Third Edition Neh pee] e] a) SLE Sette eG Celie)Machine Tool Design and Numerical Control Third EditionAbout the Author Dr. N. K. Mehta retired as Professor from IIT Roorkee (former University of Roorkee) in 2010 after serving in the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering for almost 40 years. He also served as Counselor (Science and Technology) at the Embassy of India in Moscow from 1995 to 1998. Dr. Mehta has done extensive research in the areas of Machine Tool Design, Machining Science and Computer aided Manufacturing. He has more than 120 research papers to his credit and has supervised 12 PhD Thesis and over 50 M Tech dissertations. In addition, Dr. Mehia was Translation Editor of the Soviet Journal of Structural Mechanies and Design of Structures for four years and has translated nine text books and monographs in English. He was also the Conve- nor of the First International and Twenty second AIMTDR Conference in 2006. Dr. Mehta’s contribution to teaching and research has been widely acknowledged and he has been the recipi- ent of numerous awards and honours such as G. C. Sen Memorial Prize for Best Research Paper at the Tenth AIMTDR conference in 1982, the A. N. Khosla Research Prize and silver medal in 1984, Member Program Advisory Committee of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics of the Department of Science and Technol- ogy, Govt. of India and Member Core Advisory Group of R&D in Machine Tool sector constituted by the Principal Scientific Advisor to the Govt. of India,NZ NZ) t= Tata McGraw-Hill Published by the Tata MeGraw Hill Edueation Private Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008. Machine Tool Design and Numerical Control (3e) Copyright © 2012, by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. ‘No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, ‘Tata MeGraw Hil] Education Private Limited. ISBN (13): 978-1-25-900457-5 ISBN (10): 1-25-900457-0 Vice President and Managing Director-—MHE: Ajay Shukla Head—Higher Education Publishing and Marketing: Vibha Mahajan Manager: Sponsoring—SEM & Tech Ed.: Shalini Jha Editorial Researcher: Harsha Singh Copy Editor: Prevoshi Kundu Sr Production Manager: Satinder $ Baveja Production Executive: Anuj K. 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If such services are required, the assistance ofan appropriate professional should be sought. ‘Typeset at Tej Composers, WZ-391, Madipur, New Delhi 110063, and printed at Cover Printer: Cl aes edIn Memory of My ParentsContents About the Author ii Preface xi 1, INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE TOOL DRIVES AND MECHANISMS— 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MACHINE TOOL DESIGN 1.1 Working and Auxiliary Motions in Machine Tools 7 1.2. Parameters Defining Working Motions of a Machine Tool 3 1.3 Machine Tool Drives 19 1.4. Hydraulic Transmission and Its Elements 23 1.5. Mechanical Transmission and Its Elements 34 es for Undertaking the Design of a New Machine Tool 52 1.7, General Requirements of Machine Tool Design 54 1.8 Engineering Design Process Applied to Machine Tools 57 1.9 Layout of Machine Tool 60 Review Questions 65 References 67 1.6 Technico-economical Prerequi: 2. REGULATION OF SPEED AND FEED RATES 68 2.1 Aim of Speed and Feed Rate Regulation 68 2.2. Stepped Regulation of Speed: Design of Speed Box 69 23 Design of Feed Box 90 24 Machine Tool Drives Using Multiple-speed Motors 95 25. Special Cases of Gear Box Design 98 2.6 General Recommendaitions for Developing the Gearing Diagram 105 2.7 Determining the Number of Teeth of Gears /08 2.8 Classification of Speed and Feed Boxes 1/8 2.9 Stepless Regulation of Speed and Feed Rates 124 2.10 Kinematics of Machine Tools 40 Review Questions 163 References 166 3. DESIGN OF MACHINE TOOL STRUCTURES 167 3.1 Functions of Machine Too! Structures and their Requirements 167 3.2 Design Criteria for Machine Tool Structures 167vill | Contents 3.3. Materials of Machine Tool Structures 170 3.4 Static and Dynamic Stiffness 175 3.5 Profiles of Machine Tool Structures 182 3.6 Basic Design Procedure of Machine Too! Structures 188 3.7 Design of Beds 197 3.8 Design of Columns 2/3 3.9 Design of Housings 2/6 3.10 Design of Bases and Tables 2/9 3.11 Design of Cross Rails, Arms, Saddles and Carriages 22/ 3.12 Designof Rams 222 3.13 Model Technique in Design of Machine Too! Structures 224 Review Questions 228 References 231 4. DESIGN OF GUIDEWAYS AND POWER SCREWS 233 4.1 Functions and Types of Guideways 233 4.2. Design of Slideways 234 