 0.877987 -0.05651
Stream Density

2 1.49-3.44 279870 110 0.000393 0.000676 0.581121 -0.23573

3 3.44-5.13 373049 266 0.000713 0.000676 1.054255 0.022946
4 5.13-6.75 334991 245 0.000731 0.000676 1.081342 0.033963
5 6.75-8.44 291966 142 0.000486 0.000676 0.719095 -0.14321
6 8.44-10.58 184120 201 0.001092 0.000676 1.61408 0.207925
7 10.58-16.56 62035 88 0.001419 0.000676 2.097374 0.321676
0 10 48788 8 0.00016 0.000676 0.242484 -0.61532
Geomor Proximity to

1 20 46988 7 0.00015 0.000676 0.220302 -0.65698

roads

2 30 45290 3 0.00007 0.000676 0.097955 -1.00897

3 40 43126 3 0.00007 0.000676 0.10287 -0.98771
4 50 40844 9 0.00022 0.000676 0.325852 -0.48698
5 >50 1542119 1165 0.00076 0.000676 1.117158 0.048115
phology

1 Lowlands 179146 117 0.000653 0.000676 0.96567 -0.01517

2 Highlands 696952 393 0.000564 0.000676 0.833757 -0.07896
3 Moderate highlands 890826 685 0.000769 0.000676 1.136966 0.055748
1 0 to 20 208230 158 0.000759 0.000676 1.122072 0.050021
Proximity to

2 20 to 40 204548 134 0.000655 0.000676 0.968761 -0.01378

Streams

3 40 to 80 197329 132 0.000669 0.000676 0.989213 -0.00471

4 80 to 100 181726 104 0.000572 0.000676 0.846298 -0.07248
5 100 to 120 160727 109 0.000678 0.000676 1.00287 0.001245
6 >120 137651 72 0.000523 0.000676 0.7735 -0.11154
0 Ignimbrite 36453 21 0.000576 0.000675 0.852949 -0.06907717
Geology

1 Granite 5269 0 0 0.000675 0 -0.00000001

2 Trachyte 1120956 762 0.00068 0.000675 1.006476 0.002803216
3 Rhyolite 383562 247 0.000644 0.000675 0.953451 -0.02070181
4 Basalt 220112 163 0.000741 0.000675 1.096429 0.039980695
1 Open Savanah 639833 542 0.000847 0.000677 1.251479 0.0974236
Land use

2 Farm Land 429537 412 0.000959 0.000677 1.417058 0.1513876

3 Forest 176580 41 0.000232 0.000677 0.343031 -0.464667
4 Water Bodies 3906 0 0 0 0 -0.00000
5 Inhabited areas 515608 200 0.000388 0.000677 0.573062 -0.241799
Where Ncpix= landslide factor pixel, Nslpix = landslide class pixel, Cp = conditional
propability, Pp = Prior probability and Inf= Informative value.

The landslide risk map realised from by superposing the landslide susceptibility map and the risk
map is present in figure 15

24
Landslide Risk Assessment: the risk on the Bamenda Mountain was assessed and present in table
10.
Table 10: Assessment of elements at risk on the Bamenda Mountain
. Buildings Population Cost (Million USD) Roads (km) Farmland (ha)
(% coverage) (% coverage) (% coverage) (% coverage) (% coverage)
Very high 71 426 319.5 245.8 830
(0.8%) (0.8%) (0.8%) (6.2%) (20.4%)
High 335 2,010 1,507.5 1043.3 1322
(4%) (4%) (4%) (26.3%) (32.5%)
Moderate 2,365 (28.3%) 14,190 10,642.5 (28.3%) 1943.0 1621
(28.3%) (49.1%) (39.8%)
Low 5,583 (66.8%) 33,498 25,123.5 (66.8%) 728.5 297
(66.8%) (18.4%) (7.3%)
Total 8,354 50,124 37,593 3,960.5 4,070

3. INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Rock Geochemistry
3.1.2. Magmatic source
The binary plots of Hf/Th, Zr/Th, Hf/Nb, Nb/Th and Ba/La vs Ba/Nb show a linear
correlation from basalt to rhyolite passing at the origin. The REE spectra normalized to
McDonough and Sun (1995) are homogenous and parallel. All these indicate that the magma has
a single magmatic source for the Bamenda lavas and are produce by fractional crystallization.
However, some rhyolitic samples deviate from this trend signifying this rhyolite was form by
contamination and/or assimilation of the granitic crust by the uprising basaltic magma.
3.2. Soils Characterization
3.2.1. Weathering trends
From the weathering indices indicate low leaching of silica in this environment and thus
reinforcement of the presence of 2:1 clays (Tematio et al., 2012). The CIA (72.62- 97.8) and
CIW (72.76-98.8) indicates advance to extreme chemical weathering in this environment
(Nesbitt and Wilson, 1992). The Silica/sesquioxide ratio (S) indicates leaching of SiO2 in these
basic soils. This is evidence of warm and wet soil-forming processes of ferrallitization at
moderate pH, in tropical environments (Retallack, 2001). The predominance of 1:1 clays
minerals in all the soil, thus suggesting bisiallitisation took place in this environment (Wouatong
et al., 2013; Birkeland, 1999). The increase in the Fe and Al content in the soils can be
attributed to the weathering of kaolinite and from primary minerals from the rock (Lambiv
Dzemua et al., 2011; Ndjigui et al., 2008; Dequencey et al., 2002). The main process of soil

25
formation on soils developed on basalt is ferralitisaton; it involves intense weathering of primary
and secondary minerals, followed by the leaching of alkaline and alkaline earth elements.
3.3. Geotechnics
Geoctechnical parameters indicate the soils are well graded, plastic and predominantly
constituted of clays and silts. These soils also have a high activity which signifies large volume
change when wet and high shrinkage when dried. Due to the high void ratio, the soils tend to be
porous and retain water, thus increasing the weight of the soil after heavy rains rendering it
unstable. The soils are clayey and thus tend to absorb a lot of water and reduce the cohesion
within the soil. Slope on developed on trachyte are unstable with increase in depth from 1-2 m
and also on rhyolites at 2 meters. Hence landslides in the area are mostly shallow.

3.4. Landslides
Landslides are the mostly recurrent natural hazard on the Bamenda Mountain. These landslides
are mostly triggered by rainfall. However from these studies slope is the predominant landslide
causing factor on the Bammenda Mountain, followed by stream density. The areas mostly
susceptible to landslides are mostly on Mount Lefo, Bambili, Bamendawe and the outer parts of
Awing village. The landslide risk increases as the population tend to encroach in landslide
susceptible zones as seen on figure 15.

26
Figure 15: Landslide risk map for the Bamenda Mountain.

CONCLUSION
The current research on the Bamenda Mountain in the WCH had as objective: identify
and map the different rocks on the Bamenda Mountain; characterize rocks and soils in terms of
petrography and geochemistry; determine the geotechnical properties of the soils; finally to map
and assess landslide risk on this Mountain. Petrographic analyses show that this Mountain is
made up of both felsic and mafic rocks. Mafic rocks are mostly basalt: olivine, pyroxene,
plagioclases and opaques minerals are the main minerals in the rock. Geochemical analysis
revealed the presence of basalt, benmoreite, trachyte and rhyolite as the main rocks on this
27
Mountain. Morphoscopic analysis of the studied profiles revealed that the soil profiles are
shallow and complete, with a loam and sandy loam texture, mostly yellowish in colour, with a
variable degree of aggregation. Grain size distribution showed the abundance of silt and sand
particle, with a silty-loam, loam and sandy loam texture. Slope was the most significant landslide
causing factor in the area. The landslide susceptibility map indicated level of susceptibility as
very high (17.8%), high (25.9%), moderate (33.6%) and low (22.7)

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