4.3. Design Criteria and Calculations for Slideways 243 4.4 Guideways Operating under Liquid Friction Conditions 257 45S is 265 46 gn of Anti-friction Guideways 267 4.7 Combination Guideways 273 48 Protecting Devices for Sideways 274 4.9 Design of Power Screws 276 Review Questions 285 References 287 in of Acrostatic Slidews 5. DESIGN OF SPINDLES AND SPINDLE SUPPORTS 288 5.1 Funetions of Spindle Unit and Requirements 288 5.2 Materials of Spindles 289 5.3 Effect of Machine Tool Compliance on Machining Accuracy 290 54 Design Calculations of Spindles 294 5.5 Anti-friction Bearings 303 56 Sliding Bearings 310 Review Questions 332 References 333Contents ix 6. DYNAMICS OF MACHINE TOOLS 6.1 Machine Too! Elastic System-cutting Process Closed-loop System 335 6.2 General Procedure for Assessing Dynamic Stability of Ees—Cutting Process Closed-Loop System 336 6.3. Dynamic Characteristics of Elements and Systems 339 64 Dynamic Characteristic of the Equivalent Elastic System 340 6.5. Dynamic Characteristic of the Cutting Process 352 6.6 Stability Analysis 366 6.7 Forced Vibrations of Machine Tools 378 Review Questions 383 References 385 7. CONTROL SYSTEMS IN MACHINE TOOLS. 7.1 Funetions, Requirements and Classification 386 7.2. Control Systems for Changing Speeds and Feeds 386 7.3. Control Systems for Executing Forming and Auxiliary Motions 396 7.4 Manual Control Systems 397 7.5. Automatic Control Systems 410 7.6 Adaptive Control Systems 4/5 References 418 8. NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS 8.1 Fundamental Concepts, Classification and Structure of Numerical Control Systems 4/9 8.2 Manual Part Programming 440 8.3 Computer Aided Part Programming 465 Review Questions 486 References 493 9. EXTENSIONS OF NUMERICAL CONTROL— CNC, DNC, MACHINING CENTRES: 9.1 Distributive Numerical Control (DNC-1) 495 9.2 Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 495 9.3 Machining Centres 498 9.4 Direct Numerical Control (DNC-2) 501 9.5 CNC Programming 504 Review Questions 538 Index 335 386 419 494 543Preface About the Book The first edition of the book was published in 1984 under the title, Machine Too! Design, when the subject was gaining popularity as a specialised course in engineering institutions in the country. The motivation for writing the book is to provide a basic text for undergraduate students that would also serve as a useful reference for postgraduate students and practicing engineers. The revision of the book for the second edition published in 1996 was undertaken with the limited objec- tive of incorporating the advances in numerical control in the intervening years. Therefore, the chapter on ‘Numerical Control of Machine Tools” was substantially modified and a new chapter on Extensions of Nu- merical Control — CNC, DNC, Machining Centers’ was added. To adequately, reflect the updated content, the title of the book was changed to Machine Tool Design and Numerical Control, In today’s ‘user-friendly age’, the revision for the third edition has been undertaken primarily to make the book more reader friendly and the changes are mostly based on the feedback from the reviewers and a survey carried out by the publisher. The important new features of this edition are summarised below: + A subsection on ‘Calculation of Machining Time’ has been added in Chapter 1. The highlight of this section is the inclusion of calculation of machining time of grinding operations which is usually not covered in text books. + A major section on ‘Kinematics of Machines Tools” has been added in Chapter 2, wherein the gearing diagrams of lathe, drilling machine and milling machine have been discussed to give the readera better understanding of the finer practical aspects of gear box design. A new attractive feature of this section is the discussion on thread cutting operation on lathe and operations using indexing head on milling machine based on fundamental principles, as distinct from the usual thumb rule type approach in most of the existing books. It is felt that this section will serve as useful base material for formulating design projects and independent assignments for final year students of mechanical and production engineering disciplines + In the second edition the design procedure of machine tool gear boxes was terminating with the calculation of gear teeth. This has been extended in the present edition, to its logical conclusion by adding a subsection on ‘Determination of Shaft and Gear Dimensions’ in Chapter 2. + A subsection on “Design of Lathe Bed’ has been added in Chapter 3 giving the detailed procedure supported with a solved example to provide practical illustration of the theoretical aspects for one specific case. This material will be helpful in formulating design projects and assignments not only for beds of various machine tools but also for other structural elements of machine tools such as bases, columns, tables etc. + A large number of solved examples have been added, especially in Chapters 1-3 in support of the elaboration of the new topics added in these chapters. In addition, new review questions have also been added in almost all the chapters.xil | Preface + A major curtailment has been undertaken in Chapter 8 on ‘Numerical Control of Machine Tools’ Previous edition contained a detailed description of the hardware of NC technology spread over seven subsections. Most of this technology has now become obsolete. It has, therefore, been thoroughly condensed and retained in one subsection only to the extent necessary for understanding the functioninglopcration of NC machine tools. + Enhanced pedagogy includes Solved Examples: 25 Review Questions: 130 Computer Programs for NC, CNC and DNC: 12 Structure of the Book The book is organised into 9 chapters. Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter that provides a review of the concepts of working and auxiliary motions in machine tools and calculation of machining time of various operations. It also gives an overview of the elements of hydraulic and mechanical transmissions employed in machine tools. A section on layout of machine tools is unique to this book and is extremely relevant in the context of increasing emphasis on modularity and reconfigurability in CNC machines. Chapter 2 deals with the description of the laws of stepped regulation of speed and feed in machine tools and goes on to provide in rigorous detail the procedures for the design of gear boxes for stepped control of speed and feed, covering the whole gamut of issues from selecting the optimum structural diagram and speed chart to the finalisation of gearing diagram and determination of shaft and gear dimensions. A separate sec- ion is devoted to design of gear boxes with multiple speed motors and special gear boxes with overlapping speeds, broken geometric progression, etc., which have been supported with multiple diagrams. Steeples regulation of speed and feed rates by electrical, hydraulic and mechanical methods is discussed in great detail. To strengthen the understanding of kinematics of machining operations, thread cutting on lathe and operations using indexing head on milling machine are described from first principles, as distinct from the thumb rule approach presented in most of the existing books. In Chapter 3, the functions and requirements of the machine tool structures are discussed along with the design criteria and their application to individual structural elements such as beds, bases, columns etc, As- pects of design related to selection of the shape of structural elements and their strengthening with ribs and stiffeners are discussed in detail with lot of supporting data. In view of the complexity of their configuration and force system, it is seldom possible to analytically arrive at an exact design solution for structural elements of machine tools. Model techniques are therefore an essential part of the validation of their design and the fundamentals of these techniques are discussed at the end of the chapter. The description of the functions and classification of guide ways are dealt in Chapter 4. The design cri- teria of slideways are discussed and the detailed procedure of slideways design for stiffiness and wear resis- tance based on average and maximum pressure is presented, Selection of slideway profiles and techniques of clearance adjustment and protection are presented and explained with the help of simple sketches. The design of hydrodynamic guideways, hydrostatic guideways, aerostatic guideways and anti-friction guideways is described in detail, supported with analysis as well as the relevant design data and curves. Design of sliding friction and rolling friction power screws is also included in this chapter. Chapter 5 discusses the functions and requirements of machine tool spindles and an analyses the effect of the compliance of spindles and their supports on machining accuracy. A major portion of this chapter is devoted to the design of sliding bearings, hydrodynamic and hydrostatic journal bearings and aerodynamicPreface xill and aerostatic bearings, supported with analysis and the relevant design data and curves. Issues specific to machine tools such as functional requirements, appropriate combinations of bearings for different machine tools and pre loading of bearing are discussed in detail The initial thrust of Chapter 6 is on establishing the study of the dynamic behaviour of a machine system. The latter can be looked upon as a closed loop system in which the machine tool elastic system (MTES) and cutting process (CP) are the interacting elements. The dynamic cutting force models of Tlusty, Tobias and Kudinov are discussed and compared. Stability analysis of single and multiple degree of freedom systems with and without mode coupling is described, Regenerative chatter and the response of MTES-CP system under forced vibrations are also discussed. Dynamics of machine tools is a difficult topic, but by adopting a logical approach based on fundamental principles of control theory, it has been made easy to understand. Chapter 7 discusses the functions, requirements and classification of machine tool controls and goes on to describe the speed and feed changing mechanisms with simple centralised control, preselective control and selective control, For manual control systems, anthropometric and functional anatomy data has been systematically compiled for ergonomic design of control members such as push buttons, knobs, toggles, cranks, levers, hand wheels, ete., and also for the location of displays and control members. The highlight of this chapter is the detailed compilation of data for ergonomics design of control members which is not only unique to this book but also sets it apart from any other text book on machine tool design. Chapter 8 elaborates on the fundamental concepts of numerical control and classification of numerically controlled machine tools. It provides an overview of the NC hardware technology to the extent necessary for understanding the functioning and operation of NC machine tools. A major portion of this chapter is devoted to manual part programming for point-to-point, positioning- cum-straight cut and continuous path systems. The concept of computer aided part programming has been discussed and the APT programming system has been covered in reasonable detail, Both the manual and APT part programming systems have been illustrated with sample problems with step-by-step explanation of the part programs. The concluding chapter, i., Chapter9 deals with the extensions of numerical control, namely computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine tools, machining centres and direct numerical control (DNC). A major portion of this chapter is devoted to CNC part programming for machining centres as well as turning centres. The programming concepts of tool diameter compensation, tool length off set, ete., are taken one at- a-time and illustrated with suitable programming examples. Advanced programming features sueh as mirror imaging and canned cycles are discussed and illustrated with complete programs for sample parts, In addition, the present edition also contains new and improved solved examples, computer programs and. chapter-end review questions to help students understand the concepts in a better way. Acknowledgements I would like to thank my M.Tech student Ganesh Jagdale and Ph.D. student Vikas Upadhyay for their as- sistance in collecting and collating the reference material and for agreeing to be the sounding boards who helped me to fine tune the new material for this edition from the viewpoint of a student, I would like to take this opportunity to express my deep gratitude to Shri Rajesh Kumar for typing the text and drawing the tech- nical figures for the new material of this edition and for always being by my side and providing technical and secretarial assistance to me over the years much beyond the call of duty. I would also like to thank the following reviewers for reviewing this book:xiv | Preface Dinesh Khanduja National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra Haryana A. P. Harsha Institue of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Utiar Pradesh Ashish Banerjee Jadavpur University, Kolkata West Bengal L. Bhaskara Rao Vellore Institute of Technology Univers Vellore Tamil Nadu A. Venugopal National Institute of Technology, Warangal Andhra Pradesh T, Rangaswamy Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan Karnataka Lam especially thank ful to the editorial team of Tata McGraw Hill for their sincere help and guidance during the development of this book. I would like to personally thank Ms Harsha Singh, Ms Preyoshi Kundu and Mr Anuj Shriwastava who put so much energy and effort in bringing this book to its final stage. In the end, I must confess that the response received from the readers for the earlier editions is both hum- bling and gratifying. | am grateful to them for their continuous support of my modest contribution to the teaching and practise of machine tool design and numerical control. I sincerely hope that the changes incor- porated in the current edition will add more value to the book and will continue to provide useful service to students, teachers and practising engineers for many more years to come. NK MentaINTRODUCTION TO MACHINE 1 TOOL DRIVES AND MECHANISMS— GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MACHINE TOOL DESIGN The machine tool is a machine that imparts the required shape to a workpiece with the desired accuracy by removing metal from the workpiece in the form of chips. In view of the extremely vast range of shapes that are in practise imparted to various industrial components, there exists a very large nomenclature of machine tools. Machine tools can be classified by different criteria as given below. 1. By the degree of automation into (machine tools with manual control, (i) semi-automatic machine tools, and (iii) automatic machine tools. By weight into (i) light-duty machine tools weighing up to It. (ii) medium-duty machine tools weighing up to 10t, and (ili) heavy-duty machine tools weighing greater than 10+. 3. By the degree of specialisation into (i)_general-purpose machine tools—which can perform various operations on workpieces of differ ent shapes and sizes, (ii) single-purpose machine tools—which can perform a single operation on workpieces of a par- ticular shape and different sizes, and (iii) special machine tools—which can perform a single operation on workpieces of a particular shape and size 1.1. WORKING AND AUXILIARY MOTIONS IN MACHINE TOOLS For obtaining the required shape on the workpiece, it is necessary that the cutting edge of the cutting tool should move in a particular manner with respect to the workpiece. The relative movement between the workpiece and cutting edge can be obtained either by the motion of the workpiece, the cutting tool, or by a combination of the motions of the workpiece and cutting tool. These motions which are essential to impart the required shape to the workpiece are known as working motions. Working motions are further classified into two categories: 1. Drive motion or primary cutting motion 2. Feed motion2 | Machine Too! Design and Numerical Control Working motions in machine tools are generally of two types: rotary and translatory. Working motions of some important groups of machine tools are shown in Fig. 1.1. Shaping —> Milling Grinding Fig. 1.1 Working motions for some machine tools 1. For lathes and boring machines drive motion—rotary motion of workpiece feed motion—translatory motion of cutting tool in the axial or radial direction 2. For drilling machines drive motion—rotary motion of drill feed motion—translatory motion of drill 3. For milling machines drive motion—rotary motion of the cutter feed motion—translatory motion of the workpiece 4. For shaping, planing, and sloting machines drive motion— reciprocating motion of cutting tool feed motion—intermittent translatory motion of workpiece 5. For grinding machines drive motion—rotary motion of the grinding wheel, feed motion—rotary as well as translatory motion of the workpiece. Besides the working motions, a machine tool also has provision for auxiliary motions. The auxiliary mo- tions do not participate in the process of formation of the required surface but are nonetheless necessary to make the working motions fulfil their assigned function. Examples of auxiliary motions in machine tools are clamping and unclamping of the workpiece, idle travel of the cutting tool to the position from where cutting is to proceed, changing the speed of drive and feed motions, engaging and disengaging of working motions, ete.Introduction to Machine Too! Drives and Mechanisms 3 | In machine tools, the working motions are powered by an external source of energy (electrical or hydraulic motor). The auxiliary motions may be carried out manually or may also be power-operated depending upon the degree of automation of the machine tool. In general-purpose machine tools, most of the auxiliary mo- tions are executed manually. On the other hand, in automatic machines, all auxiliary motions are automated and performed by the machine tool itself. In between these two extremes, there are machine tools in which the auxiliary motions are automated to various degrees, i.e., some auxiliary motions are automated while others are performed manually. PARAMETERS DEFINING WORKING MOTIONS OF 1.2 AMACHINE TOOL ‘The working motions of the machine tool are numerically defined by their velocity. The velocity of the pri- mary cutting motion or drive motion is known as cufting speed, while the velocity of feed motion is known as feed. ‘The cutting speed is denoted by v and measured in the units m/min. Feed is denoted by s and measured in the following units: mu/rev in machine tools with rotary-drive motion, e mmvtooth in machine tools using multiple-tooth cutters, e.g, milling machines, . lathes, boring machines, ete., 1. 2. 3. _mm/stroke in machine tools with reciprocating-drive motion, e.g., shaping and planing machines, and 4, mm/min in machine tools which have a separate power source for feed motion, e.g., milling machines, In machine tools with rotary primary cutting motion, the cutting speed is determined by the relationship, di y= eo min ay 1000, where d = diameter of workpiece (as in lathes) or cutter (as in milling machines), mm n= revolutions per minute (rpm) of the workpiece or cutter In machine tools with reciprocating primary cutting motion, the cutting speed is determined as m/min (12) 10007, where L =length of stroke, mm T, = time of cutting stroke, min If the time of the idle stroke in minutes is denoted by T,, the number of strokes per minute can be deter- mined as 1 T.+T; Generally, the time of idle stroke 7; is less than the time of cutting stroke; if the ratio 7./T; is denoted by K, the expression for number of strokes per minute may be rewritten as 1 K n= == __ (13) TA+T/T.) T+ K)Machine Too! Design and Numerical Contro! Now, combining Eqs (1.2) and (1.3), the relationship between cutting speed and number of strokes per minute may be written as follows: n-L(K +1) aa) 1000K ‘The feed per revolution and feed per stroke are related to the feed per minute by the relationship, Sy —sen as) where 5», = feed per minute s = feed per revolution or feed per stroke n = number of revolutions or sirokes per minute ‘The feed per tooth in multiple-tooth cutters is related to the feed per revolution as follows: Zz (16) wheres = feed per revolution feed per tooth of the cutter Z = number of teeth on the cutter ‘The machining time of any operation can be determined from the following basic expression: a eain (17) Sm where 7, = machining time, min L = length of machined surface, mm 5, = feed per minute 1.2.1 Calculation of Machining Time ‘As mentioned above, the machining time of various operations is determined using Eq. (1.7), wherein 5), is found from Eq. (1.5) for single point tools and Eq, (1.6) for multiple tooth cutters. Further, for a given work- tool pair, an optimum cutting speed is specified for which the corresponding rpm or strokes/min is calculated using Eq. (1.1) and Eq. (1.4), respectively. In may further be noted that for a given length | of'a workpiece, the actual tool travel is greater on account of the need to provide an approach of AI for safe entry of tool (on commencement of machining) and over travel of A2 for safe exit of tool (on completion of the machining cut). Generally, 41 and A2 are taken equal to 2-3 mm, The difference in the formulae of machining time calculation for various operations arises from the individual process geometry, which is reflected in the corresponding tool travel. Hence, the calculation of tool travel for various operations is described below. In the figures of all the operations discussed below | indicates the tool position at the commencement of cut and Tat the end of cut. Operations on Lathe (a) Turning operation on workpiece held between centres (Fig. 1.2) length of tool travel L =/-+ Al + A2 +43 where length of workpiece Al = approach; generally equal to 2-3 mm over travel; generally equal to 2-3 mm tcot ; where fis depth of cut and @ is principal or side cutting edge angle; for straight edged tools ¢ = 90°, hence A3 =0Introduction to Machine Too! Drives and Mechanisms 5 23 Fig. 1.2 Turning operation on workpiece supported between centres (b) Turning operation on workpiece clamped in chuck (Fig. 1.3) length of tool travel L =/+ Al + A3 where = length of machined surface Al and A3 are the same as in turning of workpiece held between centres Fig. 1.3. Turning operation on workpiece clamped in chuck